Research on Job Search Interventions: Examination of the Feasibility of a Cyclical Self-Regulatory Model of Job Search Process Quality
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Article
Research on Job Search Interventions: Examination
of the Feasibility of a Cyclical Self-Regulatory
Model of Job Search Process Quality
KAYANO Jun
feasibility of a cyclical self-
I. Introduction
regulatory model of job search
Since the 1970s, psychologists have been process quality at Hello Work,
focusing on the psychological mechanisms of job with the cooperation of Hello
seekers to clarify how job seekers can find jobs that Work staff who participated in
lead to stable employment, and based on their results, the workshops held at the Labour
they have been examining what kinds of support College.3 Having reviewed the
should be provided to increase the possibility of research on job search, we report the results of the
finding employment through on-the-job research.1 study here.
The former focus of the study is referred to as
II. Research on psychological mechanism
“job search,” and that of the latter “job search
during job search
interventions.” When applied to services provided
for job seekers through “Hello Work” (public A cyclical self-regulatory model of job
employment security offices), examples of job search process quality systematically shows the
search interventions include personalized services development of self-regulation, and specific
such as career counseling duties and group services cognitive skills, such as how individuals utilize
such as orientation meetings and job search support psychological mechanisms that enable them to think
seminars for unemployment insurance recipients. for themselves and find jobs (see Figure 1).
Starting in the 2000s, major researchers in the Here “cognitive” refers to individuals perceiving
job search field cooperated, incorporating the latest objects in their environment through sensory organs
research results and taking into account the results such as the eyes and ears and using that information
of previous research in the same field, in proposing for psychological mechanism such as inference, i.e.,
a cyclical self-regulatory model of job search assessing their current situation or predict what will
process quality (see Figure 1) that provides overall happen next. In terms of job search, this applies to
guidelines for job search.2 This model emphasizes a sequence of psychological mechanism in which
self-regulation, which entails job seekers “thinking unemployed people perceive their unemployment
for themselves and finding jobs.” This does not and selectively assess how to deal with it.
mean that job seekers carry out job searches all by “Cognitive skills” are abilities related to the
themselves. Self-regulatory job search also consists psychological mechanism that can be acquired
of seeking help from others, such as staff of “Hello through experience and training, and are effective in
Work” and friends and acquaintances, if necessary. securing employment. For example, psychology has
The JILPT (2020) Research on Job Search revealed that the more specific a goal is, the more
Interventions, JILPT Research Report No. 203 likely it is to be achieved.4 When these findings are
(referred to below as “the report”) examined the applied to job search interventions, the result is a
30 Japan Labor Issues, vol.4, no.27, November-December 20202. Planning of goal pursuit
Strategy selection
Selecting and forming intentions for
a diverse set of job search tactics
Prioritizing, deadline-setting and
forming implemention intentions
3. Goal striving Job search
Preparation
product quality
1. Goal establishment
Self-control (of attention,
thoughts, emotions, Quality of job search
Selecting a goal
Job search process motivation, behavior) products/behaviors
quality cycle (e.g., vacancy search
Goal commitment
Goal shielding and quality, networking
maintenance quality, resume
Goal clarity
quality, interview
Self-monitoring and active quality)
Organized goal hierarchy
4. Reflection feedback-seeking
Evaluation of performance in the
light of the established goals
Attribution of failures to internal,
changeable causes and learning
from failures
Contingent self-rewarding
Source: Van Hooft, Wanberg & van Hoye (2013: 10–30)
Figure 1. Cyclical self-regulatory model of job search process quality
support policy that aims to clarify what kind of job a 1. The roots of research on job search
job seeker wants to do. For example, cognitive skills interventions: Unemployment research during
constitute the concrete know-how that clarifies an the Great Depression
image of the desired job. The roots of research on job search interventions
extend back to unemployment research during
III. Evolution of approaches to job search
the Great Depression of the 1930s. Research
interventions
at this time was widely carried out by field
Currently, in research on job search interventions, researchers who visited areas suffering from high
there is consensus that the basic approach is to rates of unemployment, observed the lives of the
support job seekers so that they can acquire self- unemployed while living among them as members of
regulation, thinking for themselves, and finding jobs the community, and interviewed them.
