MILTON, PARADISE LOST, AND THE QUESTION OF KINGSHIP
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Ashbrook Statesmanship Thesis
Recipient of the 2013 Charles E. Parton Award
MILTON, PARADISE LOST, AND
THE QUESTION OF KINGSHIP
Jarrod Brown
John Milton, despite picturing God that he begins to replicate the tyranny of
as an absolute monarch in heaven, was Charles I. Paradise Lost provides an
strongly opposed to human, absolutist rule example of Milton’s own comments on
on earth. Milton was in favor of what was monarchy and rule both in heaven and on
considered to be a mostly radical democratic earth after Cromwell has come and gone. In
model of church government. Because he the poem, God is portrayed as a monarch,
intensely believed that all men should be yet he is portrayed as good. Milton’s Latin
free both politically and theologically, he political tracts Defensio pro Populo Angli-
supported the removal of tyrants from cano and Defensio Secundo, as well as his
power. For Milton specifically, this meant sonnet “To the Lord General Cromwell,”
the removal of Charles I from his position as each provide opportunities to understand his
king of England. In addition to the freedom political and theological beliefs concerning
of men, he also valued the use of reason as a absolute rulers during the English revolution
source of ultimate fulfillment of man. against Charles I. Paradise Lost offers
Tyranny, political or ecclesiastical, does not insight into these beliefs through the con-
allow for this freedom to exercise human structions and relationships of its characters.
reason. Milton’s democratic dispositions Examining the relationships between rulers
produced ambivalent relations with Oliver in this work as well as his political writings
Cromwell, the leader and supposed hero of will help to define Milton’s own theological
the Puritan revolution of the seventeenth and political beliefs.
century. Milton delivered congratulations to
Cromwell for the man’s efforts of ridding Milton’s Conditional Endorsement
England of Charles I and his royalist sup- of Cromwell
porters, but he was against his movement to
amass more powers for himself rather than One major issue that Milton finds
for the English people as a whole. Milton with Oliver Cromwell in his rise to power is
also was in opposition to Cromwell’s sup- that he essentially becomes something of a
pression of religious thought contrary to his king, or at least has strong monarchical
own beliefs. Essentially, Cromwell was seen power in the commonwealth, and later the
as good insofar as he removed the threat of Protectorate, of England as he becomes the
tyrannical powers that would create a tighter Lord Protector. In many instances, he re-
seal on the suppression of active thought in places Charles I as ruler of the land, even
the country. Cromwell was seen as bad in passing on his position of power to his son.
_________________________ With this in mind, such a question can be
raised: Does Milton really agree with Crom-
Jarrod Brown, of Bolivar, Ohio, is a 2013 well post-execution? Cromwell becomes a
graduate of the Ashbrook Scholar Program tyrant in a different way, but he has many of
having majored in English. the same religious and political values as
1Milton, Paradise Lost, and the Question of Kingship
Milton. In order to begin our inquiry into And now I am glad to understand,
Milton’s view of Cromwell in the wake of that they of your party envy Crom-
Charles I’s execution, I will look into the well, that most valiant general of our
two Defenses he wrote against criticisms of army, for undertaking that expedition
the actions taken by the Parliamentary party in Ireland, (so acceptable to Al-
as well as a poem which expresses his mighty God,) surrounded with a joy-
thoughts about Cromwell in 1652, a year ful crowd of his friends, and prose-
before the man would take the title of cuted with the well-wishes of the
Protector as ruler over England. people, and the prayers of all good
men. (First Defense)
Defensio pro Populo Anglicano
Milton points out that even members of his
Milton wrote Defensio pro Populo enemy’s side actually envy Cromwell’s
Anglicano and published it in 1651 with the military victories and his competence in
commission of Parliament. At that point, battle. His success in Ireland against the
Cromwell was the general of the New royalists has brought glory to his name as he
Model Army and leading them in his Irish gains political power and personal respect of
and Scottish campaigns during the years of the people in the Commonwealth. Besides
1650 and 1651. The Defense was written as calling him a “valiant general,” the praise
a rebuttal against the Defensio Regia pro and support Cromwell receives originates
Carolo I of Claude De Saumaise. Salmasius from the people who already love him or
defended Charles I and condemned the exe- who rely on him for direction. He speci-
cution of the king as regicide. In his work, fically mentions the support Cromwell has
he called for European rulers to unite against from his “friends,” who already give him
the English Commonwealth and place unwavering defense. He also highlights the
Charles II on the throne. He called the exe- “well-wishes of the people.” Cromwell’s
cution of the king an act “committed by a military victories over the royalists have
nefarious conspiracy of impious men,” and essentially won him the greater approval of
believed wholeheartedly in the divine right the supporters of the commonwealth, those
of the king, who “has supreme power over who violently disagree with loyalists to the
his subjects, which is answerable to no other king. Milton points out the importance of
power except divine” (Salmasius). Milton prayer for the general lifted by “all good
attempts to refute the claims of Salmasius men” to establish the divine assistance that
through his work in the First Defense. His the man must have in his leadership posi-
rebuttal comes as Cromwell is gaining poli- tion. His beliefs coincide with the Pro-
tical power through his victories in battle. tector’s in that Cromwell is doing God’s will
First, a look into the specific pas- and has the full support of Heaven in his
sages referring to Cromwell is important to pursuits. However, Milton is careful with
understand Milton’s views of the man over how easily he accepts the many stories of
the time of his rule. Somewhat surprisingly, military victories of Cromwell. His praise is
Cromwell is mentioned by name only once subdued and referential rather than explicit.
in Milton’s First Defense. The purpose of Just as later in his writings, Milton is re-
the work is not specifically to defend Crom- strained in his own praise of the man who
well. In fact, very little attention is given to will become the Protector of the Com-
the general. Milton shows clear respect for monwealth. He supports the complete re-
Cromwell, but he does not give his support moval of Charles I from the kingship of
without restraint: England. Milton defends and backs Crom-
2Ashbrook Statesmanship Thesis
Recipient of the 2013 Charles E. Parton Award
well as the remover of Charles I rather than he could rule them, but because now he
simply a replacement. He does not support abused those powers, the people maintained
what Cromwell stands for politically and the right to put Charles I on trial and even
theologically. The Defense is meant to execute him if found guilty.
defend the English people in their decision,
led by Cromwell, to execute Charles I, not Milton’s Sonnet, “To the Lord
as affirmation or an endorsement of Crom- General Cromwell”
well’s ideals for the nation.
