Aggression and Driving Anger among Ivorian Public Transport Drivers
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European Journal of Social Sciences
ISSN 1450-2267 Vol. 62 No 4 August, 2021, pp.106 -116
http://www.europeanjournalofsocialsciences.com/
Aggression and Driving Anger among Ivorian
Public Transport Drivers
Agressivité et Colère au Volant Chez des Conducteurs Ivoiriens de
Véhicules de transport en Commun
Amadou Méité
Corresponding Author, University Félix Houphouët Boigny
Department of Psychology, Genetic and Differential Psychology
22 Bp 159 Abidjan 22, Côte d’Ivoire
E-mail: meite.chronopsy@yahoo.fr
Tel: +225 07 98 40 40
Lokotianwa Sali Koné-Yéo
University Félix Houphouët Boigny, Department of Psychology
Social and Organizational Psychology, 22 Bp 159 Abidjan 22, Côte d’Ivoire
E-mail: sylokotianwa@gmail.com
Tel: +225 07 58 25 78
Sandrine Gaymard
University of Angers. Social Psychology, Pays de la Loire Psychology Laboratory
LPPL EA4638, 11 Bd Lavoisier 49045 Angers, France
E-mail: sandrine.gaymard@univ-angers.fr
Tel: +33 2 41 22 64 46
Bawala, Léopold Badolo,
University Ki-Zerbo, Department of Psychology and Philosophy
03 BP 7021 Ouagadougou 03, Burkina Faso
E-mail: bawala@ymail.com
Tel: +226 78 24 61 75
Abstract
In Côte d’Ivoire, as in most sub-Saharan countries, the problem of traffic flow or mobility
is acute. These mobility difficulties are partly due to the weakness and maintenance of
transport infrastructure, on the one hand, and to the increase in the national park fleet due to
socio-economic changes in recent years. Traffic congestion and the frustration it causes,
according to studies of risky road behavior, are potentially generating anger and aggressive
tension. This work is part of these systematic studies. This study is part of the systematic
studies on the risky road behavior of drivers in Côte d'Ivoire. The objective is to determine
the relationship between the types of anger among drivers and the different forms of
aggressiveness. One hundred and ten drivers were selected from among public transport
drivers and responded to the Aggressiveness Questionnaire (French version of the Buss and
Perry Questionnaire, 1992) and the French adaptation of the Driving Anger Scale (DAS) of
Delhomme and Villieux (2005).. The results indicate that the situation expected to provoke
the most anger among Ivorian drivers is "discourtesy", just like their French counterparts.
Conversely, the factor for which Ivorian drivers would be least angry is the "police
presence" factor. Furthermore, it can be seen that drivers with a tendency to express their
106European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 62, Issue 4 August (2021)
aggressiveness both physically and verbally are those who feel little anger in driving
situations "slow driving" and «traffic obstructions".
Keywords: aggressive driving, aggressiveness, driving anger, risks behavior, Côte
d’Ivoire
Résumé
En Côte d’Ivoire, comme dans la plupart des pays subsahariens, le problème de la fluidité
de la circulation ou de la mobilité se pose avec acuité. Ces difficultés de mobilité tiennent
en partie à la faiblesse et à l’entretien des infrastructures de transport, d’une part, et à
l’augmentation du parc national d’automobiles due aux changements socio-économiques
ces dernières années. La congestion du trafic et la frustration qu’elle entraîne, selon les
études portant sur les comportements routiers à risque, seraient des situations
potentiellement génératrices de colère et de tension agressive. Le présent travail s’inscrit
dans le cadre de ces études systématiques. L’objectif vise à déterminer le lien entre les
types de situations génératrices de colère chez les conducteurs et les différentes formes
d’agressivité. Cent dix conducteurs ont été sélectionnés parmi des conducteurs de transport
collectif et ont répondu au Questionnaire d’Agressivité (version française du Questionnaire
de Buss et Perry, 1992) ainsi qu’à l’adaptation française de l’échelle de colère éprouvée au
volant (DAS) de Delhomme et Villieux (2005). Les résultats indiquent que la situation
censée provoquer le plus de colère chez les conducteurs ivoiriens est la « discourtoisie»,
tout comme leurs homologues français et, à l’inverse, le facteur pour lequel les conducteurs
ivoiriens se mettraient le moins en colère est le facteur «présence des forces de l’ordre».