autonomously, as seen in the cyclical self-regulatory At this time, there were already two basic
model of job search process quality. The historical approaches to job search interventions, namely
background leading to this conception is as follows. environment-centered and people-centered. Jahoda
et al. conducted a field study immediately after the
simultaneous closures of a large-scale factory in
the Austrian industrial village of Marienthal and
Japan Labor Issues, vol.4, no.27, November-December 2020 31related factories in industrial areas of Austria and was improved to the extent that absolute poverty
investigated the impact on the physical and mental (“malnutrition to the extent that physical strength
state of unemployed workers and their families.5 cannot be maintained, lack of clothing and housing
Their conclusion was that unemployment had a to the point of freezing to death”7) could be avoided,
negative impact on the psychology of individuals, and more psychological factors as reflected by the
and it was difficult for unemployed individuals people-centered approaches took on relatively more
to change their situation unless aspects of their significant importance. In this process, the general
environment, such as their employment situation, psychology theories were applied, and job search
improved. This approach later evolved into models and research on support for it became the focus of
in which support for job seekers was centered on attention.
their environment (such as “deprivation theory” and The core of job search intervention theory
the “vitamin model.” Details are given in Chapter 2 followed general psychology theory and evolved
of the Report). from the 1970s learning model to the 1980s
Around the same time, Bakke conducted a cognitive model to a socio-cognitive model in the
field survey of working-class families living in the 2000s. To explain each of these: the learning model
community of Greenwich in south-east London, was popularized in the 1970s, and it remains the
UK.6 He found that among unemployed people, basic approach to job search interventions. The idea
skilled workers were happy to find and carry out is that people can change through learning, and it
jobs related to their skills even if they were not paid is also known as behaviorism. At the other end of
accordingly, whereas unskilled workers were not the spectrum of the theory is nativism, which holds
willing to work at all without what they considered that “human beings are strongly influenced by their
appropriate payment. predispositions and genetics, and do not change.”
These findings seem to indicate that the In the learning model, unemployed people have
psychological effects of unemployment differ difficulty finding new jobs simply because they have
depending on how unemployment is perceived, not learned effective behaviors for job search, and
and differences in perception depend on work if they can master such behaviors, they are more
experience up to that point. This idea later evolved likely to find employment. For this reason, job
into person-centered approaches to supporting job search interventions include programs that teach job
seekers (“agency theory” and applied research from search practices advantageous for employment, such
general psychology, etc. Details are in Chapter 2 as writing a resume that conveys your strengths to
of the Report). After World War II and the postwar employers who are hiring, and facial expressions,
reconstruction period, the economy improved, and gestures, and ways of speaking that lead to positive
the unemployment rate declined, and unemployment evaluations at interviews (for example, the “job
research fell by the wayside. club” (Azrin et al., 1975. For details, see Chapter 3
of the Report).
2. Applied research based on general psychology In the 1980s, the scope of the study was
theory: Toward behavior, cognition, and deepened from job-seeking behavior advantageous
metacognition for employment to the cognition that produces the
In the 1970s and 1980s, as unemployment rates job-seeking behavior: “If you change your mind,
worsened due to economic stagnation in the United your behavior will change as well.” Job search
States and other developed countries, unemployment interventions based on this theory focus on programs
research once again became the focus of attention. that work on the psychological mechanism of job
During this era, however, due to the enhancement of seekers (such as the “JOBS-program” or “self-
the social security system, including unemployment efficacy workshop.” For details, see Chapter 3 of the
insurance and other elements, the social environment Report).
32 Japan Labor Issues, vol.4, no.27, November-December 2020For example, job seekers who have lost dimension of cognition is required, and the cyclical
confidence due to experiencing unemployment self-regulatory model of job search process quality is
or lack of job search success may change their in line with this way of thinking.
cognition, such as noting points that have improved
IV. Feasibility considerations for the
compared to previous job searches, gain more
cyclical self-regulatory model of job search
confidence, and as a result, decide to take a proactive
process quality
approach to job search, which will increase their
chances of finding employment.8 1. The cyclical self-regulatory model
In the 2000s, the socio-cognitive model came As shown in Figure 1, in the cyclical self-
to be dominant (note that this is different from regulatory model of job search process quality,
Bandura’s social cognitive theory. For details, the job search process is divided into four stages:
see Chapter 3 of the Report). This model focuses “Goal establishment,” i.e., expression in the specific
on individual cognition in social situations, and language of “what kind of job I want to do” and
cognition is conceived as a form of information “how I want to work;” “Planning of goal pursuit” to
processing. Specifically, it is a series of processes achieve this goal; “Goal striving” in which the plan
in which an individual inputs information from is put into action; and “Reflection,” entailing looking
their environment, goes through multiple processing back on one’s job search after learning results such
steps (attention, perception, judgment, information as whether one passed or failed screening of job
retrieval, and so on), and the result is output in the application forms and whether or not one received
form of action on the environment. notice of hiring. By cyclically repeating these four
In the socio-cognitive model, psychological processes, job seekers are able to improve the quality
adjustment mechanisms for environmental adaptation of their job searches.
