DEVELOPING COMPETENCY MODELS TO PROMOTE INTEGRATED HUMAN RESOURCE PRACTICES
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Developing Competency Models to Promote Integrated Human Resource Practices • 309
DEVELOPING COMPETENCY MODELS TO
PROMOTE INTEGRATED HUMAN
RESOURCE PRACTICES
Donna Rodriguez, Rita Patel, Andrea Bright, Donna Gregory,
and Marilyn K. Gowing
Today, competencies are used in many facets of human resource management, ranging from
individual selection, development, and performance management to organizational strategic plan-
ning. By incorporating competencies into job analysis methodologies, the Office of Personnel
Management (OPM) has developed robust competency models that can form the foundation for
each of these initiatives. OPM has placed these models into automated systems to ensure access
for employees, human resources professionals, and managers. Shared access to the data creates a
shared frame of reference and a common language of competencies that have provided the basis
for competency applications in public sector agencies. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Introduction professionals can contribute to the organiza-
tions’ achievement of their missions and goals
High-performing people are critical for by providing managers and employees with
high-performing organizations. Whether information and tools to meet these challenges
driven by the need to improve efficiency, pro- by maximizing human capital. Competencies
ductivity, or profitability, or by the desire to provide the foundation through which human
provide world-class customer service, the com- resource professionals can contribute to the
bination of two components is critical: select- success of their organization.
ing talented and high-potential people to carry
out the organization’s mission and creating a Competencies Are the Future
culture that supports them. Many organiza-
tions recognize the link between David McClelland (1973) is often credited
high-performing people, an organizational with launching the competency movement
culture that supports mission accomplish- with the publication of his paper “Testing for
ment, and high-performing organizations. Two Competence Rather than Intelligence.”
challenges faced by most organizations are the McClelland’s research suggested that aca-
identification of the most effective means to demic aptitude and knowledge content tests
recruit, select, and retain a high-performing alone did not predict high job performance or
workforce, particularly within a tight labor success in life, and that individual character-
market, and the creation and maintenance of istics or competencies can identify high per-
a dynamic culture for employees that fosters formers. The use of competencies to identify
achievement. Human resource management high-performing people, or outstanding em-
Human Resource Management, Fall 2002, Vol. 41, No. 3, Pp. 309–324
© 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com).
DOI: 10.1002/hrm.10043310 • HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, Fall 2002
ployees, has gradually become widespread in which are often based on qualitative ap-
human resource management (Boyatzis, 1982; proaches. One of the strengths of competency
Lawler, 1994; Spencer & Spencer, 1993; models is that they are often linked to the
Ulrich, 1997). Those characteristics that set business goals and strategies of the organiza-
these employees apart provide the basis for tion. Additionally, competency models provide
recruitment, selection, and development strat- insight into core competencies that are com-
egies that are effective and provide a high re- mon to multiple jobs within an organization.
turn on investment. The United States Office of Personnel
Human resource professionals must wisely Management (OPM) has attempted to capi-
invest their scarce resources. In the past, or- talize on the strengths of both traditional job
By focusing on
the full range of ganizations hired those who could perform a analysis techniques and competency model
competencies or set of tasks, usually focusing on technical development in its work. In 1990, OPM be-
whole-person knowledge. These traditional job-based selec- gan developing competency models, recogniz-
assessment, the tion and development strategies are less flex- ing the potential for the application of
emphasis is on ible than competency-based selection and competency-based human resource applica-
potential, or
what the person
development strategies. In rapidly changing tions in the federal government. OPM sought
can bring to the business environments, organizations are rec- to incorporate traditional job analysis meth-
organization, ognizing the value of a workforce that is not odology into the development of competency
rather than on a only highly skilled and technically adept, but models to provide an empirical foundation for
set of narrowly more importantly, a workforce that can learn the use of competencies by employees, man-
defined tasks
based on job
quickly, adapt to change, communicate effec- agers, and human resource (HR) profession-
requirements. tively, and foster interpersonal relationships. als in the public sector. To ensure competency
These characteristics, or competencies, are models could be used by all HR functions, they
critical to organizational survival, productiv- were based on job analyses that met the stan-
ity, and continual improvement. dards set forth by the Uniform Guidelines on
By focusing on the full range of compe- Employee Selection Procedures (Equal Em-
tencies or whole-person assessment, the em- ployment Opportunity Commission, 1978)
phasis is on potential, or what the person can and other legal and professional standards.