Par ailleurs, les conducteurs ivoiriens interrogés ont tendance à exprimer leur agressivité de
différentes manières : la forme la plus fréquemment utilisée est « l’agressivité physique ».
Toutefois, on constate que les conducteurs ayant tendance à exprimer leur agressivité de
façon physique et verbale sont ceux qui éprouvent peu de colère dans les situations de
conduite « progression gênée » et « circulation entravée ».
Motsclés: agressivité, colère au volant, risques, Côte d’Ivoire
1. Introduction
According to Baron and Richardson (1994), the term "aggression" describes any form of behavior that
is intended to harm or injure another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment. This
definition helps to distinguish aggression from other forms of social behavior, such as those that are
intended to harm (Krahé, 2013).
Some studies have shown that biological bases are decisive in explaining individual differences
in predisposition to aggression and that within the same species, ethnic group, sex, family, there are
individuals who are more aggressive than others (Harris, 1996 ; Karli, 1987). Other studies have
focused instead on intra-individual differences, thus highlighting stability in the mode of expression of
aggression: individuals would usually engage in a particular type of aggression (Spielberger, 1999). In
this sense, aggression can take different forms: instrumental or emotional (Atkins, Stoff, Osborne, &
Brown, 1993; Jung, 2003), proactive or reactive (Crick & Dodge, 1996 ; Pouliot, Vallières, Bergeron
& Vallerand, 2007), direct or indirect (Masse, Jung & Pfister, 2001), physical or verbal (Buss & Perry,
1992). These intra- and interindividual differences may be reflected in driving behavior, since the
causes, perception and frequency of driving aggression vary according to the driver's personal
characteristics and country of origin (Björklund, 2007; Deffenbacher, Lynch, Oetting, &Yingling,
2001 ; Jamar & Méchet, 2001; Michel, Purper-Ouakil, & Mouren-Siméoni, 2002).
107European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 62, Issue 4 August (2021)
In the field of driving, the use of certain terms in the literature, such as "road kill", "wild and
crazy driving", "road rage" and "road crime", illustrate the extent of aggressive driving. Generally
speaking, "aggressive driving" is used to refer to driving behavior that intentionally endangers other
road users, psychologically, physically or both, and can be inscribed on a continuum ranging from
extreme acts such as intentionally killing another road user to much less severe manifestations such as:
headlight flashing, physical or verbal attacks, sticking the bumper of the vehicle in front, hostile
gestures, preventing the other from moving, honking the horn klaxonner (Dula & Geller, 2003 ; Egido
Portela & Gaymard, 2019 ; Ellison-Potter et al., 2001 ; Hennessy & Wiesenthal, 1999 ; Méité, Tieffi &
Gaymard, 2014 ;Shinar, 1998). From this perspective, research has linked aggression with other
harmful driving behaviors, particularly anger, which is an emotional component of aggression (Buss,
1961; John & Haer, 1968 ; Lajunen & Parker, 2001).
Since the development of the DAS (Driving Anger Scale) and the DAX (Driving Anger
Expression Inventory) to record anger and its expression at the wheel, respectively, much research in
both America and Europe has shown that there are positive links between the propensity to feel angry
at the wheel and aggressive driving behavior, as well as between anger at the wheel, road accidents,
and violations of legal driving rules (Deffenbacher, Huff, Lynch, Oetting, & Salvator, 2000;
Deffenbacher, Lynch, Oetting, & Swaim, 2002; Deffenbacher, Oetting et Lynch, 1994; Delhomme &
Villeux, 2005; Iversen & Rundmo, 2002 ; Lynch, Deffenbacher, Filetti, & Dahlen, 1999 ; Underwood,
Chapman, Wright, & Crundall, 1999 ; Villeux & Delhomme, 2008). In the same vein, a study was
conducted in Côte d'Ivoire on the propensity of drivers to experience anger at the wheel according to
age, gender, driving experience and accident history (Méité, Tieffi & Gaymard, 2014). This study
shows that the driving situations presented in the D.A.S. are all found to generate anger at the wheel.