are emphasized through the active incorporation of The quality of job searches forms a basis for
environmental factors surrounding job seekers in employers’ judgments as to whether or not to hire a
their search for employment. Differences between person, with employers likely to select individuals
the cognitive model and job search interventions whose search quality has reached a sufficient level.
can easily be understood when their objectives For example, from an employer’s perspective,
are compared. In the cognitive model, the goal is the questions are, “Is this the right person for the
learning cognitive skills that increase one’s chances job?” “Does this resume make me want to hire the
of finding a job. On the other hand, in the socio- person?” “During the interview, is the person able to
cognitive model, the goal is the acquisition of the answer questions in a manner that makes me think
ability to select appropriate cognitive skills according I would like to work with them?” For each of these
to changes in the employment environment. This is four stages, points for improving the quality of job
known as metacognition. search are offered (for details, see Chapter 5 of the
Metacognition is “cognition of cognition.”9 It is Report).
the process of objectively reconsidering one's own The following four significant merits of the
judgments and choices in the manner of a third party. cyclical self-regulatory model of job search process
For example, if you are a job seeker who feels unable quality can be cited.
to actively search for jobs due to experiences with The first is its incorporation of the labor market
unemployment or poor job search performance, your as a social context. Psychologists focus on human
psychological processes operating at a deep level psychological mechanisms, and a resulting drawback
may make the judgment that “even if I apply for a is the field’s blurring of the social context in which
job, I’m sure to be rejected.” When you realize that a person is placed. In particular, psychologists
this judgment has a negative effect on employment involved in labor have continually been faulted for
potential, which is metacognition at work, a higher their neglect of attention to social contexts such as
Japan Labor Issues, vol.4, no.27, November-December 2020 33the employment system and the labor market. recognize what needs to be done next. The cyclical
The cyclical self-regulatory model of job self-regulatory model of job search process quality
search process quality presents one solution to this can be called a management cycle that circulates in
problem. The idea is to incorporate the perspectives a similar way, which could be summarized as “set
of the potential employer into the psychological goal-plan-act-reflect.”
mechanism of the job seeker. The macro-level of However, the most significant difference is the
the employment system and labor market does not inclusion within this management cycle of the setting
directly affect the psychological mechanisms of job of goals that express individual desires. Generally
seekers, but job seekers do regulate their job-seeking speaking, organized workers’ goals are stipulated to
behavior by being aware of potential employers' some extent before they are set, depending on the
viewpoints, and this cognitive process appears to medium- to long-term goals of the organization to
be influenced by the employment system and labor which they belong and the annual targets of their
market. From the standpoint of supporters who workplaces. This is not the case for unemployed
encourage adaptation to the environment, the point people who are not part of an organization. If they
is that how to make job seekers aware of employers’ do not take the initiative in setting goals, they cannot
perspectives. efficiently approach the search for a job.
Second, the model explains the motivational Recently there has been a focus on career
mechanisms of job search. The most significant self-regulation in career development within
success factor in the job search that leads to organizations.11 Career self-regulation is defined as
employment is persistence, i.e., continuing to seek a “(personal) life-long commitment to developing
a job until one is secured.10 From the supporters' one’s career and continuing to learn new things in
perspective, it is vital that job seekers do not lose a rapidly changing environment.” (Hanada et al.
their willingness to search for a job until one is 2003).12 In order to achieve career self-regulation,
found. it is important for individuals to be aware of their
Crucial to the cyclical self-regulatory model of desires and needs, such as what they want to do and
job search process quality is job seekers’ dealing be. A stage similar to the “Goal establishment” of the
head-on with the job search process, clarifying their cyclical self-regulatory model of job search process
desires and needs concerning what kind of job they quality is critical even among organized workers.