While Milton only mentions Crom- “To the Lord General Cromwell”
well’s name specifically once, the work is was written by Milton in May of 1652, a
important because it identifies what Milton year before the man would take the position
believes a monarch, if even one exists, as Lord Protector over the commonwealth of
should and should not be. For example, Mil- England. Cromwell had recently returned
ton argues strongly against the formerly from Ireland and Scotland, attempting to put
accepted, traditional belief in the divine to rest threats of royalism to the country.
right of kings. Charles I adamantly used this The poem is as follows:
belief as his argument for his own right to
rule the people of England, as well over Cromwell, our chief of men, who through a cloud,
Scotland and Ireland. He rejects the argu- Not of war only, but detractions rude,
ment that kings deserve fealty in the way a Guided by faith and matchless fortitude,
father deserves respect from his children: To peace and truth thy glorious way hast ploughed,
“Our fathers begot us, but our kings did not, And on the neck of crownèd Fortune proud
and it is we rather who created the king. It is Hast reared God’s trophies, and His work pursued,
nature which gave the people fathers, and While Darwen stream, with blood of Scots imbrued,
the people who gave themselves a king; the And Dunbar field, resounds thy praises loud,
And Worchester’s laureate wreath: yet much remains
people therefore do not exist for the king,
To conquer still; peace hath her victories
but the king for the people” (First Defense). No less renowned than war: new foes arise,
He uses the argument that if a father is a Threatening to bind our souls with secular chains.
tyrant who murders his own son, then he is Help us to save free conscience from the paw
hanged for his crimes. In the same way, if Of hireling wolves, whose gospel is their maw.
the king is a tyrant who murders the people, (Hughes 160)
he should also be punished. Milton points
out that a child has no say in his own Milton remains supportive of the republic
creation, and that he is born under the rule of even up to the restoration; The Readie and
his father naturally. No contract is necessary Easie Way to Establish a Free Common-
to bind him to his father. The relationship wealth was published a few months before.
between the king and the people is different, In this poem, Milton honors Cromwell for
however, because it is the people, not the his resoluteness through conflict and evil.
king, who establish the position of power. In He sees the man as guided by God through
this way, Milton despises Charles I because faith and praises the man’s personal strength
he does not agree that the people give him through overwhelming opposition. The
his power. Instead of the king being poem is seemingly straightforward and ex-
responsible to the people, Charles I only saw presses his feelings openly. Milton admits
the people as responsible to himself. Milton that the way to peace and restructuring has
argues that the people had chosen to give up been difficult through the word “plough.”
some of their own power to the king so that This specific word expresses difficulty,
3Milton, Paradise Lost, and the Question of Kingship
opposition, and hard work. It stresses the secure the establishment of the Common-
physical exertion and work required to lead wealth by subduing the most important ad-
such an expedition. Milton also expresses versaries in close proximity to England.
his belief that up to this point Cromwell’s Royalism, the enemy of the new Com-
work has been the work of God. The man monwealth, now mostly subdued presented a
has “rear’d God’s trophies, and his work much reduced threat to Cromwell’s move
pursued.” Milton acknowledges the divine towards new government. The victories
intervention in the struggle to overthrow the served as silencers to more vocal critics of
king, and this admission reveals Milton’s Cromwell, and quieted more secret sup-
belief that it was God’s work to execute the porters of Charles I that remained in the
king. Milton also speaks of much work to country. Within these three years, Cromwell
come in the process of protecting what is was extraordinarily busy in his military
sacred. Milton specifically hoped that conquests. Up to that point, he had helped to
Cromwell would maintain his fight against establish the New Model Army and was
royalists and supporters of the monarchy. given the position of second in command as
The sacred aspects of the commonwealth, Lieutenant-General of cavalry. The Second
the freedom from theological, ecclesiastical, English Civil War began in 1648 when the
and political tyranny, needed someone to King attempted to regain power through
fight enemies for them. Milton saw Crom- force of arms. Much of Cromwell’s initial
well as the defender of an establishment that popularity and fame came from his military
promotes the freedoms necessary to operate victories against royalist armies. These
human reason. Subsequently his main ex- victories caused Cromwell to believe in the
pression is for Cromwell to help “save free providential support of the trial and execu-
conscience” from tyranny. However, the tion of Charles. On January 30, 1649 this
true feelings behind the sonnet are better idea became a reality. Cromwell was the
understood with more historical context. third individual to sign the death warrant for
A deeper truth about this sonnet is the King. After the King’s execution, the
revealed when context surrounding when Commonwealth of England was declared,
Milton penned the words is explored. First, and the Rump Parliament exercised execu-
the sonnet was not printed or published at tive and legislative powers. Cromwell at-
the time that it was written. It was dictated tempted to unite a small group of Royal
to an amanuensis, as Milton was officially Independents, but he failed in convincing
blind by this time. A copy was found years them to become members of Parliament.
later after it was written and was preserved. Instead, the men fled to Ireland and signed a
The full title given to the sonnet is “To the treaty with the Irish Confederate Catholics.
Lord General Cromwell, May 1652. On the Cromwell was chosen to lead a campaign
proposals of certain ministers at the Com- against Ireland, and this lasted from 1649 to
mittee for Propagation of the Gospel.” 1650. The alliance between the Royal Inde-
Because it was written in 1652, the poem as pendents and Irish Confederates was
a whole records Cromwell’s greatest mili- considered to be the largest threat that the
tary victories of Preston, Dunbar, and Wor- new Commonwealth faced. However, Crom-
cester during the years 1649-1651. These well and the Parliamentary Army swept
battles “completed the conquest over royal- through the countryside. He returned to
ism in the three kingdoms” and “trans- England nine months later when Charles II
formed the political situation in England” landed in Scotland and was crowned king by
(Worden 244). Through these military the Scots. Some of the greatest battles of the
victories, Cromwell was able to further war were fought in this conflict with
4Ashbrook Statesmanship Thesis
Recipient of the 2013 Charles E. Parton Award
Scotland. Cromwell pleaded for Scotland to clinging to this principle of free conscience
reconsider, but his appeals were rejected. At above all, Cromwell “sacrificed the possi-
first the invasion of Scotland went poorly. bility of doable Puritan rule” (Worden 246).
