Stormwater Wetlands for Golf Courses
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Stormwater Wetlands for Golf Courses
Golf courses provide a unique setting for wetlands that can be used to provide both an environ-
mental benefit and an aesthetic amenity. The research-based recommendations in this publica-
tion are intended to help you optimize concepts and designs for your next project.
Golf course designers and superintendents
are increasingly taking steps to protect nearby
environmental resources from potential negative
impacts. New regulations and incentives also
encourage designers and superintendents to pur-
sue sound management and use greener technol-
ogies. One of the most frequently recommended
practices for protecting the environment around
a golf course is to incorporate constructed
stormwater wetlands (CSWs) as a part of the
water management plan for the course.
A CSW can be an attractive and practical
way to meet requirements for water manage-
ment design or retrofitting (Figure 1). CSWs not Figure 1. Stormwater wetland on a golf course in
only remove nutrients; they also provide ecosys- eastern North Carolina. Wetlands can be incorpo-
tem services such as wildlife habitat and carbon rated as course hazards while adding ecological
sequestration. These services provide an additional diversity and improving water quality.
opportunity for the course to expand its involve-
ment into environmental protection programs that nutrients (Line et al., 2008; Lenhart and Hunt,
could generate additional recognition or revenue. 2011; Hathaway and Hunt, 2010). The ben-
efits of wetlands also include the removal of
INTRODUCTION harmful bacteria and regulation of organics
The growing popularity of stormwater wetlands (Hathaway et al., 2011; Moore et al., 2011). As a
stems from their potential to improve water result of documented performance, the North
quality and reduce the quantity of runoff leav- Carolina Division of Environment and Natural
ing a site. Wetlands are natural water filters. Resources (NCDENR) currently offers 40%
The biological, chemical, and physical condi- removal credit to CSWs for both nitrogen and
tions within wetlands create ideal conditions phosphorus loads, which is among the high-
for removing many pollutants from water. est credits awarded to any treatment practice
Research at NC State University continues to (NCDENR, 2009). Wetlands store drainage
show that wetlands are excellent at removing water, dampen peak runoff rates, and increase
Stormwater Wetlands for Golf Courses
on-site retention time. Wetlands can Lonnie Poole Golf Course
also reduce outflow volume through The Lonnie Poole golf course is on NC
evaporation/plant transpiration and State University’s Centennial Campus.
modest infiltration. The latest research-based concepts for
The United States Golf Associa environmental sustainability were used
tion (USGA) has recognized storm- in the design of the facility, and these
water wetlands as an acceptable concepts are also applied to current
means to reduce drainage outflow management practices. The course
volumes and improve downstream was built under strict environmen-
water quality. For example, a research tal regulations that protect streams,
grant from the USGA Turfgrass and buffers, and wetlands. A number of
Environmental Research program water features are part of the course,
Figure 2. CSW at Eagle Point Golf
supported a golf course project to including wet ponds, several natu-
Course, Wilmington.
manage runoff with stormwater ral wetland areas, and a stormwater
wetlands at Purdue University. The wetland. The CSW collects and treats
project showed excellent results for Hillandale Golf Course in Durham. stormwater from the course and from
water quality improvement (Kohler More recent golf course projects at a nearby public school before discharg-
et al., 2004; Reicher et al., 2005). Eagle Point Golf Club in Wilmington ing to a well-buffered stream that flows
In addition to their stormwater (Figure 2), Chowan Country Club through the course (Figure 3).
benefits, wetlands have other uses in Edenton, and NC State’s Lonnie A study showed that this wetland
that can make them attractive golf Poole Golf Course in Raleigh were reduced runoff volumes and improved
course enhancements. Stormwater intended to meet specific goals for water quality. Total nitrogen loads were
wetlands can function as an integral water quality and to protect environ- reduced by 47%, and total phosphorus
part of a drainage system, provide mentally sensitive areas. Research loads were reduced by 59%. The study
additional water storage for irriga- data collection has been an integral further showed that a good portion
tion or other reuse needs, and offer part of all of these projects. of the pollutant removal was achieved
an attractive alternative to traditional through internal wetland processes
water hazards. Chowan Country Club rather than through water volume
Recent engineering advancements A large retrofit was planned for the reduction. Other benefits described in
have improved the wetland design Chowan Country Club golf course to the study included removal of solids
process. Guidance on wetland con- address drainage issues and improve and low nutrient concentrations in
struction and maintenance is readily course conditions. This course was outflows (Line et al., 2008).
