"Because We Don't Want to Run in Smog": Problems with the Sustainable Management of Sport Event Tourism in Protected Areas A Case Study of ...

sustainability

Article
“Because We Don’t Want to Run in Smog”: Problems
with the Sustainable Management of Sport Event
Tourism in Protected Areas (A Case Study of National
Parks in Poland and Slovakia)
Ewa Malchrowicz-Mośko 1 , Zuzana Botiková 2 and Joanna Poczta 1, *
 1    Faculty of Tourism and Recreation, Eugeniusz Piasecki University of Physical Education, 61-871 Poznan,
      Poland; malchrowicz@awf.poznan.pl
 2    Sociology Department, Masaryk University, 60177 Brno, Czech Republic; zbotikova@gmail.com
 *    Correspondence: jpoczta@awf.poznan.pl; Tel.: +48-61-835-53-52 or +48-609-185-090
                                                                                                      



 Received: 25 November 2018; Accepted: 7 January 2019; Published: 10 January 2019                     


 Abstract: The practice of active and qualified tourism in national parks in Poland and Slovakia has
 longstanding traditions. Primarily, these parks have been a place of individual recreational activity,
 as well as a place to educate and convene with nature. Recently, sport tourism, which is characterized
 by the participation of tourists in mass organized sporting events mainly of a competitive nature,
 has been gaining more popularity. Even though this activity takes place in protected areas, sports
 are the main priority, rather than educational goals. Natural values have the primary function of
 enriching emotional experiences, and exploring wildlife is not an end in itself. Running events are
 now at the head of the list as the most popular sporting events in Poland and in Slovakia. The authors
 of the article focused on protected areas in Poland and Slovakia, largely because these countries
 were considering organizing one of the world’s biggest sports events together: The Winter Olympic
 Games (2022). The purpose of the study was to recognize the attitude of Polish and Slovak national
 park authorities toward the organization of mass sports events in protected areas. A diagnostic
 survey was conducted using the method of interviews with the directors of Polish and Slovak
 national parks. The research results shed light on the current state of development of sports event
 tourism in protected areas in the two countries. The article examines the response of Polish and
 Slovak park authorities to the changes of the current era of shifting societal needs regarding physical
 development, in particular with regard to the sustainability of protected areas. Currently, there is a
 lack of a strategic approach toward the development of sports tourism in national parks in Poland
 and Slovakia. The answers given in the interviews create an image that indicates a differentiated
 approach to the issue of permitting the organization of sports events in the areas of national parks.
 It turns out that the practice in these areas is different in individual parks. The diagnosis presented
 in the article indicates that it is necessary to undertake interdisciplinary and international research
 among environmentalists, economists, sociologists, anthropologists, and physical culture specialists
 in order to develop methods for measuring the impact of sporting events organized in natural areas
 in this part of Europe.

 Keywords: sports ecomobility; sports tourism; national parks; sustainable development; running
 events; Winter Olympic Games

1. Introduction
     In today’s world, sport is increasingly important in the sociocultural realm, often finding its way
into national policies. This is thanks to what B. Houlihan (1997) calls the “instrumental quality of

Sustainability 2019, 11, 325; doi:10.3390/su11020325                       www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

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sport”, as sport is valued for its capacity to “camouflage problems ranging from poor cardiovascular
health and juvenile delinquency to low tourist volume” [1]. In the following text, we are going to take
a closer look at the intersection of sport and tourism, which in the past thirty years has created public
and political tensions, especially within the context of the natural environment, where both leisure
activities often take place. Tourism, and sport tourism in particular, should be seen as an autonomous
phenomenon of our time, reflecting current trends, needs, and lifestyles. At present, there are strong
links between sport and tourism, which can be referred to as the touristification of sport or as the
sportification of tourism. Sport tourism (especially sporting event tourism) is one of the fastest growing
branches of the tourism industry. It is estimated that 25%–30% of the world’s tourism economy is
currently related to sport, and furthermore that tourism development forecasts for the coming years
also predict a further increase in this kind of tourism [2]. However, sporting events organized around
the world for tourists are increasingly taking place in protected areas, which creates new challenges in
the management of the sustainable development of sport tourism. Sporting event organizers often
try to locate their events in the beauty of nature in order to increase their attractiveness in the eyes of
potential participants: Athletes and fans.
      Sport tourism management is a big challenge, especially when its development takes place in
areas of natural value. The organizers of tourism should prioritize natural protection over the aesthetic
expectations of sports tourists. However, this is no easy task when taking into account the growing
needs of sports tourism participants. National parks and conservation reserves are subject to increasing
levels of recreation, sport, and tourist pressure. These produce environmental impacts associated with
travel, accommodation, and recreational activities. Typical impacts in parks and reserves include soil
erosion and compaction, damage to vegetation, disturbance of wildlife, water pollution, vandalism,
and excessive noise [3].
      In natural protected areas, including the Polish and Slovak national parks, as we lay out in the
following text, a growing tendency to organize sports events can be observed. Organizers of mass
sporting events are increasingly looking for attractive locations, which often boosts the popularity of
the events and leads to higher media coverage. This has caused tensions between park authorities and
organizers of major and popular sports events. Therefore, the aim of the empirical research carried
out for the purposes of this article was to obtain the opinions of the directors of the national parks in
Poland and Slovakia concerning the organization of sporting events that attract tourists in the areas
of the parks they manage. The geographical and sociocultural closeness of the selected cases also
contributes to an interesting comparison.
      Active and qualified tourism in the areas of national parks in Poland and Slovakia has a long
tradition. One of the first documented excursions to the High Tatra Mountains took place in 1565, when
a noblewoman of Polish descent, Beata Laska, traveled from the town of Kežmarok to Zelené Pleso
Lake in the High Tatras. Back then, such an excursion was thought to be eccentric and inappropriate [4].
Mass tourism in the mountain regions of Poland and Slovakia would become a fashionable pastime
activity with the development of tourism and spa centers, as well as with the building of new
railway connections.
      In Poland, in accordance with applicable legal provisions [5], the issue of the availability of all
23 national parks, among others, for tourist and sport and recreation purposes, primarily due to the
natural or historical values of the parks, is subject to certain restrictions. It is up to the national park
director to determine the usage of protected areas for scientific, educational, tourist, recreational, and
sport purposes, and therefore the director is the determining factor with regard to the development
of tourism in the national park [6]. Those areas of the national parks that are available for tourism,
sport, and recreation purposes are designated in planning documents. There are certain restrictions in
choosing venues for particular events. The Nature Conservation Act states, among other things, that it
is prohibited to organize recreational and sporting events in national parks without the prior consent
of the park’s director. The director of the park, as director of a public administration body, decides
whether it is possible to agree to a sporting event in the park and under what conditions such consent