However the Battle of Dunbar in 1650 was a While he was willing to allow diversity in
serious victory for Cromwell and caused the both worship and church government, his
campaign to improve. In 1651, the battle of toleration of different views of doctrine and
Worcester was fought as Charles II and his faith were much more limited. He believed it
allies had made an attempt to capture was the obligation of the magistrate to pro-
London. It was at this point that the last tect any truths which could be held in
major force of Scottish Royalists was de- conscience and would not put in danger the
feated. Charles II barely escaped and fled to believer’s salvation. Essentially, Worden
France until 1660. Milton saw Cromwell’s believes that this stance on church doctrine
attempt to keep the commonwealth together and faith was a stumbling block for esta-
and applauded his work in securing the blishing a government that was feasible and
commonwealth from royalist enemies. lasting because it was too intolerant of
While Milton seems to give over- doctrines, politically and theologically, to be
whelming support to Cromwell in all facets successful. This strong connection between
of his duties as the leader of the army and in church and state reveals their importance in
battle, the deepest sense of his admiration in the affairs of both Milton and Cromwell.
the sonnet actually comes in the form of Cromwell strongly supported freedom in
praising his work in fighting through dif- methods of worship and church structure
ficulties in the religious structuring of the while limiting the acceptable doctrine of the
commonwealth. For Milton, this was the Commonwealth. Milton considered his work
most important work that Cromwell did in to be valuable to the country because it
his struggles as the Puritan leader of the provided stability and progress towards a
army, and later of the nation, through his nation of free individuals with the oppor-
rise to the title of Protector. Freedom of tunity to safely use reason in the process of
conscience was what Cromwell protected establishing a better understanding of God
most during his career and was his greatest and man. He valued debate of all kinds, and
goal both politically and theologically. Cromwell made it possible to have these
Specifically, Cromwell supported the the- debates, political and theological, without
ology of the sainthood of all believers and fear of being injured by the king. Milton’s
the right to interpret scripture as an own doctrine is quite radical compared to
individual. He promoted church government Cromwell’s, and consequently he did not
that decentralized power from bishops and appreciate the narrowness that the Protector
gave it to a group of elders. Though a upheld in this area. But more important than
Puritan, Cromwell was willing to compro- personal doctrinal beliefs of either man, at
mise in matters of worship and church this point in the youth of the commonwealth
government with supporters of more tradi- Milton understood how crucial it was to
tional ecclesiastical structures. This compro- provide the necessary supports for the
mise led to discarding a complete separation church. Milton praises Cromwell in the
of church and state and actually promoted sonnet for his tireless efforts to actually
influence in the church by state officials that work through the discord of ideas and
served as a sort of father figure that con- opinions of men in the new commonwealth
tinued surveillance of sound doctrine over rather than to stand by idle. However,
the people. Worden suggests that by Milton sees that there is still much to do in
5Milton, Paradise Lost, and the Question of Kingship
the effort of restructuring the religious as- revolution created the equivalent of ecclesi-
pects of the nation. ological and doctrinal anarchy. Milton
Though the two aspects go hand in recognized the conflict of his country.
hand, the most important aspect of Crom- Anarchy in church doctrine was prevalent.
well’s conflict, for Milton, was in religious As Worden says:
establishment of Puritanical beliefs and
church infrastructure. During the English In the proliferation of sectarian here-
Civil War, there was rising political contro- sies, most MPs saw an affront to God
versy on the role of bishops in the esta- and a threat to the social order. After
blished church. On one new, challenging the king’s execution, heresies be-
side, Puritans supported the idea of Pres- came ever more shocking in content
byterianism as formulated by John Calvin. and more strident in presentation. So
This doctrine suggested that church govern- did anticlericalism. The very exis-
ment be made up of councils with elders and tence of the established ministry and
deacons, which had a strong voice, rather of the parish system was denounced
than retaining the position of bishop with an as Antichristian. The maintenance of
enforced, and structured hierarchy of rule. the clergy by the levy of tithes came
Presbyterianism also rejects the doctrine of under attacks of mounting ferocity.
apostolic succession, the consecration of So did the bond between church and
new bishops by established bishops, in state. (Worden 245)
addition to the rejection of the established
hierarchy. The form of Presbyterianism was With a much loosened established church
a sort of democracy in church government. government, the doctrinal differences be-
The Puritans valued this partial democracy, tween individuals, and even Puritans, be-
which mirrored their struggles against the came more evident. Each individual was
king. They longed to reform the established responsible for his own understanding of
church to follow this model of democratic scripture, and with that, no single authority
church government. Certainly it did model had the power to establish a single dominant
the political struggles of the time, but it dealt doctrine. This fragmentation characterized
essentially with the concept of the priest- the situation that Milton found Cromwell
hood of the saints, which was a core belief attempting to battle. While it was the view
of the Puritans. The idea that each individual of some rather extremist individuals to
was responsible for his own salvation and desire complete separation of church and
had the right to read the Bible and interpret state, Cromwell often stepped away from his
it for himself was key in the push for most conservative followers and attempted
Presbyterianism. This very doctrine is demo- to find common ground between radicals
cratic in nature, and it called for a more and conservatives. In his attempts to create
democratic way of establishing church harmony between two such different sides,
government for the established Church of outcomes varied. Two specific examples of
England. In fact, at the height of the Com- his work were the establishment of legally
monwealth Presbyterianism did become the supported, though mostly considered weak,
official structure of church government, but religious toleration as well as a less “inequi-
it was removed at the point of the Restora- table system of clerical maintenance” than
tion in 1660. tithes. Before the execution of Charles I, the
Puritan members of Parliament Church of England was the only church
strongly hoped that the revolution would supported by the government and the king.