Furthermore, the factor "hostile gestures" is influenced by the age (F (2.284) = 3.499; p < 0.01) and
education level of the drivers (F (3.283) = 2.52; p < 0.05). Moreover, this "hostile action" factor, which
is an aggressive driving situation, is the second factor (after the "illegal driving" factor) for which
Ivorian drivers would be most angry. With reference to these results and those obtained by Buss and
Perry (1992), it can be hypothesized that the Aggression Questionnaire (AQ) scales, and especially
those for physical and verbal aggression, will be positively correlated with the factors of the Anger
Behavior Scale (ASB), particularly the "aggressive driving" factor.
2. Method
2.1. Participants
One hundred and ten professional drivers voluntarily participated in this study. In Côte d'Ivoire, among
the means of public transport, the mini-bus or "gbaka", the intercommunal taxi or "taxi compteur" and
the communal taxi or "woro woro" are the most successful. The participants are therefore drivers of
these different vehicles. They are between 30 and 40 years
old and have an average of 5,5 years (SD = 2.27) of professional experience. Among them, 53
drivers (48,18%) report having been involved in at least one road accident (including 8 seriously
injured and 45 slightly injured). With regard to educational level, 55% attended primary school, 25%
secondary school, 14% vocational training and 6% had no schooling.
2.3. Material
Each participant anonymously completed the French adaptation of the "Driver Anger Scale" (DAS),
the Aggression Questionnaire (AQ), and the Identification Sheet.
2.2.1. The Aggression Questionnaire (AQ) by Buss and Perry (1992)
The Buss and Perry Aggression Questionnaire consists of sixteen items and is grouped into three
dimensions of aggression: physical, verbal and relational.
108European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 62, Issue 4 August (2021)
Physical aggression is composed of six items (for example, item 4 "I do not hesitate to use
force to defend my rights" and item 8 "In my anger, I often hit others"). Verbal aggression consists of
six items (e.g., item 3 "I even insult those who disrespect me", item 7 "In my anger, I sometimes make
threats to others (I'm going to kill you)" and item 9 "I often respond to insults"). Relational aggression,
on the other hand, consists of four items (e.g., item 10 "I often have difficulty accepting a newcomer in
my group of friends" and item 14 "to avoid arguments, I prefer to stay in my corner").
Answers are given on a five-point Likert-type scale, from (1) "Not at all true" to (5) "Very true
as far as I am concerned".
2.2.2. The Driver Anger Scale (DAS)
The Driver Anger Scale records the propensity to feel angry when driving in different driving
situations. The scale was developed by Deffenbacher et al. (1994) and adapted into French by
Delhomme and Villieux in 2005. It includes 33 items divided into six factors or types of anger-
generating situations: "Slow driving" (8 items), "traffic obstructions" (7 items), "Aggressive driving" (6
items), "Discourtesy driving" (4 items), "Illegal driving" (4 items) and "Police presence" (4 items).
For each of the DAS situations, participants were asked to imagine themselves behind the wheel
of their car and estimate the degree of anger that the 33 driving situations presented to them would
provoke. Responses were recorded using a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very
strongly).
2.2.3. The Identification Sheet
A fact sheet provides information on the socio-demographic and personal characteristics of the
participants. This includes information about the age, gender, occupation, education, driver's license
and accident history of the participants, as well as whether or not they have taken hypnotics.
3. Procedure
The handover was individual and lasted about 25 to 30 minutes. In order to control for a possible
handover order effect, the order of presentation of the aggression and anger scales was
counterbalanced. For the first fifty-five participants, the aggression scale preceded the anger scale,
while for the last fifty-five participants, the aggression scale was placed after the anger scale.
Participants first completed the identification questionnaire, regardless of the order in which the scales
were presented.
4. Results
4.1. Description of Buss and Perry's (1992) Aggression Scale and the DAS Driver Angry Scale
scores
Table 1 shows participants' mean scores on each of the factors and items of the Buss and Perry
Aggression Scale. The Barlett and Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) sphericity tests indicate values χ² (120)
= 312.897, p < 0.001 and 0.736, respectively; reliability coefficients indicating good internal
consistency of the scale.