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may be given. The director may charge fees for the provision of a national park, but it is not only about
tickets for a single tourist admission to the park, but also about fees for organizing the events. The fees
charged are, for example, intended to restore and maintain the condition of the area where the event
took place. Fees are also charged for other reasons, including to discourage organizers from incurring
costs or to preserve the security of the park’s space, and the routes are marked well in order to avoid
the spread of people to the wild. The regulations do not, however, specify the method of determining
the amount of the fee or cases when it is strictly required. The law does not specify the guidelines to be
followed by the park director when issuing consent for the organization of mass sporting, recreational,
or tourist events. However, managing a national park cannot be done in isolation from the needs of
society, as the protected areas are a special platform for communication between nature and culture [7],
as they often feature natural elements strongly embedded in the national culture and traditions.
     In Slovakia, sporting and other activities in natural protected areas are regulated within the
Nature and Landscape Protection Act of 2002 [8]. The legislation makes a distinction between five
stages of protection, depending on the uniqueness of the protected area. There are nine national parks
in Slovakia, covering approximately 3000 km2 . The oldest park is the National Park of Tatras, which
was founded in 1949, while the other parks were founded in the second half of the 20th century, all
during the era of state socialism, under different legal rules than those in practice today. Furthermore,
within the parks there are areas with different stages of protection, and therefore while some parts
of the parks are opened to sport tourism, other parts are not. The classification and zoning of these
areas, which also entails changes in legal restrictions, often appears in the public discourse as a highly
problematic issue. All nine parks cover mostly mountainous or hilly landscapes, and thus hiking,
skiing, and raft canoeing are among the most popular sports leisure activities done there.

2. The Need for Sustainable Development of Sport Tourism in Protected Areas
      The concept of creating national parks was born in American culture in the late 19th century, and
it quickly spread to other continents. The concept was not directly copied, but rather took the form
of various adaptations depending on local social, political, and cultural conditions [9]. Undertaking
physical activity in the protected areas of Europe has a long, several-hundred-year tradition, even
though its purpose has not always been leisure [10]. With the increase in the popularity of tourism
in protected areas, over the years there have been many studies on the sustainable accessibility of
national parks to tourists and on the potential of ecotourism as a panacea for forms of tourism that
have a negative impact on the environment [11,12]. The 21st century, however, poses new challenges
for the management of sport and tourism to the managers of national parks in Europe, where the
ideology of healthism and a healthy lifestyle has spread rapidly. Visits in parks are no longer just about
individual recreation, but are more and more often related to the organization of massive sporting
events of a competitive nature with the participation of athletes and fans.
      In the last few years, the ideology of healthism has developed in Poland, Slovakia, and other
countries in this part of Europe. This trend is visible in running events in which Poles and Slovaks are
willing to participate. The scale of this social phenomenon is certainly an extraordinary phenomenon at
many levels, because several interdisciplinary factors have to be taken into account. The popularization
of this sport and active participation in running events is multifaceted. Its most significant components
concern health care, physical and mental health, and well-being. The sense of gaining a high quality
of life and the sense of joy resulting from an active lifestyle are conditioned not only by the course
of motivational processes, but also by the level of satisfaction of psychological needs, which are
a prerequisite for achieving satisfaction from one’s own physical activity. The physical activity of
Poles and Slovaks has increased dynamically in the last two decades. Previously, Polish and Slovak
communities, contrary to Western societies, showed much lower physical activity. Social, cultural,
and economic factors influenced the increase in physical activity of Poles and Slovaks. Currently,
Poles and Slovaks are better educated, wealthier, and have more free time. They have moved to cities
in which sports infrastructure has developed dynamically. They have also moved to offices. In the