available from other fact sheets in this situated immediately adjacent to the
series: Stormwater Wetland Design Albemarle Sound. The Department WETLAND LOCATIONS
Update and Stormwater Wetland of Biological and Agricultural Stormwater wetlands have been used
Construction Guidance (Extension Engineering helped design a series of successfully in all regions of North
publications AGW-588-12 and CSWs throughout the course to help Carolina. A wetland only needs
AG-588-13W). manage drainage and improve water
This fact sheet describes several quality. A total of 15 acres of wet-
example projects from North Carolina lands in eight areas were constructed
to illustrate how CSWs can be inte- as part of the project. More than
grated into golf courses, and it provides half the holes on this course now
recommendations for project success. include a water feature. Research on
the project showed that the wet-
NORTH CAROLINA’S lands reduced both the quantity of
GOLF COURSE WETLANDS stormwater runoff and the peak flow
In North Carolina, NC State rates from the course. Nutrient loads
Cooperative Extension and the exiting the course were also signifi-
Department of Biological and cantly reduced. Total nitrogen and
Agricultural Engineering have been phosphorus loads were decreased by
Figure 3. CSW located near the no. 3
involved with several CSWs on 23% to 72%. Better performance was green on Lonnie Poole Golf Course.
golf courses. One of the state’s first achieved when the ratio of wetland This feature treats runoff and is marked
stormwater wetland demonstration size to watershed area was higher as a water hazard on one of the most
projects was constructed in 2000 at (Pekarek, 2008). challenging holes on the course.
2
Stormwater Wetlands for Golf Courses
periodic influxes of water to thrive.
Water levels in most areas in a wet-
land should be less than one foot deep
during normal conditions. Wetlands
rarely require more than a small
berm to retain water, and they can be
managed with simple and inexpensive
water control structures. A well-
planned wetland is a living ecosys-
tem, and once a diverse community
of plants has established, a wetland
is mostly self-sustaining, requiring
minimal maintenance.
Any area that is experiencing peri-
odic wetness or drainage problems on
a golf course is a prime location for a
wetland. Small ditches or other drain-
ageways can be converted into wetland
areas (Figure 4). Existing ponds or old
ponds with failed dams are also good
candidates for a wetland retrofit. A pri-
mary drainage outlet that leads from
the golf course into a natural water
body can also be an ideal location to
position a wetland to provide some Figure 4. This old drainageway cros- Figure 5. Eroding drainage ditches
final runoff treatment. An example of sing the no. 3 fairway at Chowan like this one at Hillandale Golf Course
this design is shown in Figure 2, where Country Club was a great spot for a (above) can be stabilized as a stormwa-
drainage water flows through the golf wetland (above). Two years later, the ter wetland. Four years after construc-
developed wetland at the same location tion (below), the channel is stable, and
course and is intercepted by a CSW supports an established vegetation the wetland provides multiple ecosys-
before it discharges into a salt marsh. community (below). The wetland is now tem services.
Eroding channel banks on small a water hazard in the local rules.
drainageways can also be targeted for
wetland placement. This was the case course, decreasing the potential for There are many different types
at Hillandale Golf Course, where an course damage. of wetlands that can be used in a
eroding bank was both an eyesore and Golf course wetland planning golf course setting. Wetlands can
a safety hazard (Figure 5). In 2000 a should involve significant input from be very small or many acres in size.
wetland was installed adjacent to the the course designer and superintendent Wetlands can be designed to work in
first tee; now the wetland also serves (Figure 6). They will be able to help series to combine variety and water
as a water quality amenity and a visual identify wet areas, drainage systems,
screen that partially hides a parking lot. and course drainage retrofits or
improvements that could benefit from
WETLAND PLANNING wetlands. To get the most benefit out of
Wetlands provide a designated area these features, it is important to evalu-
for water storage, which can efficiently ate how wetland areas might affect
keep water off of playing areas. When play. Wetlands that can act as lateral
combined with a course drainage sys- or water hazards while providing an
tem, wetlands can decrease the impact aesthetic amenity around the course
of rainfall by providing multiple can be highly desirable. Particularly at
drainage outlets. In addition, spoil private clubs, additional input from the
from excavation can sometimes be membership will be crucial to get sup-
used to build up other low areas of the port. A field visit to discuss potential
Figure 6. Meet frequently with the course
course. Improved drainage response wetland sites with respect to playability designer and/or the golf course superin-
will decrease the amount of time that (i.e., landing areas) should be an inte- tendent to improve the impact and suc-
players and traffic must be kept off the gral part of the planning process. cess of a golf course wetlands project.