109European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 62, Issue 4 August (2021)
Table 1: Descriptive analysis of Buss and Perry's aggression scores (1992)
Aggressiveness
Standard
Factors (Buss Aggressiveness Items Average
deviation
& Perry, [1])
Physical 12. In my anger,
anger, I sometimes throw things at others. 0,66 0,465
Aggression 4. I do not hesitate to use force to defend my rights. 0,58 0,375
M = 0,49 16. In my anger, I often break things. 0,58 0,475
ET= 0,261 8. In my anger, I often hit others. 0,48 0,502
1. I often get angry easily. 0,33 0,471
11. In my anger, I often scream. 0,31 0,464
Verbal 7. In my anger, I sometimes make threats to others (I'm going to kill you). 0,69 0.464
Aggression 13. I can't often stand being opposed to my decisions. 0,55 0,500
M = 0,44 5. I can
an not stand mockery. 0,47 0,502
ET= 0,188 3. I go so far as to insult those who disrespect me. 0,45 0,500
15. In my anger, I often use foul language. 0,29 0,456
9. I often respond to insults that I have been insulted. 0,20 0,402
Relational 2. It often seems to me 0,55 0,500
Aggression 10. I often find it difficult to accept a newcomer in my group of friends. 0,39 0,490
M = 0,38
0, 14. To avoid arguments, I prefer to stay in my corner 0,33 0,471
ET = 0,261 . 6. I do not trust people 0,27 0,447
Figure 1 shows that the Ivorian drivers surveyed tend to express their aggression in different
ways: the most frequently used form is physical aggression (37%), with item 12 “In my anger, I
sometimes throw objects at others" (M= 0,66) and item 4 ‘I don’t hesitate to
to use force to defend my
rights" (M= 0,58); then come verbal aggression (34%) and relational aggression (29%), respectively.
Figure 1: Forms of aggressiveness expressed by professional drivers in Côte d'Ivoire
relational physical
agression agression
29% 37%
verbal
agression
34%
4.2. Description of the DAS Angry Driver Scale Scores
Figure 2 shows that "discourteous" is the situation that would generate the most anger among the
Ivorian drivers surveyed (M = 3.71), with item 14 "At night, the car you will pass by stays in full
beam". On the other hand, the factor for which the surveyed Ivorian drivers would be the least angry is
beam".
the factor "presence of law enforcement" with item 29 " A police officer signals you to pull over" (M =
1.41).
110European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 62, Issue 4 August (2021)
Figure 2: Types of anger-generating situations among professional drivers in Côte d’Ivoire
traffic agressive
obstrutions driving
discourtesy 17% 17%
19%
illegal
driving
15%
police presence
slow driving 15%
17%
Cronbach's alpha value is 0.82. Barlett's sphericity test indicates a value χ²(528) = 1484.492, p<
0.001. This suggests that the internal consistency of the scale is satisfactory (Table 2).
Table 2: Descriptive Analysis of DAS Driver Angry Scale Scores
Standard
Mean
DAS Items Deviation
(M)
(SD)
Discourtesy 14. At night, the car you are about to pass remains in full beam. 3,88 1,002
M = 3,71 8. Someone passes in front of you to take the parking space you were waiting
3,83 1,074
SD = 0,643 for
15. At night, someone behind you is driving with the headlights on. 3,75 1,112
12. Somebody backing out comes at you without looking. 3,39 0,996
Slow driving 4. Someone who drives too slowly in the passing lane slows down traffic. 3,63 0.855
M = 3,39 18. Someone who's slow to park is blocking traffic. 3,55 1,114
SD = 0,541 10. A slow vehicle travelling on a mountain road refuses to squeeze to the
3,46 1,163
right to let others pass
28. A cyclist riding in the middle of the road slows down traffic 3,35 1.079
1. Someone in front of you does not start when the light has turned green. 3,35 1,122
3. In the middle of the street and off the crosswalk, a pedestrian crosses
3,30 0,982
slowly, forcing you to slow down.