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past, they engaged in a lot of physical and agricultural work, which is why they rarely thought about
physical activity as recreation. In modern times, the way people spend their free time has become an
indicator of their social status. Sport and sport tourism have become a characteristic feature of the
middle class in countries such as Poland and Slovakia, and running in particular has become very
common and visible.
      In addition, people are increasingly eager to engage in physical activity away from urban
agglomerations, not only because of beautiful landscapes, but also because of air purity. Street racing
organized in polluted cities is not as attractive as events in the natural terrain. Runners are afraid
to take part in races organized in polluted cities because they think that it could lead to a decrease
in lung performance. They also feel confused about the impact of a running event on their health,
and above all are wary of training in large polluted cities. The result of these fears is that they are
eager to find new natural spaces for training. One runner training in a protected area most likely will
not permanently damage the ecosystem. However, if runners appear in the park in the hundreds or
thousands, then a big problem arises, especially considering the national park theoretically should
be accessible to everyone as a common public good. The increase in the popularity of mass sporting
events for both professionals and amateurs creates a rivalry between the protection of biodiversity
and the organization of these events. The popularity of protected areas among sports enthusiasts is
also influenced by the popularity of extreme sports and the emergence of new sports disciplines [13].
It is also becoming feasible for middle-income countries such as Poland and Slovakia to organize the
largest and most expensive sporting events in the world, such as the Olympic Games.
      The common good theory is based on the principle of sustainability, which forces a holistic
approach, i.e., one that takes into account both the economic as well as the social and environmental
aspects of this good. An effect of this approach is increased development of social relations within the
group, which is forced by a need to make joint decisions on matters relevant to the sustainability of
using common resources and fair distribution of access to these resources [14]. How does the common
good relate to allowing marathon runners to run in national parks? Should the National Parks’
authorities allow the organization of sporting events in their protected areas? The opportunity to use
protected areas belongs to everyone. However, the organization of mass events and the concentration
of a large number of people in one place may have a negative impact on the environment. No one
should be excluded from running in national parks in light of this theory, but if everyone runs, and
biodiversity degradation occurs, everyone loses.
      For years, the primary function of the national parks in this part of Europe was to provide a
place especially for individual recreational activity, education, and connection with nature. Recently,
sports tourism, which is characterized by the participation of tourists in mass organized sports events
mainly of a competitive nature, has been gaining more popularity. Even though this activity takes
place in protected areas, sports are the main priority, rather than educational goals. Natural values
have the primary function of enriching emotional experiences, and being part of nature is not an end
in itself. National parks in Poland are visited by about 11 million people annually [15]. Currently,
several dozen major sports competitions take place in Polish national parks, not to mention hundreds
of minor events. The development of urbanization also increases the frequency of visits to national
parks by tourists seeking contact with wildlife, which also creates an opportunity for the development
of marginalized rural areas [16]. More and more people want to practice sports in unusual scenery
and in contact with nature, rather than in the “concrete jungle”. On the other hand, one of the goals of
national parks, besides natural protection, is also to make them available to people for tourist, sport,
and recreational purposes.
      Although analyses in the field of sustainable tourism and sustainable sport appear in scientific
literature, the question of the sustainable development of both spheres meeting in the form of sports
tourism, especially in areas with special natural qualities, is much less discussed [17]. Moreover,
environmental effects of sports tourism are, unfortunately, much more often negative than positive [18].
Adverse effects of tourist development of the national parks’ space are difficult to avoid in general,

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because they result from the basic necessity of ensuring adequate conditions for the stay and safety
of visitors. In addition, there are also the rising demands of visitors as to what “stay” and “safety”
should mean. The forms of their negative impact on natural resources and the landscape are diverse.
Among the most important is the urbanization of the environment, which comes as a result of the
development of tourist and sports infrastructure [15]. Other direct effects of the development of
tourism, sport, and recreation in protected areas include damage to vegetation caused, for example,
by horse riding, running, mountain biking, or off-road vehicles [19]. Major sporting events especially
lead to an increased amount of energy consumed, resources used, and trash produced.
      To counteract this, the International Olympic Committee Sport and Environmental Commission
was established in 1995. The aim of this commission is to promote awareness and provide education
around environmental sustainability. Additionally, it focuses on the cities bidding to host the Olympic
Games to meet standards of sustainable development. For example, countries hosting the Olympics
are aiming for “Green Games”, in which they focus on keeping carbon emissions to a minimum
and encourage the recycling of waste and water. There are a lot of potential and real threats that
are particularly important to the organization of sports competitions organized in protected areas
(especially the international ones in the class of the Olympic Games). Nowadays more and more
sports competitions (even those intended for amateurs) take on the character of mass events, gathering
hundreds or even thousands of participants. The organization of sports competitions in a space with
special natural qualities therefore requires the coordination of many planning and logistics activities, as
well as significant knowledge (including the aspect of minimizing the adverse impact of these projects
on the environment). As the presence of athletes and fans always leaves a significant environmental
footprint, sporting events can have an extremely negative impact on the natural environment.
      The importance of strong interactions and dependencies between ecology and sport was first
observed several decades ago. In 1994, the natural environment was incorporated into the Olympic
Charter. Since then, it has been considered the third pillar of Olympism, in addition to sport and culture.
The International Olympic Committee has created a special unit dealing with the relationship between
the natural environment and sport. The main goals of its operations are to promote the integration of
environmental principles in sport, to use the popularity of sport to promote environmental awareness
and respect for the environment by the society, to promote the development of environmentally
friendly sport facilities, and to produce environmentally friendly sports equipment [20,21].
      In Poland, an example of a popular sporting event organized in the national park area is the “Forest
Run”, which takes place in Wielkopolski National Park. The event attracts several hundred participants,
including many tourists. The organizers of the run believe that running close to nature is the best
and healthiest way to run. Similar statements can be found in scientific papers. Running outside the
urban agglomeration allows for contact with nature, which favors the regeneration of psychophysical
forces and stress reduction. According to Bodin and Hartig, researchers dealing with the influence
of the type of external environment on the psychological benefits of physical exercise, runners
prefer running in parks away from the urban environment because they perceive them as more
conducive to mental regeneration [22]. Brymer and Gray have added that athletes often create
an intimate and mutual relationship with the natural world [23,24]. Moreover, some runners are
afraid to take part in races organized in polluted cities due to the possibility of a decrease in lung
performance [25]. Traffic-related air pollution may contribute to cardiovascular morbidity. In urban
areas, exposure during physical activity is of interest due to increased breathing rates and close
proximity to vehicle emissions. Exposure to traffic pollution may contribute to acute changes in blood
pressure, autonomic, and microvascular function in women. Regional air pollution concentrations
may modify the impact of these exposures on autonomic function [26]. In Poland, Poznan and Cracow
are big urban agglomerations where every year one of the largest and most important running events
is organized in both the autumn and winter seasons. Poznan and Cracow are cities that have occupied
high rankings on the infamous list of the most polluted European cities for several years. Specifically,
the problem is smog in the autumn and winter seasons. This is why runners in anti-smog masks are