“Puritanise” the commonwealth. Instead, the While Cromwell did not open the country to
6Ashbrook Statesmanship Thesis
Recipient of the 2013 Charles E. Parton Award
all religion, he certainly prescribed to the flourish for a handful of years without the
idea of free conscience, his staunchest forced doctrine of the established church.
belief. Essentially, if it were not possible for However, the overall stability of the church
unity between all Christians, then at least a at this time was not strong, and the Puritans
unity in the freedom of conscience would be were let down in their hopes for a more
preferred. While he supported this doctrine, Puritan Church of England.
he was not willing to allow freedom to the At the same time, Milton does not
extent that it infringed upon the rights of completely accept Cromwell’s other actions
individual believers. Overall, Cromwell had in this piece, and it can be inferred that his
an unwavering faith in the Holy Spirit’s praise of the man is limited strictly to the
ability to bring Christians of different views acts of defeating royalism and attempting to
together into a single body of believers. reform the religious problems the common-
Secondly, Cromwell led the reform move- wealth faced. Certainly, many threats to the
ment of church tithes. While Puritans wish- newly formed Commonwealth made them-
ed the system of state-controlled and man- selves known, and they consisted of royal-
dated tithes to be completely removed, most ists in both Ireland and Scotland as stated
members of Parliament believed that if tithes above. Cromwell was under attack by such
were abolished as a system to support the Royalists for his entire rule, and eventually
clergy then another system supported by the the Commonwealth succumbed to them at
state would be established in its place. Up to the restoration. Milton feared these indivi-
this point, officially mandated tithes had duals for the same reasons that he opposed
been the accepted way to support the church the monarchy at the time of the execution of
clergy of the Church of England. With the Charles I. Even though Cromwell crushed
ideas of decentralizing power in govern- his enemies in battle, the threat of royalists
ment, as well as church government, radicals permeated the time of his rule. Both political
wished the tithe to be abolished and for and religious rule caused the most strife for
clergy to support themselves professionally Cromwell, and Milton most admired the
rather than by the state. While Cromwell man for both his struggles to reform church
wished for some sort of compromise, Parlia- hierarchy as well as to completely destroy
ment could come to no conclusion on the the royalist threats. His praise is limited by
matter and dismissed itself. This helped these two aspects; Milton does not seem to
pave the way for Cromwell to establish the endorse every aspect of the man. While Mil-
protectorate, as stability and decision was ton admires his strengths of leadership and
necessary for the young commonwealth. military prowess, he does not completely
While this anarchy that Worden speaks of accept all of his beliefs. Specifically, the-
came mostly in the form of more theolog- ological issues such as the amount of power
ical, doctrinal anarchy rather than political, a bishop should maintain in the church or
it was certainly an important issue for the level of individual church autonomy
Milton and certainly Cromwell as the two were two on which Milton did not quite
worked through the unrest and attempted to agree with Cromwell. Also, Milton did not
work with the more democratized church. endorse the man’s advances in power
With this short-lived Presbyterianism, the through these popular victories. Two speci-
different beliefs and ideas of the individuals fic examples of Cromwell’s work were the
were able to be expressed more freely than establishment of legally supported, though
ever, and clergy with both extremely mostly considered weak, religious toleration
conservative and radical views were able to as well as a less “inequitable system of cleri-
7Milton, Paradise Lost, and the Question of Kingship
cal maintenance” than tithes. The language writer and poet (Worden 253). Milton
of the sonnet may suggest grandeur and seemingly would have sided with the radical
excellence, but the poet restrains himself idealists in parliament who wanted a com-
from accepting Cromwell in his entirety. plete separation between the church and
state, which Cromwell specifically had feel-
Defensio Secunda ings against. Milton’s political friends in the
Parliament, who Milton most often sided
If Milton does not completely accept with on such issues, supported a much more
Cromwell in 1652, his support remains the radical change than the one Cromwell began
same by the end of 1654 when he publishes to put in motion. These individuals did not
Defensio Secunda, the “Second Defense on care for the growing power that the Pro-
the Behalf of the English People.” His first tector gathered for himself. Specifically,
defense was published three years earlier. these friends were also against Cromwell’s
That work defended the act of regicide from ideas of church and state, and they supported
the attacks of Salmasius, and Milton’s a complete removal of any tithe system put
second defense continued the work. It was in place by the government and enforced on
intended for both audiences of the continent the people.
as well as the English people themselves. Additionally, the situation of Mil-
The Defensio Secunda, however, received a ton’s reservations about Cromwell becomes
much cooler welcome by the government more interesting as sequential historical
than his first. Scholar Austin Woolrych calls events unfolded. “Amidst the radical
Milton’s extended passage that gives praise excitement of 1653 the very existence of the
to Cromwell “a tremendous panegyric.” On established ministry had seemed in peril…
the other hand, however, Worden under- Yet the early months of the protectorate, and
stands it in a different light and characterizes the signals they provided of the moderation
it as so: of the new government’s purposes, gave
fresh heart to the ministry and the uni-
It casts Cromwell in epic terms, versities alike” (Worden 255). The new
lauding his military exploits, his government was not willing to side with
fortitude, his fitness to govern. Mil- radicals in an abolition of state-supported
ton is as awed by Cromwell, and as clergy and universities. With this movement,
admiring of him, in 1654 as in 1652. Cromwell welcomed Presbyterians back into
But the tribute of 1654, perhaps even the fold of religious institutions in the Com-
more so than that of 1652, carries monwealth. Originally a supporter of the
warnings. The sonnet told Cromwell Presbyterian theology, Milton’s doctrinal
that ‘much remains’ for him to ac- views had changed dramatically in the years
complish: Defensio Secunda urges leading up to Charles I’s execution. He no
him to ‘go on’ to further exploits. As longer found himself a supporter of the
in 1652, so in 1654, the policies Mil- Presbyterians and their form of church
ton commends are not Cromwell’s. hierarchy and construction because he felt
(Worden 252-253) that their form of church government was
not democratic enough and still reserved too
Worden suggests that Milton’s support for much power in the position of the bishop.