3
Stormwater Wetlands for Golf Courses
Figure 7. Wetland along no. 10 tee box, Figure 8. Stormwater wetland in wes- Figure 9. Deep wetland with floating
Chowan Country Club. tern North Carolina. This wetland aquatics.
includes a mixture of deep pools and
shallow water that supports a diverse
quality benefits. The type of wetland ecological community. for a variety of hydrologic interac-
constructed will depend on site loca- tions. A thorough analysis is neces-
tion, watershed size, and the desired (Figure 11). This type of wetland will sary to predict contributing watershed
aesthetic result. Wetlands can be built typically have a thick border of vegeta- dynamics and determine local water
with or without significant water tion that will help restrict player access table interaction, storage needs, and
storage, with varying areas of deep and provide dense cover for habitat. flooding risk (Figure 13).
and shallow pools, and with differing Wetland fringes can be established When possible, soil sampling
plant communities (Figures 7 and 8). by constructing a shallow water ledge and groundwater level monitoring
Deeper wetlands planted primar- or shelf around the perimeter of ponds near targeted areas of the golf course
ily with floating aquatics have a more (Figure 12). The shelf stabilizes the should be completed before designing
pondlike appearance and a low pro- banks, which are often unvegetated the wetlands. This will help design-
file, allowing golfers to see their target because of over-mowing and fluctu- ers understand the site’s groundwater
easily (Figure 9). ating water levels in the pond. This hydrology, a critical component of
More natural-looking wetlands provides excellent habitat for ducks project success. Information on sea-
may involve a less sculpted look and and other waterfowl that like cover, but sonal water tables can provide impor-
may also include some trees (Figure not for geese because they prefer open tant data for targeting wetland surface
10). Such wetlands are excellent for water with closely mowed, visible banks elevations. Shallow water table sys-
border areas or zones where play is so they can see predators approaching. tems, such as those found in coastal
restricted. These areas may also pro- areas, will typically have confining
vide the best wildlife habitat potential. HYDROLOGIC CONSIDERATIONS soil layers restricting vertical seep-
A design with a mixture of emer- A stormwater wetland depends on age. The depth of a coastal stormwater
gents will produce a wetland that has the proper hydrologic conditions to wetland must be carefully determined
dense vegetation but that will still be function and remain sustainable. to manage water table interaction and
low enough not to impede shot-making Potential sites should be investigated to avoid breaching restrictive layers
needed for surface water storage.
Other wetlands may be hydrologi-
cally isolated due to deeper water tables
Figure 10. A more natural wetland look, Figure 11. Wetland area with a thick
away from playing areas. border. Figure 12. Pond with wetland shelf.
4
Stormwater Wetlands for Golf Courses
Figure 13. Wetlands can provide tem- Figure 14. A diverse wetland with a Figure 15. Flowering plants are attrac-
porary storage for stormwater, thereby thick border and a flowering interior. tive to butterflies, dragonflies, and
quickly removing excess water from Thick borders help keep wildlife in and other desirable wildlife.
the playing area. people out.
for plant establishment and later for
at the wetland site. These wetlands facilitate maintenance and promote maintenance activities.
must be designed with clay or synthetic safety. Special attention should be
liners or specially created soil condi- paid to slope preparation, establish- Maintenance
tions to maintain desired water-level ing vegetation, and setting mowing Golf courses are highly managed
conditions. Additional analysis should boundaries. areas. Avoid mowing and the use
be performed to ensure that the water- of chemicals or fertilizers close to
shed is large enough to contribute a suf- Topsoil wetlands and sideslopes (Figure 16).
ficient supply of runoff to the wetland. Topsoil should be incorporated into Establishing a “no mow” area on the
An engineering analysis using the wetland surface and bank slopes banks of the wetland or pond shelf
spreadsheet routing routines or other whenever possible. Good soil substrate can enhance stability, limiting poten-
computer models can facilitate these will promote rapid plant establishment. tial erosion. Drifting herbicides may
determinations. There are a number cause plant die-off. Excessive fertilizer
of routing models that can simu- Planting use near the wetland areas may cause
late water levels and incorporate the In highly visible locations, designate algal blooms. Particular attention
effects of multiple wetlands or com- plant spacing of 2-foot centers or less. should be paid to outlet structures
plex in-line structures. Dense coverage may be attainable at that sometimes clog with vegetation
this spacing within a growing season. or trash. Clear communication with
DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS The best coverage will result grounds personnel is necessary to
FOR GOLF COURSE WETLANDS from planting emergent wetland facilitate proper wetland maintenance.