want to do and how they want to work at the “Goal Fourth is the clarification of the cognitive skills
establishment” stage and considering their job- necessary for job search from the perspective of
seeking behavior from the perspectives of potential metacognition. At the self-regulatory model stage of
employers during the “Goal striving” stage. When “Goal establishment,” it is essential for job seekers
job seekers are aware of the gap between their wishes to have a subjective awareness of their desires and
or needs and reality, to put it simply, it becomes a needs, such as what kind of job they want to do
driving force of job search as they become cognizant and how they want to work. During the stage of
that “if I do not take action, I cannot fulfill my wishes pursuing goals, it is necessary to have skills at the
or needs.” level of metacognition to examine one’s job-seeking
Third, the cyclical self-regulatory model of job behavior from potential employers’ point of view.
search process quality is designed as a management From the standpoint of supporters, a key goal of
cycle and is easy for both job seekers and their support is for the job seeker to shift from their
supporters to adopt. The “PDCA cycle” (plan- subjective perspective to an objective perspective
do-check-act) is well known as a management that is conscious of those who are doing the hiring,
cycle, and the idea is that goals can be achieved which is from cognition to metacognition.
by repeating this cycle. When we are aware of
this cycle, we have a mechanism that allows us to
34 Japan Labor Issues, vol.4, no.27, November-December 20202. Feasibility considerations to apply the desirable job search criteria specified
To examine the feasibility of the cyclical self- by that model to the know-how used for career
regulatory model of job search process quality at counseling duties, and participants were asked to
Hello Work offices, Evening Session workshops, assess the TIPs.
which are voluntary extracurricular training sessions *Career counseling TIPs are defined as “small
for Hello Work staff held at the Labour College, were techniques for choosing expressions and little
utilized to conduct two types of training programs devices for phrasing words.13
that outline the approach and know-how of the model, The findings were that almost all TIPs were
“Employment Support for Welfare Recipients” and assessed as being useful on the job (see Figure 4).
“Frontiers in Job Search Intervention Research,” Regarding on-the-job utilization, a majority of
and questionnaires were administered to determine participants responded that it was not difficult to
whether the model is effective in promoting career utilize six out of the eight TIPs in their duties. In
counseling work by participants, i.e., staff at Hello comparison, the other two TIPs were evaluated by
Work offices. a majority of participants as raising job seekers’
With regard to both training programs, most awareness of their impatience or anxiety and the
participants responded that they understood the problems they were facing and it is difficult to apply
concept of the cyclical self-regulatory model of job effects on the job (see Figure 5).
search process quality and obtained information
V. Key future task
and know-how that were useful for their career
counseling duties (See Figure 2 and 3). From the findings of this research, we were able
In addition, to examine the feasibility of the to gain a picture of the on-the-job feasibility of the
cyclical self-regulatory model of job search process cyclical self-regulatory model of job search process
quality, career counseling TIPs* were created so as quality. Although this is a model developed by
(%, N=87)
2.3
Was satisfied with training. 1.1 26.4 47.1 20.7
2.3
Gained understanding of 4.6
changes in approach to job 3.4 29.9 18.4
43.7
search interventions.
Gained understanding of
3.4
the concept of cyclical self-
37.9 39.1 17.2
regulatory model of job 1.1
search process quality.
1.1
4.6
Acquired useful information
29.9 49.4 16.1
and know-how.
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
No, absolutely not at all No No, not really Not sure
Yes, to some extent Yes Yes, absolutely No response
Figure 2. Assessment of Evening Session workshop “Employment Support for Welfare Recipients”
Japan Labor Issues, vol.4, no.27, November-December 2020 35(%, N=48)
2.1
Was satisfied with training. 18.8 35.4 43.8
Gained understanding of
changes in approach to job 25.0 37.5
37.5
search interventions.
Gained understanding of
the concept of cyclical self-
29.2 41.7 27.1 2.1
regulatory model of job
search process quality.
Acquired useful information
2.1 22.9 45.8 27.1 2.1
and know-how.
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
No, absolutely not at all No No, not really Not sure
Yes, to some extent Yes Yes, absolutely No response
Figure 3. Assessment of Evening Session workshop “Frontiers in Job Search Intervention Research”
(%, N=57)
S06: Encourage job seeker to imagine how their job search looks like 50.9 49.1
from the hiring side.
S04: Encourage job seeker to describe the conditions of, and 80.7 19.3
circumstances leading to, their job search.