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increasingly seen on the streets of Polish cities. Some of them also decide to train outside the city limits,
which increases the level of anthropopressure on the natural environment (Wielkopolski National
Park is situated close to Poznan). Running events organized in natural areas are sometimes also more
intimate: Not all runners like massive and prestigious big street runs. In addition, running on the hard
ground of the street can cause injury, and therefore many runners prefer to run on soft ground.
      Valuable natural areas—areas of national parks or forest areas—are generally open and available
to everyone, and are a magnet for attracting tourists due to their natural values, serenity, and clean
air. Nowadays, people managing these areas, for example foresters, must not only deal with natural
protection, but increasingly must meet growing tourism needs. Both park authorities and scientists
have argued for years that it is worth being active not only in local city neighborhoods, but mainly
in forest and rural areas. It is in these natural areas that the quickest physical and mental recovery
takes place, as natural areas are good for the oxygenation of the body, as well as the improvement
of circulation and heart rhythm. Physical activity is much better done in close contact with nature
than in a concrete jungle or using artificial sports infrastructure. Modern humans live under stress,
often leading to an unhygienic lifestyle, and environmental pollution negatively affects their health.
Therefore, physical activity undertaken in urban development is less often recommended than in
areas with valuable natural qualities, especially since nowadays it is more difficult to find a landscape
that is in no way changed and managed by people. Rapid development of urban agglomerations is
taking place, which increases the distance between places of residence and recreation areas. There is
also the problem of free time, or rather its rational and conscious expenditure, because the potential
recreational person has more and more of it. The issue of leisure and free time ceases to be unknown
to the rural population as well. At the same time, the number of recreational places is decreasing.
Forests have a particularly positive relationship with health protection. They are characterized by
aligned temperatures in the diurnal and annual cycle, increased humidity, and lower amplitudes
during the day. Forest air contains natural substances such as essential oils secreted by plants that have
anti-stress, soothing, calming, relaxing, anti-inflammatory, and bactericidal properties. Forest areas
create infinite possibilities for spending free time [27–29]. The most common forms of using forests
for recreational purposes in Poland and Slovakia include running, cycling, and fast marches and
walks. However, the forest offers an abundance of activities far beyond those select few. Birdwatching,
Nordic walking, orienteering, survival, and horse riding are just a handful of the many activities one
can use as a means of enjoying the benefits of nature. Forests are a natural place for recreation and
relaxation, especially important for residents of large cities. They fulfill an important social function,
which manifests in a soothing effect on health. The forest is a special place, and the well-used space
of forest areas provides a utilitarian influence on people staying in their area, positively affecting
the body and mind. Forestry in Poland and in Slovakia for over half a century has lost its economic
significance for the growth of social significance. This phenomenon is an important premise for
forestry to be multifunctional and seek sources of income outside the production of wood, including
the marketization of at least some public services, among them recreational goods. This is favored by
the current period of human development, called the “era of leisure”.
      The sustainable development of sports tourism in forest areas is indispensable. There are many
real and potential threats that one should be aware of, particularly when organizing activities set in a
forest environment. Orienteering is currently becoming more and more popular. The most common
forms of this activity, and the most often organized, are bicycle orienteering and ski orienteering.
Some sporting events take the form of mass events and gather thousands of participants at the start.
The organization of competitions in sport orientation requires the coordination of many planning and
logistical activities, as well as significant knowledge, for example on how to minimize the negative
impact of these projects on the forest environment. The presence of athletes and fans always causes
an environmental footprint, and thus sporting events can have a very negative impact on the natural
environment. Therefore, sports authorities are trying to counteract this through preventive behavior
and raising the awareness of private organizers of sporting events. Numerous cyclical sporting

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events are organized in Polish and Slovak forests, including running marathons, cycling marathons,
orienteering races, and massive Nordic walking marches. Events of this type gather many enthusiasts
of the trend to be active in the forest every year.
     A “Forest Run” is an example of a run that takes place in an area where special natural protection
regulations apply. In such cases, both organizers of the sporting events and forest authorities must on
the one hand be particularly sensitive to the changing needs of a society focused on physical culture,
but on the other hand to the limited possibilities of doing physical activity in national parks due to
the sustainable development of sports tourism in areas with special natural qualities. The number of
people willing to organize such events in protected areas is increasing (due to the greater attractiveness
of the event resulting from its special location). However, it must be remembered that sport is not
the primary goal of national park operation. Therefore, the authorities of national parks must take
into account not only the needs of athletes, but also the needs of those who want to admire nature in
silence and tranquility and not be disturbed by the crowds of runners on the trails. For this reason,
among others, in Bieszczady National Park (BNP) in Poland tensions have recently grown between
park authorities and organizers of running events such as the “Butcher’s Race”. The Butcher’s Race is
one of the most beautiful, and at the same time, most difficult running events in Poland. For several
years it has been associated with the Bieszczady Mountains and Bieszczady National Park, where the
idea of this extreme and already cult event was born. Running in the surroundings of this special
landscape is certainly attractive, but these areas occupy a small percentage of the country (only 1%),
so the runs can be held in many other places in Poland without damaging wildlife. In 2016, BNP did
not approve the organization of a running event in its area. The media reported that the deciding
argument was that tourists going on a day trip to a mountain, expecting peace and contact with wild
nature, would encounter contestants running and passing them on narrow paths, which many would
find inhibiting and unacceptable. In addition, runners generally pay less attention to the surface of
the trail and its surroundings, and the fee for tickets was not enough to compensate for the damage
done by runners in the park. Instead of offering runs, Polish parks would like to encourage tourists to
take peaceful walks along designated paths, to explore natural landscapes while mindfully observing
nature. Although there is no official running ban in the park’s regulations, the destruction caused by
running should be limited. The park should not be used as a place for practicing sports. Mass running
events can cause serious damage to the natural environment. According to authorities of the park, one
runner will not do any harm to nature, but if the number of runners practicing on the trails should
increase, there may be a problem.