20. Someone to your right is falling back right in front of you when there is no
3,30 1,122
one behind you
. 9. Someone is driving too slow for what is reasonable for the flow of traffic 3,19 1,113
Agressive 5. Someone's gluing your rear bumper. 3,72 1,085
driving 7. Someone's giving you a tail on the highway. 3,60 1,127
M = 3,37 27. Someone's yelling at you about your driving. 3,34 1,167
SD = 0,625 21. Someone makes a lewd gesture to you about your driving. 3,29 1,207
17. Someone's speeding up while you're passing him. 3,28 1,166
24. Someone honks the horn at you about your driving. 3,00 1,306
Obstructed 31. A truck throws sand or gravel at the car you are driving. 3,57 1,071
Traffic 19. You're stuck in a traffic jam. 3,42 1,168
M = 3,28 30. You are driving behind a vehicle that emits thick smoke or diesel exhaust. 3,34 1,060
SD = 0,567 26. You're driving behind a truck with materials in the back swinging around. 3,34 1,078
32. You're driving behind a big truck that's blocking your view. 3,28 1,197
22. On the road, you hit a hole that wasn't marked. 3,19 1,169
33. You encounter road work on the road that requires you to follow detours. 2,81 1,351
Illegal 13. Someone runs a red light or a stop sign. 3,28 1,190
conduct 25. Someone is well over the speed limit. 3,09 1,170
M = 3,06 2. Someone is driving too fast for the road conditions. 3,06 1,183
111European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 62, Issue 4 August (2021)
Standard
Mean
DAS Items Deviation
(M)
(SD)
SD = 0,782 6. Someone's sneaking between the cars. 2,80 1,333
Police 11. You see, in a hidden place, a police car watching the traffic. 3,25 1,267
presence 16. You're passing a speed camera that's cloaked. 3,08 1,314
M = 2,98 23. There's a police car driving by. 2,84 1,169
ET= 0,816 29. A police officer signals you to pull over to the side. 2,76 1,277
4.3. Intercorrelational Analysis
Table 3 shows the relationship between the Aggression Questionnaire (AQ) and Driver Angry Scale
(DAS) dimensions for Ivorian drivers. On the one hand, intercorrelational analysis indicates a strong
positive correlation between the "physical aggression" and "verbal aggression" factors of the AQ (r
=.340). Only the "relational aggression" factor does not correlate either with the other AQ factors or
with the DAS factors. When considering each of the DAS factors, the anger factors are positively
correlated with each other, with the exception of the "discourteous" factor with "police presence". The
most significant correlations are observed with the factor "aggressive driving" with the factors
"hindered progression" (r = .533) and "impeded conduct" (r = .517).
On the other hand, no AQ factor correlates with the DAS "discourtesy" factor. With the
exception of the "physical aggression" factor, no AQ factor correlates with the DAS "aggressive
driving" factor. However, this correlation is negative. Furthermore, the "physical aggression" factor of
the AQ is negatively correlated with the "slow driving" (r = .328) and "obstruct traffic" (r = -.261)
factors of the DAS. Similarly, the verbal aggression factor is negatively correlated with the slow
driving (r = -.296) and obstruct traffic (r =-.266) factors in the DAS.
Table 3: Intercorrelation matrix between Buss and Perry's (1992) aggressiveness scale and the Driver Angry
Scale (DAS) in Ivorian drivers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1. Verbal aggression 1
2. Relational aggression -,098 1
3. Physical aggression ,340** -,179 1
4. Aggressive driving -,114 ,114 -,258** 1
5. Illegal driving -,286** -,014 -,502** ,305** 1
6. Police presence -,210* ,021 -,292** ,343** ,278** 1
7. Slow driving -,296** ,168 -,328** ,533** ,307** ,517** 1
8. Discourtesy ,000 -,109 -,100 ,517** ,274** ,178 ,346** 1
9. obstructed traffic -,266** 173 -,261** ,517** ,307** ,463** ,569** ,191* 1
5. Discussion
The objective of this study was, on the one hand, to evaluate the types of situations that generate anger
and the different forms of aggression among professional drivers in Côte d'Ivoire and, on the other
hand, to determine the links between these driving situations and these different forms of aggression;
given that anger is an affective component of aggression (Buss, 1961 ; John & Haer, 1968 ; Lajunen, &
Parker, 2001).
With regard to the different types of driving situations, the results of our study are consistent
with those of Delhomme and Villieux (2005), in that all the situations presented in the DAS are all
found to generate anger at the wheel. Moreover, the situation that is expected to provoke the most
anger among Ivorian drivers is "discourtesy" and, conversely, the factor for which Ivorian drivers
would be the least angry is the "presence of law enforcement" factor, compared to their French
counterparts. It is interesting to note that work in the field of social representations and emotions has
112European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 62, Issue 4 August (2021)
shown that French drivers (both young and experienced) who interact with pedestrians express positive
feelings only when the pedestrians are courteous (Gaymard, 2012 ; Gaymard et al., 2013).