Cromwell’s rise in the protectorate in 1653 Milton began to support more radical ideals.
seems rather surprising because many of the Instead of more traditional ideas, he called
opponents to Cromwell were Milton’s for the complete abolishment of the
friends who had very similar ideals to the episcopal form and favored a more sectarian
8Ashbrook Statesmanship Thesis
Recipient of the 2013 Charles E. Parton Award
construction with high individual autonomy taking responsibility of the country were
of each church. Certainly Presbyterianism exactly what Milton fought against in both
was a step towards a more democratic form of his defenses. As Cromwell’s popularity
over episcopacy, but Milton reveals his own and power increased, the more dangerous he
dread of the consequences of a return to could become to the nation. In Milton’s
general parliamentary elections lead by eyes, the opportunity of tyranny loomed
Cromwell that were dominated by Pres- over Cromwell’s Protectorate. He urged the
byterians in the later 1640s. These elections man to continue his struggles to establish
would not make decisions radical enough to England as a commonwealth of the people.
satisfy Milton’s longing for church auto- His praise mingled with reservations at a
nomy. Even though he understood that the crucial point in history where either tyranny
elections would not go far enough, and or freedom could flourish.
while he personally maintained some major Milton is not equating Satan with
theological differences from the man, Milton Cromwell in Paradise Lost because Satan is
showed his support for Cromwell in an not a hero for Milton. There may be very
attempt to diffuse theological and political close ties between the two, but the reverence
confusion in the commonwealth. However, that Milton shows towards the Puritan mili-
it is important to note one major reason that tary leader rejects this idea. In his Second
Milton’s incomplete endorsement of Crom- Defense of the English People Milton
well was overshadowed: powerful conser- strongly praises the characteristics of the
vative members of Parliament accepted man who leads the Puritan cause both mili-
Cromwell’s role in solidifying Puritanical tarily and spiritually. He praises Cromwell’s
values. These factors point to why Milton ability to lead due to his military genius as
would align himself with Cromwell in his well as his spiritual austerity and power:
Defensio Secundo. Milton sees the man as
the only hope for the commonwealth to It is not possible for me in the nar-
survive and succeed: “Cromwell, we are row limits in which I circumscribe
deserted; you alone remain” (Defensio myself on this occasion to enumerate
Secunda). For Milton, he is the best and only the many towns which he has taken,
choice for fighting the battles, physical, the many battles which he has won.
theological, and political, for the new The whole surface of the British
commonwealth. No other man in the nation empire has been the scene of his ex-
had the support and power to make ploits and the theater of his triumphs,
decisions that would be accepted by the which alone would furnish ample
people and that would be profitable for materials for a history and want of
England. Milton, however, had reservations. copiousness of narration not inferior
He feared that Cromwell would not go far to the magnitude and diversity of the
enough in providing freedoms to the people transactions. This alone seems to be
as well as in the church. He supported a sufficient proof of his extra-
spreading the power among churches rather ordinary and almost supernatural vir-
than the government having the responsi- tue, that by the vigor of his genius, or
bility and power of supporting it. Milton felt the excellence of his discipline,
that Cromwell had the dangerous oppor- adapted not more to the necessities
tunity to gather power for himself rather of war than to the precepts of
than to give it to the individuals of the com- Christianity, the good and the and
monwealth. The dangers of a single man the brave were from all quarters
9Milton, Paradise Lost, and the Question of Kingship
attracted to his camp, not only as to virtue with which God has entrusted
the best school of military talents, them. (Milton 256)
but of piety and virtue; and that
during the whole war and the oc- In addressing Cromwell in this work, Milton
casional intervals of peace, amid so acknowledges England’s dependence on
many vicissitudes of faction and of “you alone,” “the only hope of your
events, he retained and still retains country,” to whose “invincible virtue we all
the obedience of his troops, not by give place” (CM, VIII, 223-25). In this
largesses or indulgence, but by his defense, Milton did not express or promote
sole authority and the regularity of the protectorate as a lasting, or even ideal,
his pay. (Hughes 832-833) solution to the reformation. In truth, Mil-
ton’s praise never can be taken as proof for
To solidify Milton’s trust in the man, he complete unqualified admiration. He had at
verbally accepts his political actions: “In this times said that a kingship can be the best
state of desolation to which we were reduc- form of government as long as the leader
ed you, O Cromwell, alone remained to was best and deserving to reign, but at the
conduct the government, and to save the same time he points out that a monarchy is
country. We all willingly yield the palm of the easiest way for this type of ruler to
sovereignty to your unrivalled ability and become the worst kind of tyrant.
virtue” (Hughes 834). Milton’s hopes in Cromwell seem to
These specific words describing the have come to an end, at least mostly, by
loyalty of Milton to Cromwell certainly are about 1654 when the protector “forcibly ex-
important to understanding their relationship pelled the commonwealthmen from parlia-
before Cromwell’s death, but the lack of any ment, declared his resolve to suppress
published works by Milton about his friend heresies and blasphemies, and publicly
after Cromwell’s death is interesting. Such scorned critics of the established ministry”
absence of words is shocking in light of the (Worden, 261). Though Milton remained at
complete devotion Milton shows for the his post and produced state papers at the
man. Worden says it well when he discusses government’s command, this was not a
the amount of doubt that shows in Milton’s stamp of approval or an expression of
writings, even in his Defensio Secundo: enthusiasm. The likelihood of this enthuse-
asm was reduced as the failures of the
If fears of Presbyterians and of royal- Protector became more visible. While Mil-
ists may help to explain Milton’s ton called for the end of press censorship,
decision to adhere to Cromwell in Cromwell reinforced it a year later. While
1654, he may nonetheless have been Milton warned against accepting wealth and
troubled by Cromwell’s elevation. power, Cromwell embraced it. While Milton
He may have seen in it, and in the was unsympathetic to hereditary rule, Crom-
nation’s acceptance of it, evidence well established it in the regime. The fail-
that the reformation of the land ings seen in Cromwell by Milton slowly
might be long postponed. Alongside built up over time, and while he did not take
the triumphalism that characterizes drastic action or move from his post in the
the successive celebrations of the state, Milton maintained these feelings until
English people in Milton’s writings, the death of the protector. Milton took a
there runs a doubt. In 1654 as at seemingly tolerant position towards Crom-
other times he asks whether the well’s failures and mistakes. However, upon
English will be ‘fit’ for the tasks of the man’s death in 1658, Milton republished
10Ashbrook Statesmanship Thesis
Recipient of the 2013 Charles E. Parton Award
his first Defensio. Worden suggests that: Analyzing the Text in Light of
“Passages of that work which had been Historical Context
aimed at Charles I would now have read as
Jesus Christ, the “Vicegerent Son”
comparisons between Cromwell and the
usurpers who had ended the Roman repub-
Instead of looking to scripture as a
lic, or as invitations to the English to exer-
literal resource to reveal how God recom-
cise their right to depose their new ruler”
mends one to deal with a worldly issue, such
(Worden, 263). The dislike he voiced
as divorce, Milton uses a free interpretation
against Cromwell’s regime would not be
of scripture using reason to come to his own
terribly surprising when that same year in an
conclusions in his writings. One of the most
address to the Long Parliament, Milton des-
interesting parts of Paradise Lost is his
cribed the protectorate as a ‘scandalous
construction of the Christ. Christ is the most
night of interruption’ (Worden 263). This
important individual or entity of the Christ-
referred specifically to the six-year period
ian faith, so the way Milton portrays this
that the Rump Parliament was dismissed
character in his story is central to under-
forcibly by Cromwell just before the esta-
standing both his theological and his politi-
blishment of the protectorate. Cromwell had
cal beliefs. In the story he has free reign to
just returned to England from his great
build Jesus Christ in any way he chooses,
military campaign against the royalists, and
but Milton decides to portray him in a non-
Parliament could not come to a conclusive
monarchical way that sheds light on Mil-
decision on the establishment of a new
ton’s political views and expresses his opin-
government. Cromwell infamously marched
ions on the hierarchy of earthly kingdoms.