3. Winter Olympic Games and Olympic Sport Tourism in the Tatra Region
      National parks are increasingly becoming the arenas for sports competition, including the Olympic
Games. The fact that the event takes place in the park attracts sponsors and increased attention and
subsequently increases the attractiveness of the event itself. In recent years, the pressure to organize big
sporting events in areas that are protected in Poland and Slovakia (for example in the Tatra Mountains)
has been growing. From the point of view of the national park, this phenomenon may be perceived as
a threat. Some sporting events take the form of mass events and gather thousands of participants at the
start: Athletes and sports fans. The organization of such competitions therefore requires coordination
of many planning and logistics activities as well as significant knowledge (including on how to
minimize the negative impact of these projects on the natural environment), because the presence of
athletes and fans always causes an environmental footprint. The modern Olympic Games began in
1896 under the leadership of Pierre de Coubertin, who recognized that the Olympic Games offered
the host community the chance to redevelop themselves if desired [30]. However, environmental
protection was not an issue for many of the early Olympic Games, since they were seen as too small
in scale to have any negative impact on the community or environment. The first Olympic Games
to make significant considerations of environmental impacts were the 1994 Winter Games held in
Lillehammer, Norway. Lillehammer’s Organizing Committee voluntarily took on environmental

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initiatives, but editions of the Games that have followed Lillehammer have been required by the
International Olympic Committee to address environmental initiatives in their bids for, and therefore
in their management of, the Games [31].
      For the first time, Poland applied for the organization of the Winter Olympic Games in Zakopane
(an area of Tatra National Park) in 2006. Even then, environmentalists communicated the alarming
threat that Tatra National Park and the World Biosphere Reserve would be under if Olympic
infrastructure systems were to be constructed in the region. The Olympic boom is transitory, and
holding the Olympic Games in harmony with nature conservation is a very demanding task. Poland
also proposed Cracow as a candidate for the host of the Winter Olympic Games in 2022. This Olympic
bid was supposed to be carried out together with the neighboring Tatra mountain region in Slovakia.
In practice, this would mean a real threat to the small area of the Tatra Mountains and the wildlife
of the whole region. According to environmentalists, the construction of sports infrastructure in the
Tatra Mountains would have an adverse impact on protected animals, especially bears, chamois, and
marmots. The joint organization of the Winter Olympic Games in Poland and Slovakia entered into the
Carpathian strategy, the development plan of the region. For example, the Alps have such a program.
Poles, however, did not agree to the games. The idea fell through. In 2013, Cracow was officially
starting to compete for the games. The majority of ice competitions and the opening and closing
ceremonies of the Games were to take place in the capital of Lesser Poland (Cracow). Meanwhile,
alpine competitions would be played in Slovakia, and other competitions in Zakopane. Due to the
fact that the idea did not appeal to urban activists, the “Cracow against the Olympics” initiative was
created. The activists did not like the decision that was made without a democratic debate [32]. It was
estimated that the cost of the Games would exceed 20 billion zlotys, and Cracovians were alarmed
about possibly sharing the fate of Montreal residents who were saddled with debt for 30 years after
hosting the Olympic Games [33,34]. In 2015, a local referendum took place in Cracow. The inhabitants
were asked about the desire to organize the Winter Olympic Games. The voters spoke out against the
idea. Attendance exceeded the required 30%. If Cracow had won, it would be the first Winter Olympic
Games organized in two countries. Zakopane was indicated as the place where many winter Olympic
events would take place. However, the region of Zakopane is of extreme natural value, located in
Tatra National Park, and is noted for having areas of altitude of more than 1500 meters, which is
very rare in Poland and by law subject to protection. All human interference in these areas means
catastrophic consequences for the environment. Poland is not an Alpine country and, in the opinion of
many ecologists, is not suitable for the role of hosting the Olympic Games. The balance of losses in the
environment due to the organization of the Games, especially in an area of great natural value, would
certainly be higher than the potential economic profits [35].
      The experiences of protected areas in foreign countries that have hosted the Olympic Games in the
past gives us food for thought (e.g., Cantelon & Letters 2000) [20]. The choice of Sochi National Park
in Russia was a controversial decision because this area is a habitat for rare and protected species of
animals. Admittedly, despite numerous concerns, the Olympic Games in Sochi proved to be a sporting
success, due to great organization and modern, functional, and expensive sporting facilities built in
a timely manner. The Russians are particularly proud of the expensive resort “Krasnaya Polyana”,
a tourist winter sports resort, only 30 km from an international airport and the sea coast. In their
opinion, it is part of a unique Olympic legacy. However, according to ecologists and journalists, sports
infrastructure created in mountain areas is harmful to the natural environment. The clearing of large
woodland areas has had an especially devastating impact on the natural environment. According to
Russian experts, the Olympic village and skating complex, built for the needs of the Games, posed
a great threat to the entire ecosystem. For example, an area of previously protected wetlands was
covered with a thick layer of stones. The nature reserve that existed there before does not exist anymore.
For example, some areas that were previously protected as natural wetland reserves were covered by a
thick layer of stones and no longer exist. In the case of Sochi, it has been suggested that construction
works have affected the circulation of underground “healing waters”. These healing waters are a viable