bring to the organization, rather than on a set Before developing competency models, it
of narrowly defined tasks based on job require- is important to establish a definition of com-
ments. Organizations that select for compe- petency. OPM defines a competency as a mea-
tencies such as creative thinking begin to build surable pattern of knowledge, skill, abilities,
a high-performance culture. Using competen- behaviors, and other characteristics that an in-
cies as the basis for staffing provides the flex- dividual needs to perform work roles or occu-
ibility needed to select and place individuals pational functions successfully. This broad
where they can best serve the organization. definition of competencies forms the basis for
“whole-person assessment.” Competencies
Competencies in the Federal Government such as interpersonal skills and teamwork can
be as important as traditional knowledge,
As the use of competencies has grown, the skills, and abilities (i.e., KSAs), but have not
number and variety of competency models and typically been assessed by the federal govern-
methods for developing competencies have ment. Research has indicated that these
also continued to increase. In 1997, the Soci- “softer skills” may have a significant impact
ety for Industrial and Organizational Psycholo- on ultimate work success (Boyatzis, 1982). In
gists commissioned a task force to review the conducting its competency research, OPM
practice of competency modeling and compare tried to capture both traditional KSAs, such
it to job analysis, noting the strengths and as written communication, and softer skills,
weaknesses of various techniques such as interpersonal skills, teamwork, and
(Schippmann et al., 2000). For example, typi- flexibility. OPM compared its competency
cal multimethod job analysis components are framework to those successfully used in the
seen as more rigorous in methodology than private sector and those found in the litera-
typical competency modeling techniques, ture to ensure a balanced framework. For ex-Developing Competency Models to Promote Integrated Human Resource Practices • 311
ample, OPM compared its competencies to sub-specialty titles (Ricci & Savage, 2001), and
those representing emotional intelligence (3) forty-six Science & Engineering occupa-
(Goleman, 1998). While OPM’s model cov- tions (Caldwell, 2002). Together, these occu-
ered the majority of this work, small gaps were pational analyses will cover the major occu-
identified that will be incorporated into fu- pations common to organizations in the fed-
ture work. Continually examining new com- eral government.
petency models ensures that OPM develops Each of OPM’s occupational studies is con-
comprehensive competency descriptions that ducted using the Multipurpose Occupational
cover a wide range of occupations. Systems Analysis Inventory–Closed-ended The common
OPM envisioned a uniform, competency- (MOSAIC) approach. MOSAIC is a multipur- language reduces
the costs of
based common language that would enable pose, survey-based job analysis used to collect
developing
federal agencies to describe jobs in the same information on many occupations within an oc- independent, and
way, eliminating inconsistencies across agen- cupational group (e.g., information technology, often redundant,
cies and HR functions (e.g., staffing, perfor- clerical and technical) for a wide range of HR models within
mance appraisal, training). The common functions. The foundation of the MOSAIC the federal
language reduces the costs of developing in- approach is the development of a common lan- government.
dependent, and often redundant, models guage for competencies and generalized tasks
within the federal government. Consistently that can be used to describe all occupations
defined competencies promote a common included within an occupational study group.