into Parliament with forty armed men and
One of the most important passages
forced them to leave the building. Rump
that reveals the nature of the character of
Parliament was not in session again for six
Jesus is when God the Father describes the
years as the protectorate was established and
Son in His selection of a savior for Earth:
Cromwell was made Lord Protector. Milton
saw this period as a time when the freedoms [Thou] has been found
of democratic rule were suspended by a By merit more than birthright Son of God,
single man. The republishing of the first Found worthiest to be so by being good,
Defensio marked the first public attack, Far more than great or high.” (3:308-11)
though a subtle one, of Cromwell’s rule by
Milton. It was around 1657 that Milton, who Why does God present Christ as something
had put aside his major poetic ambitions for other than a heir as a divine division of the
almost two decades, began to compose Trinity as it is commonly understood by
Paradise Lost. This is where the connection Christians? At this point in the poem, God is
of Cromwell to Satan in the poem come in the process of selecting the Christ, the
closest. Both have failed in their tasks and being who will sacrifice himself to save
have deceived many in the process of mankind from evil and death. This presen-
elevating themselves. tation is already contrary to the view found
in the Gospel of John because, according to
that Gospel, Christ was not chosen out of a
selection of created beings. Rather, He exist-
ed before time with the Father and is in fact
the same being as God in a divine trinity:
three in one. Instead, Milton decides to
11Milton, Paradise Lost, and the Question of Kingship
install a “vicegerent Son,” as Annabel Pat- to be selected as the sacrifice for mankind
terson would describe Him, rather than rather than any type of inheritance of title.
having the Son inherit the title (Patterson Because he is good enough, Christ is able to
126). Instead of being an equal to God, or be chosen by the Father. Upon examination,
even being part of the triune God, Jesus is He fulfills the requirements of a perfect
more of a deputy to the Ruler of Creation. sacrifice for the decisions of mankind and is
For Milton, this is much more of a political chosen above the host of other heavenly
decision than a theological one for his story. beings. The angels admit that Christ is actu-
He chooses to establish Christ in this posi- ally one of the created beings of Heaven
tion in order to be certain not to present the rather than part of the Father: “Thee next
idea that kingship on earth resembles or is they sang of all creation first, / Begotten
sanctioned by kingship in Heaven. The only Son, divine similitude” (3:383-384). They
exception to this rule is God the Father, the accept the Christ because he is from their
only rightful king and ruler of all of ranks and is chosen because he deserves the
existence. His perfect and benevolent rule is position. Instead of feeling jealous of God’s
everything the rule of a single man on earth decision to perform the act of love for man
is not. He has perfect justice, extends mercy Himself, the angels feel comforted that a
appropriately, and is the source of all being from their midst is chosen. For Mil-
wisdom. Through this contrast, Milton esta- ton, this passage is not metaphorical as it
blishes a clear divide between the Heavenly would be for adherers of the orthodox belief
kingdom and the earthly kingdom. He in the divine trinity because he saw the
distances the two because he does not want Christ as a separate being.