General design criteria applicable to all vegetation in the spring. Summer or
stormwater wetlands include vegetation fall plantings may be successful, but
selection, water depths, storage depths, initial results may be diminished due
and drawdown periods. Detailed to heat and drought stress, as well as
recommendations on the design a shorter initial growing season.
process are provided in various design A simple array of flowering herba-
manuals (see Resources section) and in ceous emergents will provide excellent
the companion fact sheets in this series. aesthetic quality for the middle sections
An experienced local stormwater of the wetland. An outer layer of Juncus
professional can identify any local spp. (rush) or Scirpus spp. (bulrush,
design issues. Such issues may necessi- woolgrass) will provide a thick wetland
tate adjustments to traditional designs border (Figures 14 and 15).
to make wetlands more manageable
and attractive for golf course use. Structures Figure 16. Overly aggressive mowing is
an example of why proper training is key
Water control structures should be
to maximizing the long-term benefits of
Grading designed to allow for adjustable wet- stormwater wetlands on golf courses.
Side slopes should be no steeper land water levels. For example, shal- Mowing areas can actually be reduced
than 3:1 (horizontal:vertical) to low water levels are needed initially by implementing stormwater wetlands.
5
Stormwater Wetlands for Golf Courses
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS is overmaintenance, where crews REFERENCES
• Will my golf course be taken over mow too closely along sideslopes
by mosquitoes? (Figure 16) or overapply chemicals in Hathaway, J.M. and W.F. Hunt. 2010.
Ponds and other stormwater close proximity to a wetland. These An evaluation of stormwater
facilities can become mosquito wetlands should actually reduce the wetlands in series in Piedmont,
habitats. However, a properly designed amount of mowed and regularly North Carolina. Journal of
stormwater wetland should not create maintained areas. Environmental Engineering.
a mosquito problem because it will 136(1): 140-146.
also be habitat for mosquito predators • What will the site look like over
such as dragonflies, birds and fish time? Hathaway, J.M., W.F. Hunt, A.K.
(Figure 17). Regular maintenance as The site will look different from Graves, K.L. Bass, and A.
described in Maintenance of year to year depending on rainfall, but Caldwell. 2011. Exploring fecal
Stormwater Wetlands and Wet Ponds once established it should remain well indicator bacteria in a constructed
(AG-588-07) and Mosquito Control for vegetated. A densely planted wetland stormwater wetland. Water
Stormwater Facilities (AG-588-04) by should result in full coverage over Science & Technology. 63(11):
grounds crews can reduce the possi- one full growing season. However, 2707-2712.
bility of mosquito propagation. The wetlands in unstable watersheds or
authors have not encountered mos- with unsuitable soils may take several Kohler, E.A., V.L. Poole, Z.J. Reicher,
quito problems at any properly seasons to develop a dense stand of and R.F. Turco. 2004. Nutrient,
designed and maintained CSW sites vegetation. In general, vegetative com- metal, and pesticide removal
in North Carolina. munities will fill in and propagate as during storm and nonstorm
time passes. Most stormwater wet- events by a constructed wet-
• What will my maintenance lands will begin to appear brown over land on an urban golf course.
requirements be? the winter, but some plants, such as Ecological Engineering. 23(4-5):
Maintenance requirements should Juncus effusus (soft rush), will remain 285-298.
be substantially less for wetlands green. A diverse planting plan will
than for fairways, roughs, and greens. help ensure that a wetland stays clean Lenhart, H.A. and W.F. Hunt. 2011.
Regular inspection is the most and green for many years. Evaluating four stormwater
important task, but other common performance metrics with a
tasks include removal of debris from SUMMARY North Carolina coastal plain
outlets and managing unwanted Stormwater wetlands have recently stormwater wetland. Journal
vegetation. Most maintenance activi- become a popular practice for water of Environmental Engineering.
ties can be taken care of as part of quality improvement. Wetlands can 137(2): 155-162.
regular course work, using tools be especially useful for golf courses,
available at most golf facilities. One where they can be incorporated into Line, D.E., G.D. Jennings, M.B. Shaffer,
of the most frequently encountered the drainage and water management J. Calabria, and W.F. Hunt. 2008.
problems with golf course wetlands design as an attractive alternative to Evaluating the effectiveness of two
traditional water features. In some stormwater wetlands in North
cases, wetlands can also enhance the Carolina. Transactions of the
quality of play. Recent research and ASABE. 51(2): 521-528.