understanding of the critical elements of each This approach has several advantages (see Table
job among HR personnel, management, and I on next page) over traditional occupational
employees. OPM has found that this common analyses in which different HR branches would
language is applicable for a broad range of independently survey the same job incumbents
public-sector organizations, including state and gather similar data. For example, within
and municipal governments. an organization, one HR function would col-
Competencies provide a common lan- lect information to build selection procedures
guage across HR functions; therefore, they while another function would collect informa-
provide a natural foundation for integrating tion on training needs. Such an approach re-
these functions. OPM has conducted federal sulted in redundancy in effort and cost, as well
governmental job analyses that lay the foun- as over-surveying of incumbents. Similarly,
dation for public-sector competency models across the federal government, HR departments
for many occupations. from different agencies would also duplicate
data collection efforts. With the development
Occupational Analysis Methodology of a single job competency model costing up to
$150,000, the costs of these individual studies
Over the last decade, OPM conducted fed- add up quickly. The MOSAIC methodology
eral governmental job analyses studies (i.e., eliminates the need to develop different sur-
occupational analyses) of three occupational veys for different jobs. It also allows a one-time
groups. First, the Leadership Effectiveness collection of data for all HR purposes, paving
Study examined executive, managerial, and the way to a truly integrated approach to HR.
supervisory positions (Corts & Gowing, 1992; The savings from the systematic MO-
Gregory & Park, 1992). The second study ex- SAIC approach are significant. For example,
amined seventy-seven clerical and technical the clerical and technical occupational study
occupations (Rodriguez, Usala, & Shoun, examined seventy-seven occupations for
1996), and the third study examined 119 pro- about the cost of ten individual studies, sav-
fessional and administrative occupations (Pol- ing the federal government approximately
lack, Simons, & Patel, 1999). Three additional $130,000 per occupation for a total savings
studies are currently in progress to complete of over ten million dollars. Other associated
the initial studies of the world of work in the costs are also reduced. For example, a single
federal government: (1) one hundred Trades study for multiple purposes reduces the print-
and Labor occupations (Bright, 2002), (2) four ing and survey administration costs of mul-
Information Technology occupations with ten tiple studies.312 • HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, Fall 2002
TABLE I Advantages of the MOSAIC Approach to Occupational Analyses.
MOSAIC Approach Traditional Occupational Analyses
• Studying groups of jobs at one time reduces time • Studying one job at a time costly in terms of time
and resource expenditures and resources
• Broadly defined, general tasks are more enduring • Tasks defined at a high degree of specificity are
easily outdated
• Common set of competencies and tasks allows • Very specific KSAs and tasks do not allow
comparisons across jobs comparisons across jobs
• Facilitates integrated approach to human resource • Not integrative; separate teams gather data for
management (for example, serves as foundation different human resource management initiatives
for selection and promotion procedures, training (for example, selection and promotion procedures,
needs assessment, performance management training needs assessment, performance manage-
standards, and human resource planning) ment standards, and human resource planning)
Using a common language developed and empirically based information. The ap-
based on a group of jobs allows a single sur- proach provides the foundation for agencies
vey to collect information for multiple jobs and to build integrated HR systems that use a com-
allows comparisons both within and across mon set of tasks and competencies to struc-
occupations in an occupational group. Be- ture job design, classification, recruitment,
cause tasks are written broadly to apply to selection, performance management, training,
multiple jobs in an occupational group, they career development, and human resource
are typically more enduring and encompass- planning. It also can ensure that employees
ing. For example, the MOSAIC task, “Uses a receive a consistent message about the ele-
computer or word processor to create, edit, ments on which they are selected, evaluated,
print, retrieve, or manipulate files,” will be and trained.
outdated far less quickly than the task, “Uses The MOSAIC methodology consists of
WordPerfect 6.0 to create letters.” This broad several steps: review of literature and job docu-
wording of the MOSAIC task allows for ments, development of competencies and
changes in the types of output and changes in tasks, identification of rating scales for the
technology by focusing on the main part of survey, linkage of tasks to competencies, de-
the task “using a word processor.” Addition- velopment of competency benchmarks, and
ally, rating the same tasks and competencies development of competency-based questions.
for all occupations provides data to identify
occupations with similar task and competency Review of Literature and Job Documents
requirements. This can be particularly useful
for HR initiatives such as career transitioning, The development of competencies and tasks
restructuring, and occupational consolidation. begins with a comprehensive literature review.