monarchical principles of human govern- Milton’s construction of the Christ in
ment to appear to be approved by God in this way has two main purposes for the
any way. Allowing this would injure his poem. First, it establishes a meritocracy that
political disagreement with the past ruler. loosens God’s empire and strengthens the
The Son’s merit comes directly from his bonds of His creatures. Secondly, God’s
offer to die for mankind and his natural relinquishment of power promotes unity and
supremacy over the other created beings. happiness through His completely reason-
When God the Father says “merit,” this able decision. The “merit” that Christ shows
suggests a fraternal or communal organiza- is important because it suggests that all of
tion of His creation. He seems to bring God’s created beings had the same oppor-
Himself closer to His created subjects by tunity to become the chosen Son of God. By
choosing one of them as His Son instead of offering a system that rewards merit, God is
already having a form of Himself take the able to instill a connection between His
role. “The angels are ‘forever happy’ to be creatures to reach higher in their stations. It
led and united by the best created being, encourages greatness by rewarding the great
whom the angel Abdiel calls ‘one of our fairly. Because God the Father is loosening
numbers’” (Patterson 127). At this point in some of His seemingly tight control over
the poem, God the Father asks the creatures His Heavenly empire, He is essentially
of Heaven who will sacrifice himself for the increasing the freedoms of His creatures and
good of mankind. The Son is the only one to suggesting a common bond between them as
respond, and the Father chooses to accept His subjects. God increases the freedom of
His bid due to His supreme excellence. The His subjects by allowing them to flourish or
Father says the Son is the only creature who fall by their own merits. The supreme
“merits” the sacrificial position. The exten- example God provides is His selection of
sive goodness of Christ is what causes him Jesus. He gives the heavenly beings the
12Ashbrook Statesmanship Thesis
Recipient of the 2013 Charles E. Parton Award
freedom to succeed if they are good enough, Old Testament” (Patterson 127). Patterson
but they also have the freedom to fail as argues that the hierarchy that Milton
evidenced by the fall of Satan and his many constructs is the basis for political relation-
followers. The Christ is the ultimate ships on earth. The political relationship
example of God’s gift of freedom because between God and man comes in the form of
the creature with the most merit is raised to a covenant. This promise, or contract, in the
the highest place above other creatures. He Old Testament is an “external arrangement
is given the most responsibility as well, but made by God according to His will, unmerit-
his example reveals to all of creation the ed by human beings, unproposed by the
loosening of God’s power. Such a gift of human will, and tribal as often as indivi-
power shows that God does not have such a dual” (Patterson 127). The Old Testament
tight grip on His creation that He will not understanding of “covenant” is the Mosaic
relinquish a portion of His influence. At the Law that men are held to by God. Milton
same time, it suggests that God is secure in breaks from this type of covenant between
His decision. If the decision seems to be man and God in Paradise Lost to favor the
uncharacteristic of a supreme being because New Testament covenant of Christian lib-
it appears that He is giving up the rule of his erty. Christ frees man from being held to the
most sacred and honorable place, the soli- standards of the law by fulfilling the law
dity of God’s judgment secures any doubt Himself. Instead of man agreeing to live by
that He is handing over power to the wrong a certain set of rules from God, he is able to
creature. The meritocracy is bound to suc- accept Christ and exercise his Christian
ceed because of God’s all-knowing power to freedom in his free will. Political relation-
choose the right creature to serve as the ships on earth, according to Milton, are all
fulfillment of the sacrifice necessary for the based on some type of covenant or promise.
just redemption of mankind. The sameness However, the freedoms that men exercise on
that His creatures feel when part of the earth allow for different levels of merit
meritocracy bring them together and closer, according to each person’s strengths and
and this strengthens the Kingdom through a weaknesses. The meritocracy in God’s king-
strong sense of community and oneness of dom of the poem echoes His gift of freedom
purpose. Instead of ruling by absolute decree to men.
in this instance, God promotes happiness The hierarchy and degree of God’s
through His decision to let go of some of meritocracy associate themselves with the
His power in such a reasonable decision. degrees of liberty Christians that are given
Moderation even in God’s power draws by God. According to scripture, there are
positive effects towards His people because different levels of faith given to each
it exults the creation and proves the security believer, and according to their faith, their
of God’s will despite loosening basic power freedom as Christians is varied and measur-
over them. ed. At the same time, this brings together the
Patterson argues that Milton’s crea- church on earth. This church is made up of
tion of God’s meritocracy endorses hier- voluntary Protestants who are equally saints.
archy and degree: “What is distinctive about Milton stresses his beliefs in the priesthood
Milton’s hierarchy, however – its individual- of the saints in his attack on the Church of
istic, voluntaristic, and meritocratic basis – England in his essay The Reason of Church-
is equally what makes his concept of cove- Government Urged against Prelaty. This
nant distinctively nonbiblical or, as Milton essay focuses on a Presbyterian approach to
would prefer no doubt, Gospel rather than church government over an episcopal one.
13Milton, Paradise Lost, and the Question of Kingship
In 1642 when this piece was presented to the swear to keep it” (Christian Doctrine 6:389).
public, Milton still supported the Pres- Milton argues that men have a sort of
byterian form of church government. It was control over their own religious matters be-
not until several years later that he began to cause that is fundamental for the definition
embrace more sectarian views. Over time, of a covenant. If one side cannot even
Milton’s ecclesiastical beliefs moved to- attempt to fulfill their obligations under the
wards the left as he became more frustrated contract, then Milton believes that God
with the established Church of England. could not even begin to set up a covenant
Soon he believed that Presbyterianism did between the two. Milton is completely sup-
not go far enough in removing power from portive of increasing the power of the
the bishops. He preferred a much more individual believer in church government,
complete break from traditional ideas of just as he argues for the importance of the
church government that centered on more individual believer in his own salvation.
autonomous congregations with compara- Individualistic tendencies are present here
tively weak ties to a national church. Both and in the meritocracy of God in Paradise
the Presbyterian and sectarian lines of Lost.
thought actually mirror Milton’s God giving Throughout all of Milton’s works, a
up some of His power for his meritocracy in sense of the value of the individual and his
Paradise Lost. The fact that the form of freedom is evident, and this has a major
government in Heaven works suggests his effect on how man interacts with other men
trust in the Presbyterian approach to the in the world. Milton elevates the individual.
church government of that day. Both God This sort of theology certainly extends
and this ecclesiastical view support decen- Christian freedom, but it also diminishes the
tralizing power from a single position and power and importance of God in creation. A
democratize it by making it available to smaller view of God in reality actually
others. The idea of church elders taking an correlates with Paradise Lost as God is
increased role in church government cor- loosening His empire in choosing Christ out
relates to the meritocracy that God institutes of a pool of the created beings. Milton’s
in Paradise Lost in that the elders are view of God is proportionally smaller when
considered the best and strongest of the compared to his view of the importance of
believers in the body of the church. At the the individual, which increases throughout
time of writing the epic poem, Milton would his writings and especially in this poem. The
have moved even past this form and pressed Christian liberty that comes with the
for even more democracy in church govern- hierarchy of God’s meritocracy is actually
ment. The most important aspect of this the basis, Milton believes, of political
connection, however, is the simple fact that process and improvement of human com-
power is being distributed to believers other munication. Always a believer in the human
than those of the highest rank. ability to use reason to solve problems, Mil-
This ecclesiastical argument of de- ton suggests that the freedom given to
pending more on a group of individuals believers, and all men to the extent of their
rather than a single political head also free will, is an opportunity for the use of
relates to Milton’s belief in the importance creating better social constructions that
of human influence in religious life: “If handle and remedy the problems of flawed
religious matters were not under our control, and imperfect men. He suggests that
or to some extent within our power and throughout history, this freedom has pro-
choice, God could not enter into covenant vided the possibility of such upward, con-
with us, and we could not keep it, let alone stantly improving movement of human
14Ashbrook Statesmanship Thesis
Recipient of the 2013 Charles E. Parton Award
interaction that allows for and encourages their king. When the king ceases to have the
better theological as well as political asso- interests of the people as his main priority,
ciations. According to Patterson, this liberty then he also ceases fulfilling the contract.