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commodity for natural tourism in the area. In Sochi National Park, along the rivers, a high-speed
railway and a highway were built. According to ecologists, the ecosystem of the river was disrupted.
A new infrastructure was created in the park, but there was no monitoring or control regarding the
impacts of the investments on animals living in this area. As a result, valuable natural habitats were
destroyed and the migration corridors, among other things, of bears and West Caucasian turs that are
threatened with extinction were intersected. At the same time, Russia rejected the protests of ecological
organizations, including the WWF, which led to the weakening of the law on natural protection by
introducing amendments allowing the organization of sports competitions previously prohibited
in the areas of national parks. Nearly all prohibitions binding in the protected areas were violated.
Additionally, the investment contractors were granted an exemption from the obligation to prepare an
assessment of the investment’s impact on the environment. The Olympic Games are supposed to be
the world’s sports festival of entertainment and mass nature, while the idea of creating protected areas
is quite the opposite: To restrict, by means of specially set limits, the number of people visiting the
area. The contrast of interests and two opposing goals in one complex on local ground is therefore
impossible to mediate. In the case of the Winter Games, the problem of deforestation is particularly
visible. Many trees are cut down in order to provide space for Olympic Games building infrastructure,
which is not always fully used when the competitions are finished.
     In their study on the establishment of “Environmental Policy” as the third pillar of Olympism,
Cantelon and Letters (2000) [20] wrote that after the Albertville Games in 1992, the IOC (International
Olympic Committee) was pressured into developing an environmental policy but had little
understanding of how to address this global issue. That is when Lillehammer 1994 came in and
Norway, with its long-standing and well-developed respect for nature, provided a good example, the
result of which was that the local initiative of Lillehammer has become a global policy that all future
Olympic Games organizing committees must follow if they are to win the bid to organize the games.
To fight the negative effects of sport tourism, the “Green Games” held in 1994 in Lillehammer
introduced many new pro-ecological methods in environmental management [36]. Since then,
the plans for all major sports events should have taken into account the principles of sustainable
development and environmental education. Even the organizers of the ancient Games had to face
many ecological problems. The organization of the Games, however, creates an opportunity to start
long-lasting positive changes in society and its attitudes, if authorities know what sustainability means.
The Olympics are seen as a chance to initiate positive environmental changes and increase ecological
awareness (with proper organization and event management). In 1999, the International Olympic
Committee signed the document “Agenda 21 for Sport and Environment”, which is a set of sustainable
development principles for sport and the natural environment. For the sake of our planet, since
the end of the 20th century the Olympic Games have been held under the slogan “sustainability
through sport”. The Olympic Games are also an opportunity to implement sustainable tourism.
Sustainable development is also one of the most important items of the “Olympic Agenda 2020”, a
document setting out the future of the International Olympic Movement, the Olympic set of rules and
good practices.

4. Methods and Aim of the Study
     The purpose of the study was to recognize the attitude of Polish and Slovak national park
authorities toward the organization of mass sports events in protected areas. Empirical research
was carried out that examined the development of sports events in the national parks of Poland and
Slovakia in 2016. A diagnostic survey was conducted using the method of interviews with the directors
of Polish and Slovak national parks. The research covered a total of 14 (out of 23 total) Polish national
parks (the research in Slovak national parks was carried out with the same method). The authorities of
the remaining ones refused to answer the questions concerning the development of sports tourism in
protected areas (information about these parks was taken from the parks’ official websites).

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     A written request was sent to the authorities of Polish national parks in January 2017 to answer
the following questions: Did you grant permission to organize sports events in the park in 2016? If
so, why? What were the main arguments for organizing these events in the park area? If the answer
was negative, what were the premises for that? They were also asked to provide information on
sports events that took place in the park in the past year (discipline, size, nature of the event, etc.).
The analysis of the development of sports tourism in Polish national parks based on the results of the
research is presented below.

5. Sports Tourism in Polish National Parks: Results of Empirical Research

5.1. Pieniny National Park (PNP)
      The park’s authorities gave permission for canoeing, but did not give permission for running
events or for rafting in the period when the waterway was not available. Canoeing trips in the
park were admitted on the basis of the Protection Plan for Pieniny National Park of 1 July 2014
(Journal of Laws 2014, item 1010). The Dunajec River Gorge is a widely available waterway in part
designated by the park’s director. Rafting can be organized with traditional rafting boats and other
floating nonmechanical equipment in the period from 1 April to 31 October, without the right to shore
(ordinance No. 2/2014 of the Director of the PNP of 14 January 2014 on tourist routes, reservoirs,
and ski slopes made available for tourism). The park’s authorities indicated that the main task of the
national park was to preserve a unique landscape, biological and geological diversity, cultural values,
as well as to develop better attitudes and proper respect. The organization of runs in the protected
area is therefore in contradiction with the mission and tasks of the national park. Runners do not
sightsee and do not get to know the landscape and natural values of the national park, and their
only goal is to cover the designated route in the shortest possible time (making it a purely athletic
activity). The park’s position on the runs was also shared by the PNP Scientific Council, which gave
a negative opinion on the organization of all mass sporting events, including running competitions
(Resolution No. 136/15 of the PNP Scientific Council of 11 December 2015). Moreover, according
to the above-mentioned ordinance, the PNP does not give consent for canoeing trips outside the
period of water route availability at the Dunajec River Gorge. On the other hand, six canoeing trips
were organized within the allotted time. These were the Tadeusz Pilarski 75th Jubilee International
Canoeing Trip on the Dunajec River, the 23rd Polish Championships in the Canoe Descent, rafting
organized by AKTK “Bystrze” from Cracow rafting organized by TKKF Carlina from Rabka Zdrój,
rafting organized by WAKK Habazie from Warsaw, and rafting organized by pontoon companies that
have a permit to run a business in the area of PNP.

5.2. Świ˛etokrzyski National Park (SNP)
     In 2016, several sports events took place in the area of SNP. These consisted of three mass runs
and a Nordic walking march, “Dymarki”, on 6–7 August 2016 on the blue trail (Nowa Słupia—Św.
Krzyż), red trail (Św. Krzyż—Trzcianka), and along the educational path (Huta Szklana—Św. Krzyż).
As emphasized by the director, the statutory tasks of the national park include providing the grounds
on the basis of Art. 8b,e, paragraph 1, and Art. 15 in connection with Art. 12, subparagraph 1, of
the Act of 16 April 2004 on Nature Conservation (Journal of Laws of 2016, item 2134, as amended),
Ordinance of the Minister of the Environment of 18 March 2013 on national parks or some of their
areas, where entrance fees are charged (Journal of Laws of 2013, item 400); and Regulation No. 2/2017
of the Director of Świ˛etokrzyski National Park, based in Bodzentyn, dated 4 January 2017, regarding
access to Świ˛etokrzyski National Park for scientific, educational, cultural, tourist, recreational, sports,
filming, and photographing purposes.