S03: Make active use of time-related expressions, and encourage job
seeker to imagine when they would like to begin working at a desired 80.7 19.3
job and the process that leads up to it.
S01: Focus on the job seeker’s expression of emotion, and do not 66.7 31.6 1.8
overlook words that express their wishes and needs.
S08: Encourage job seeker to recognize what is hindering the fulfillment 57.9 38.6 3.5
of their wishes and needs.
S07: When a notification of acceptance or rejection is received, whether
the result is positive or negative, first encourage job seeker to note 78.9 17.5 1.8
improvement, however slight, compared to previous application. 1.8
S02: Once job seeker’s wishes and needs are evident, encourage them
to express in specific language: “What kind of work style and what kind 64.9 29.8 5.3
of job are you seeking?”
S05: If job seeker is anxious to find a job quickly, encourage them to 40.4 49.1 10.5
engage with those emotions.
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
Useful Somewhat useful Not very useful Not useful No response
Figure 4. Usefulness of career counseling TIPs on the job
36 Japan Labor Issues, vol.4, no.27, November-December 2020S05: If job seeker is anxious to find a job quickly, encourage them to
7.0 49.1 28.1 15.8
engage with those emotions.
S08: Encourage job seeker to recognize what is hindering the fulfillment
14.0 40.4 28.1 15.8
of their wishes and needs.
1.8
S04: Encourage job seeker to describe the conditions of, and
28.1 43.9 28.1
circumstances leading to, their job search.
S02: Once job seeker’s wishes and needs are evident, encourage them
to express in specific language: “What kind of work style and what kind 24.6 45.6 29.8
of job are you seeking?”
S07: When a notification of acceptance or rejection is received, whether
the result is positive or negative, first encourage job seeker to note 22.8 42.1 33.3
improvement, however slight, compared to previous application. 1.8
S01: Focus on the job seeker’s expression of emotion, and do not
15.8 49.1 35.1
overlook words that express their wishes and needs.
S06: Encourage job seeker to imagine how their job search looks like
14.0 47.4 38.6
from the hiring side.
S03: Make active use of time-related expressions, and encourage job
seeker to imagine when they would like to begin working at a desired 3.5 38.6 57.9
job and the process that leads up to it.
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
Difficult Somewhat difficult Not very difficult Not difficult No response
Figure 5. Difficulty of utilizing career counseling TIPs
Western researchers, it is considered to be broadly research on job search interventions in Japan. I find
applicable, including in the field in Japan. that the job search interventions are seen in job search
A critical future task is to develop a job search seminars, etc. in Japan, and the Hello Work career
intervention program based on this cyclical self- counseling duties that I am involved in, are quite
regulatory model of job search process quality for excellent when compared internationally. On the
job seekers. For this reason, we must take advantage other hand, I believe that research in this field is not
of the opportunities presented by the Evening even close to catching up with countries conducting
Session workshops, ask participants (Hello Work advanced research such as the Netherlands and the
staff) for their cooperation, give them opportunities United States.
to evaluate the program from the standpoint of job I am aware that if a problem arises in the field,
seekers, and, based on the results, refine and improve supporters can respond quickly without relying on
the training program. research. However, as is evident when we review
After that, it is necessary to implement the the history of research on job search interventions,
program on a trial basis in an orientation meeting researchers use scientific methods and accumulate
at Hello Work offices and job search intervention objective knowledge to draw up medium- to long-
seminars, etc. And then, collect evaluations from term guidelines and establish perspectives based on
job seekers using questionnaires and other means them.
and revise and update the program regularly. If the If we elevate the level of research on job search
results of the questionnaires are positive, we will interventions in Japan as quickly as possible, the
develop a manual for the program and promote following two points will be important. First, it is
its dissemination, with the goal of widespread necessary to actively engage in joint studies with
implementation at Hello Work offices. Western researchers to learn the methods of applied
Finally, I would like to explain the need for psychology that are highly useful in the field. In
Japan Labor Issues, vol.4, no.27, November-December 2020 37particular, these researchers excel at using general Marienthal: The Sociography of an unemployed community.
(English translation, 2002). Chicago: Aldine.
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KAYANO Jun
Research Director, The Japan Institute for Labour Policy and
Training. Research interest: Social Psychology, Career Counseling.
https://www.jil.go.jp/english/profile/kayano.html
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