is “the element in which progressive, inde- The authority of the king on earth has no
pendent, and free civil contracts are made” divine backing, according to Milton, be-
(Patterson 127). The voluntary basis of the cause if the king does not fulfill his duties to
position of Christ mirrors Milton’s under- the people, he believes that his law of rule is
standing of human contracts, both social and no longer binding to them and the people
political. The sufficiency of Christ as the have the right to change their leader. Milton
best created subject suggests that Milton does not support the idea of divine right.
sees human contracts only binding as they Because of this, there is also no religious
can be reasonably fulfilled for the reasons obligation to follow the king even when he
they were established. Christ was the best does not have the interests of the people in
created being, and He was completely able mind. The people must no longer give their
to fulfill His obligations as part of the allegiance to the king because Milton
covenant. Milton does not see the same believes that the man who abuses what he
fulfillment of contracts by men in his own has been given no longer serves the people
experience of the world. This applies to as initially promised. The citizens have the
contracts between both men and men as well responsibility to end the contract and create
as between men and God. He understands a new one either with a new king or by
that earthly contracts are often destined for establishing a completely new type of
failure because of human flaws brought on government. Their accountability to the
by the fall, but Milton seems to believe that contract between ruler and ruled is null.
the course of history offers a way for men to Similar to his views on the definition of
improve on their mistakes. He believes that marriage, Milton supports a reasonable
history presents the opportunity for men to agreement between men about who should
properly fulfill their contracts accordingly rule. Milton would agree with such a
after taking a reasoned look at their past contract that was well thought-out, and the
mistakes and problems. In his life, Milton people would have to be physically able to
sees the contract between the people and abide by it for it to have any sort of binding
their king as one that is destined to fail. In effect. Milton believes that marriage should
the most basic sense, this was because have the option of divorce in case one
Charles I was seen as a tyrant. He made a spouse does not fulfill the duties of that
secret agreement with the Scots in 1647 and contract. In the same way, the relationship
afterwards was considered to be a traitor by between the ruler and the ruled can be ended
Parliament. After this act, he was tried and if either party refuses to or cannot complete
executed. After this final act of treason, the requirements of that contract. In fact, as
Milton fully supported the execution. Milton soon as one of the conditions is not met, the
understood that the system, or contract, contract’s relevance to both parties ceases to
within the confines of the monarchy of exist. This connection actually returns to his
Charles I did not fulfill its purpose any views on church government. His support of
longer. Instead of serving the people as the Presbyterian form of church government
ruler, Charles I placed his own security and over an episcopal one corresponds to his
agenda first. Making such a pact with the support of Christian freedom. All of these
royalist Scots was in direct violation of the views support the same system of indivi-
social contract that the people have with dualistic meritocracy of the God of Paradise
15Milton, Paradise Lost, and the Question of Kingship
Lost. Each depends on the ability of the Satan attempts to create a similar position of
members to be able to fulfill their social power to God in his dominion over Hell.
contracts or covenants with each other, and The wealth and opulence of Satan’s throne
each relies on the individual’s own ability to show his attempt to mirror the throne of God
do so. and bring himself to the same position of
Jesus Christ. Milton chooses to portray him
Christ and God the Father as reaching his position of power by merit.
Each come to their position as hero through
The idea of God's kingship and his their own virtues. Satan constructs the
choice of Christ in Paradise Lost reveals situation in Hell to be almost identical to the
why Milton was critical not only of Charles mission of Jesus Christ. Both beings volun-
I but also of Cromwell, and it also points to teer to take the sacrificial journey to bring
his changing views of Cromwell. John about the end of their divine missions: Satan
Milton began to write Paradise Lost around to destroy God’s good design and Christ to
1658, the same year that Oliver Cromwell further it. Certainly, Satan volunteered to
died from malaria. God and Christ are two venture into the unknown to find Earth and
important characters of the poem to examine attempt to injure God’s plan for humanity.
because their constructions offer a look into In that essence, he was the only creature
the political views of Milton. strong enough to be able to accomplish such
Just as there is a divide between God a task. He reasons that he is the strongest of
and Man and God and Satan, for Milton the fallen angels, and by his own under-
there is a divide between God and Christ. standing of merit he deserves to rule over his
His view of the trinity in Paradise Lost is weaker fallen angels in Hell. Instead of
dramatically different than the traditional overwhelming goodness at the center of his
and orthodox equality of God the Father, the merit, Satan is characterized here by over-
Son, and the Holy Spirit. In the poem, whelming strength. From his position as
Milton separates the three, with the seem- ruler over Hell, he installs what resembles a
ingly biggest divide between the Father and meritocracy. As the strongest of the crea-
Christ the Son. The meritocracy that God tures in Hell, and seemingly the most cun-
creates in Heaven is the biggest indicator of ning, he is able to raise himself up to the
this divide. Because Christ is designated as a highest position because he presents himself
created being rather than an inherent and as most able to lead. Originally in Heaven
equal part of a triune God, there is a natural he led his own angelic troops into battle with
and expected space between the two charac- God, but now he rules his dominion in a
ters. Christ is not considered to be the equi- frozen, false meritocracy that allows no one
valent to an angel, but he certainly is a hea- to rise. While it appears to the other de-
venly being created by God for a purpose. monic creatures in Hell that Satan has
Satan is the first character to com- established a form of government that sup-
ment on the vicegerent. In fact, his descript- ports freedom and reward of merit, Satan
tion in Book II focuses on merit: has actually put in place a system that only
allows himself to succeed. However, instead
High on a throne of royal state, which far of choosing the best of the demons in Hell to
Outshone the wealth of Ormus and of Ind, have control over his mission to produce
Or where the gorgeous East with richest hand evil, and thus releasing some of his power as
Show’rs on her kings barbaric pearl and gold, God does in choosing Christ, Satan chooses
Satan exalted sat, by merit raised himself. This solidifies power in his own
To that bad eminence. (2:1-6) hands and also gives the false appearance of
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