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5.3. Magura National Park (MNP)
      In MNP in 2016, several sporting events took place. However, according to the park authorities,
they did not have such a mass character as to burden the Park: The number of participants could not
exceed 500 people. The races took place along available routes and during the day. The park authorities
emphasized that sporting events also promote the MNP, as well as physical activity and a healthy
lifestyle. The following sports events were organized: the Cyklokarpaty.pl Bicycle Marathon (in which
223 contestants took part) and mountain runs (the 2nd Ultramarathon Magurski (220 participants), the
1st Beskidnik Run (280 participants), and the Łemkowyna Ultra Trail (430 participants)).

5.4. Roztocze National Park (RNP)
     In 2016, the Park did not organize or co-organize any sporting event. In addition, no such initiative
has been reported to the park management.

5.5. Tatra National Park (TNP)
     In 2016, several sports events took place at TNP. This is permitted by the Act of 16 April 2004
on Nature Conservation, Art. 12., stating that the area of the national park can be made available in
such a way that will not adversely affect the wildlife in the national park: In the plan of protection
of the national park, and by the time of its preparation, with protective tasks, the places that can be
accessed and the maximum number of persons that may stay in these places at the same time shall be
determined. The Nature Conservation Plan is an indication of the areas made available for scientific,
educational, tourist, recreational, amateur fishing, and other purposes, and the determination of the
ways of using these areas. In addition, according to the TNP Directorate, the main objective of the
national park is natural protection, but it also prioritizes various forms of activity, provided they do
not harm the wildlife. The events that took place in TNP were mainly alpine skiing disciplines: The
Strzelecki Memorial, Malinowski Memorial, and Oppenheim Cup; as well as the running events the
Sokoła Run, Marduła Run, Running Festival, Tatras Ridge Run, the run uphill on Kasprowy Wierch, as
well as the end of Hard’s triathlon. In total, there were 10 sporting events, with a maximum of 350
people per event, and a cumulative yearly maximum of 2500 participants.

5.6. Kampinos National Park (KNP)
     In 2016, about 40 sporting and recreational events were organized at KNP, including bike rallies,
running events, marathons, and walking rallies. However, only a fraction of them were associated
with pure competition. Kampinos National Park, on the basis of the act on nature protection dated
16 April 2004 (consolidated text, Journal of Laws of 2015, item 1651), in accordance with ordinance
No. 5/2012 of the Director of Kampinos National Park dated 16 February 2012 regarding the
availability of KNP, is made available for scientific, educational, tourist, recreational, sporting, filming,
and photographic purposes, as well as for commercial purposes in a way that does not adversely
affect the wildlife in the Park. Making the park available is one of the basic tasks of national parks,
and its scope is imposed by the act on nature protection. The available areas are indicated in the
protection plan for the national park, and in the absence of it, in the protection tasks for the park.
However, if the organization of sporting events is to proceed, arrangements need to be made with
park authorities that include obtaining written consent from the park director. Due to the location of
KNP, which is in the vicinity of Warsaw, and the appropriate terrain conditions for the organization
of various rallies, marathons, runs, etc. (a multitude of trails, varied terrain, beautiful nature, easy
access), the interest in organizing events in the park is very large. Taking into account the potential
negative impacts that events could have on the area, the KNP director agrees upon only selected
events, with a limited number of permits being issued to events where sports competition is the
main purpose. Sporting events in the area of KNP are primarily of a recreational nature and family
oriented. The biggest sporting events organized in KNP in 2016 included: the Bieg Łosia (Elk’s Run),

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the Ultra Marathon of the Kampinos Forest, the Kampinos Marathon, the 1st Run “AliRun—Run with
Father Ali”, the 9th Strawberry Run, the 3rd Run of Remembrance of Soldiers of the Home Army
Kampinos Group as part of the running and historical event “cross with history in the background”,
the Kampinos Bicycle Rally, and the 43rd Andrzej Zboiński Walking Marathon.

5.7. Ujście Warty (Warta Mouth) National Park (UWNP)
     Due to the popularization of healthy lifestyles and the promotion of natural science
and educational programs, park authorities have become more receptive to permitting events.
Simultaneously, the idea of “park for the people” is promoted. It is also a good way to improve
cooperation with the local community. In NP “Ujście Warty”, fishing competitions organized by the
local fishing clubs took place. In 2016, four applications were filed with the park director for permission
to organize sports competitions, and all of them were granted permission. In the same year, the first
fishing competition organized by the National Park “Ujście Warty” took place.

5.8. Ojców National Park (ONP)
     Sporting events were allowed at ONP due to the fact that these events (including runs) took
place along existing tourist routes on dates that did not interfere with tourist traffic. Tourists had the
opportunity to participate in marathon and half-marathon runs, i.e., Perła Małopolski, Koniczynka
Marathon, Pozytywka (the run celebrating Father’s Day), and Niepodległościowa Jedenastka held on
Independence Day.

5.9. Babia Góra National Park (BGNP)
      Sporting events were held in BGNP because, as the authorities emphasized, the definition of
the National Park shows that it was created for the purposes of nature conservation, as well as
scientific and tourism provision. In Babia Góra National Park, in 2016, seven running events of a
sport and recreational nature were held. These were the Snow Panther Run, Wojtek Kozub’s Run,
Little Poland’s Pearl Run, Mammut—Ultra Sky Marathon 6xBabia, the Carpathian Ultra Marathon,
the Beskid Extreme Triathlon, and Chaszczok.

5.10. Wigry National Park (WNP)
     Sports events took place in the Sports Center (WPN) because the park possesses properly prepared
hiking trails with high landscape values. In addition, the organization of sports and recreational events
is part of the statutory task of the park. The events held included the Wigry Marathon (in which 235
competitors took part), Pogoń za Bobrem/the Pursuit of Beaver (257 participants), and the Run of
Lovers of Wigry National Park (76 participants).