However, these similar results obtained from French drivers are in contradiction with those of
Lajunen, Parker and Stradling (1998), Jamar and Méchet (2001), for whom differences are observed in
driving behavior; differences which may partly lie in the culture of each country which influences the
perception of things and, consequently, the driving style. From this perspective, one could think that in
French-speaking countries, more precisely in Côte d'Ivoire, drivers have a driving style very similar to
French drivers; the highway code, the educational and judicial systems, the lifestyle, etc. in these
French-speaking countries being based on the model inherited from the colonial era.
With respect to aggression, the results indicate high scores on the AQ scales for all drivers
surveyed. This result is likely related to the low educational attainment of our participants (55%
attended primary school and 6% had no schooling), with reference to the studies by Michel et al.
(2002) on factors determining aggressive behavior in young drivers. Indeed, these authors had found a
negative correlation between the educational level and aggressive behavior of these drivers. This link
between educational level and aggressiveness is also highlighted in children by N'Guessan (2013), who
showed that the father's educational level influences the child's aggressive behavior. The high level of
aggression found in all the drivers surveyed could also be due to the congested environment, a
stimulating situation for aggression (Thibault, 1976). Does the blockage or the difficulty of progressing
in traffic lead to frustration in these drivers, which would be at the root of the different forms of
aggression observed? In any case, according to Dollard et al (1939), "the existence of aggressive
behavior always presupposes the existence of frustration, and conversely, the existence of frustration
always leads to some form of aggression", and this frustration incites aggression only when it provokes
an angry emotion (Berkowitz, 1969). According to the work of Ellison-Potter et al. (2002), aggressive
driving behavior includes all intentional behaviors that are fueled by anger or frustration.
The increase in the national park fleet due to socio-economic changes in Côte d'Ivoire and the
traffic jams it causes during peak hours are potentially angry situations (Deffenbacher, Huff, Lynch,
Oetting, & Salvator, 2000 ; Deffenbacher, Lynch, Oetting, & Swaim, 2002 ; Deffenbacher, Lynch,
Oetting, &Yingling, 2001). However, it can be assumed that drivers who are used to this daily traffic
congestion would have put in place a set of strategies to try to positively manage their aggressive
tension induced by situations where traffic is hindered or slowed down (Lazarus, 1991; Tap, Esparbès
& Sordes, 1995). This emotional adaptation helps to explain the negative correlation between drivers'
aggressiveness (physical and verbal) and "obstructed" and "slow" driving situations.
6. Conclusion
It emerges that the Ivorian professional drivers interviewed in this study all show a tendency to express
their aggression both physically and verbally; physical aggression, more specifically, being the most
commonly used form of aggression. It is true that "aggressiveness is a source of energy indispensable
to life" and that "without it, our impulses would be unable to achieve their goal", but man should be
able to give himself the necessary instrument to control these impulses. As Roche (1980) said, "it is
energy that, often uncontrolled, becomes destructive". Therefore, in the context of accident prevention,
training and information activities must focus on the development of self-control strategies and driving
situation management. In addition, other problems at different levels such as alcohol consumption, the
feeling of power and competition between drivers are considered to stimulate aggressiveness and
represent "aggressive" situations.
Furthermore, it appears that, contrary to previous studies that have highlighted the role of
"slow" or "obstructed" traffic in aggressive driving, Ivorian drivers who experience anger in aggressive
driving situations are those who state that they would become less angry in "slow" and "obstructed"
driving situations. However, the problem of traffic flow or mobility is acute in Côte d'Ivoire, as in most
sub-Saharan countries (Rapport Banque Mondiale, 2018; Terje Assum, 1998). These mobility
113European Journal of Social Sciences – Volume 62, Issue 4 August (2021)
difficulties are partly due to the weakness and maintenance of transport infrastructure, urbanization
policy, road surfacing or resurfacing, and the replacement of damaged or stolen road signs. This
situation is likely to exacerbate discourteous behavior, which in turn will generate anger.
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