design advances have improved the
use of wetlands, and recommenda- Moore, T.C., W.F. Hunt, M.R.
tions for wetland construction and Burchell, and J.M. Hathaway.
use are well documented and readily 2011. Organic nitrogen exports
available. As golf course designers from urban stormwater wetlands
and managers pursue retrofits and in North Carolina. Ecological
greener technologies, the use of Engineering. 37(4): 589-594.
stormwater wetlands should be a
primary consideration. NCDENR. 2009. Stormwater wet-
lands. Chapter 9 in: Stormwater
BMP Manual. Online: http://
Figure 17. Dragonflies (aka “mosquito
hawks”) are natural mosquito preda- portal.ncdenr.org/web/wq/ws/su/
tors and are attracted to wetlands with bmp-ch9.
flowering vegetation.
6
NC STATE UNIVERSITY Stormwater Wetlands for Golf Courses
Pekarek, K.A. 2008. Hydrologic Hunt, W.F. 1999. Urban Stormwater Hunt, W.F. and W.G. Lord. 2006.
and Water Quality Assessment Structural Best Management Maintenance of Stormwater
of Constructed Wetlands on Practices (BMPs) (AG-588-01). Wetlands and Wet Ponds (AG-
a Coastal Plains Golf Course. Online: http://www.bae.ncsu. 588-07). Online: http://www.bae.
Master’s thesis, North Carolina edu/stormwater/PublicationFiles/ ncsu.edu/stormwater/
State University, Raleigh. UrbanBMPs1999.pdf. PublicationFiles/
WetlandMaintenance2006.pdf.
Reicher, Z.J., E.A. Kohler, V.L. Poole, Hunt, W.F. and B.A. Doll. 2000.
and R.F. Turco. 2005. Constructed Design of Stormwater Wetlands Moore, T.L.C. and W.F. Hunt. 2011.
wetlands on golf courses help for Small Watersheds (AG-588- Stormwater Wetlands and
manage runoff from the course 02). Online: http://www.bae.ncsu. Ecosystem Services (AG-588-22).
and surrounding areas. USGA edu/stormwater/PublicationFiles/ Online: http://www.bae.ncsu.
Turfgrass and Environmental SWwetlands2000.pdf. edu/stormwater/PublicationFiles/
Online. 4(2): 1-14. Online: http:// WetlandEcosystemServices2011.
usgatero.msu.edu/v04/n02.pdf. Hunt, W.F., C.S. Apperson, and W.G. pdf.
Lord. 2005. Mosquito Control for
RESOURCES Stormwater Facilities (AG-588- Related Web Sites
04). Online: http://www.bae.ncsu.
Companion Fact Sheets edu/stormwater/PublicationFiles/ Stormwater Engineering Group,
Mosquitoes2005.pdf. Department of Biological and
Burchell, M.R., W.F. Hunt, K.L. Agricultural Engineering, NC
Bass, and J. Wright. 2010. Hunt, W.F., M.R. Burchell, J.D. State University: http://www.bae.
Stormwater Wetland Construction Wright, and K.L. Bass. 2007. ncsu.edu/stormwater/.
Guidance (AG-588-13). Online: Stormwater Wetland Design
http://www.bae.ncsu.edu/ Update (AG-588-12). Online: USGA Turfgrass and Environmental
stormwater/PublicationFiles/ http://www.bae.ncsu.edu/ Research Online: http://usgatero.
WetlandConstruction2010.pdf. stormwater/PublicationFiles/ msu.edu/.
WetlandDesignUpdate2007.pdf.
Prepared by
Kristopher Bass, PE, Extension Associate
Michael Burchell, PhD, Assistant Professor and Extension Specialist
Robert Evans, PhD, PE, Professor and Department Head
William Hunt, PhD, Associate Professor and Extension Specialist
Daniel Line, PE, Extension Specialist
Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering
North Carolina State University
Danesha Seth-Carley, PhD, Coordinator for CALS Sustainability Programs
North Carolina Agricultural Research Service
North Carolina State University
Published by
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Distributed in furtherance of the acts of Congress of May 8 and June 30, 1914. North Carolina State University and North Carolina
A&T State University commit themselves to positive action to secure equal opportunity regardless of race, color, creed, national
origin, religion, sex, age, or disability. In addition, the two Universities welcome all persons without regard to sexual orientation. North
Carolina State University, North Carolina A&T State University, U.S. Department of Agriculture, and local governments cooperating.
8/12—BW 13-CALS-3237 AG-765
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