5.11. Biebrza National Park (BNP)
    In Biebrza NP, the following events were organized, among others: Biebrzańskie Sianokosy/Biebrza’s
Haymaking and fishing competitions. In 2016 there were 10 of them (the organizer was PZW Fishing
Clubs). There are four forest running paths in the park (6.2 km, 5.3 km, 4.8 km, and 3.2 km). Nobody,
however, applied for permission to organize running events.

5.12. Drawa National Park (DNP)
     The park authorities did not give permission for the organization of sporting events, because no
one applied for permission to organize them.

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5.13. Słowiński National Park (SNP)
     The organization of tourist and sports and recreation events in SNP requires written consent from
the park director. However, no event took place because no such consent was requested. Instead, there
were various educational rallies organized.

5.14. Wolin National Park (WNP)
     WNP is the originator and organizer of the fishing competition “Wolińska Belona”.
The authorities are in favor of this type of action, as it concentrates tourist traffic. The designation
of places for doing sports, in this case places for fishing, prevents excessive and uncontrolled
anthropopression. In addition, the education of society is also important: Such events promote
alternative, sustainable forms of tourism. Participation in such events also gives rise to shared
responsibility for the environment.
     The WNP authorities, however, indicated that they are not in favor of practicing every form
of tourism in the park area. In the opinion of the authorities, the mass scale and seasonality of
some forms of sports tourism—for example participation in mass sporting events—poses a threat to
the environment, such as exceeding the receptivity of the area, land degradation, the trampling of
plants, scaring away the animals, and people entering prohibited zones. Therefore, according to the
authorities, major mass sporting events should take place outside the territory of the national park.
     The following is a list of Polish national parks that did not participate in the study. The information
provided comes from the official websites of the parks.

5.15. Wielkopolski National Park
     The largest sporting event was the Forest Run, which was described earlier. The park is open for
running events, Nordic walking, and cross-country skiing (in designated places and with a certain
number of participants). On the official website of the park, the authorities encourage runners to
practice daily in the park. In their park strategy, the authorities write that they make the park available
for sports purposes in a way that will not adversely affect nature.

5.16. Bieszczady National Park
     No sports events can be organized without the consent of the director. A ban on the organization
of the cult running event described earlier in the article was issued.

5.17. Poleski National Park
      In this park, there were educational marches on orientation for children.

5.18. Białowieża National Park
      Fishing competitions took place in the park.

5.19. Gorce National Park
      Areas are available for running lovers and paragliding enthusiasts (with permission).

5.20. Bory Tucholskie National Park
      Fishing competitions took place in the park.

5.21. Narwiański National Park
      In this park, there were small walking and cycling events.

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5.22. Stołowe Mountains National Park
     Stołowe Mountains Winter Half Marathon and other marathons, ultramarathons, and triathlons
took place in the park.

5.23. Karkonosze National Park
    This park organized large sporting events, the Karkonosze Winter Ultramarathon and the PZU
Karkonosze Marathon (one of the most famous running events in Poland).

6. Sports Tourism in Slovak National Parks: Results of Empirical Research
     Similarly, a written request was sent to the directories of the nine Slovak national parks, to
provide a list of sporting events that took place with granted permission throughout the year 2016.
If permission for a certain event was not granted, a follow-up question would ask for explanation.
The responses were collected and systematically analyzed.
     The year 2016 was a busy year for sports tourism, mainly for the two largest and most visited
Slovak national parks, the National Park of Tatras (TANAP) and the National Park of Low Tatras
(NAPANT). The biggest and most commercially interesting sports event took place in March 2016 in
the outskirts of the Low Tatras mountain ridge: The Audi Fis Ski World cup Jasná 2016, which was
an irregular addition to the program of the Fis Ski World Cup slalom events. The event took place in
the ski center Jasná, in Demänovská Dolina, parts of which fall into protected areas, attracting tens
of thousands of spectators. The ski center Jasná is, however, widely visited by tourists and skiers
throughout the year.

6.1. National Park of (High) Tatras
      The oldest national park in Slovakia covers most of the High Tatra mountain range (its southern
part), which contains some of Slovakia’s highest peaks. The northern part of the mountain range
lies in Poland and is also part of the protected areas. In the Slovak part of the High Tatras, there are
around 15 skiing centers, some of them larger and with bigger historical sporting significance (the
skiing center at Štrbské Pleso hosted the 1970 Skiing World Cup, and in 1987 and 2015, also the World
Winter University Games). Besides the winter skiing season, in the year 2016, 20 sporting events
were organized in the National Park of High Tatras, most of them organized by local municipalities,
hiking clubs, or mountain rescue services. The administration of the national park restricts sporting
events only to tourist paths (mass hikes or mountain runs) or to areas designed for sporting activities
(sport centers in inhabited areas). Out of the 20 sporting events, 8 were running or hiking events,
4 were mountain cycling events, 2 were skiing or ski alpinism events, and the rest were either triathlon,
duathlon, horse races, or races organized for mountain rescue services.

6.2. National Park of Low Tatras
     The largest national park in Slovakia (728 km2 ) is usually also the location of the most sporting
and cultural events. In the year 2016, 41 event organizers approached the park administration to host
their events in protected areas. Out of these, two events were rejected (a dog sleigh race in Šachtičky
and a franchised obstacle race), one altered its tracks based on criticism from the park, and four would
classify as cultural events. Overall, 31 sporting events took place within the protected area of the
mountain range and 23 in the national park area. There are also two of the largest Slovak skiing
centers located in the mountain range of Low Tatras (the Donovaly and Jasná centers), besides many
other smaller centers). Both are privately owned and host numerous sport events throughout the
season. The majority of the events that took place in the Low Tatras were running, hiking, or cycling
competitions, but there were also specialized events for paragliders, mountain climbers, and dog
sleigh races.