For example, in the federal government, people The goal of the literature review is to develop
have traditionally remained in the same job comprehensive competency and task lists for
classification and progressed in pay. The com- an occupational group. The literature review
petency system helps focus on similarities integrates information from the organizational
across jobs, facilitating a career lattice ap- and psychological literature, published job
proach where people can move among jobs analysis studies, training and certification in-
based on the competencies that they bring to formation, and documents such as current job
the job. descriptions and job advertisements from pub-
The MOSAIC approach ensures that HR lic and private sector organizations. The re-
decisions are founded on technically sound view also includes literature that addressesDeveloping Competency Models to Promote Integrated Human Resource Practices • 313
future trends and work conditions of an oc- tencies needed to perform them. The final-
cupational group, including projected future ized task and competency statements are re-
roles and job requirements. All KSAs, compe- viewed by a panel of research psychologists to
tencies, and tasks found in the literature re- determine the importance of each competency
view are compiled into a database. For ex- for successfully performing each task. Previ-
ample, over 10,000 tasks and 500 KSAs were ous work (O’Leary, Rheinstein, & McCauley,
collected for the clerical and technical study. 1989) has shown that ratings of psychologists
This information is then sorted by key words are similar to those made by job incumbents. Benchmark
to create competencies and tasks that cover The linkage is the final step in finalizing the levels provide a
standard way to
the work performed by all the occupations in competencies and tasks for the occupational
define mastery of
the study and that eliminate redundancy and survey. This step ensures that the lists are the competencies
confusion in terminology. After draft lists of comprehensive for the jobs. For example, for an individual
competencies and tasks are developed, the lists when a competency does not link to any tasks, or position.
are reviewed and finalized by focus groups it indicates that either tasks are missing or
comprised of subject matter experts. The fi- the competency should not have been in-
nal lists (e.g., 170 tasks and thirty-one com- cluded. Task-to-competency linkages are also
petencies for seventy-seven clerical and tech- critical because (1) they are recommended
nical jobs) comprise the common language for by the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Se-
the occupational group under study. lection Procedures (Equal Employment Op-
portunity Commission, 1978), and (2) the
Selection of Rating Scales linkage information provides the foundation
for developing a broad array of HR products
Scales for rating of competencies and tasks (e.g., training objectives and curricula, per-
are evaluated for inclusion on the survey. formance standards, career development
Scales are selected to ensure that information plans, recruitment and selection procedures).
from the survey is applicable for different HR
functions and meets professional and legal Competency Benchmarks and Questions
requirements (Ricci, 2001). Since the surveys
are lengthy, the scales are divided between job The final step in the MOSAIC approach in-
incumbents and supervisors. For example, in volves the development of benchmarks, or
the clerical study, job incumbents were asked mastery levels, for competencies. An individual
to rate how much time they spent on tasks. can be evaluated by comparing his/her mas-
On their form, supervisors were asked to rate tery of a competency to the benchmark levels
the importance of the tasks, because supervi- (see Table III). Similarly, successful perform-
sors are expected to have the best understand- ance in a position requires that an individual
ing of tasks that are important for occupational demonstrate mastery of the competency at a
success. A typical survey includes competency specific benchmark level. Although the occu-
rating scales for importance (used for mul- pational studies do not ask for levels of com-
tiple HR purposes), required at entry (used petencies, competency benchmark levels are
for recruitment and selection), distinguishing important for many HR practices, such as per-
value (used for selection and performance formance management. Benchmark levels pro-
management), and need for training (used for vide a standard way to define mastery of the
career development). Task scales for impor- competencies for an individual or position.
tance and frequency or time spent (used for Each competency benchmark consists of level
multiple HR purposes) are also included. See definitions (i.e., the general statement of level)
Table II for examples of these scales from the and behavioral examples (i.e., actual job be-
Professional and Administrative study. haviors). The definitions provide a standard
that is not changed, while the examples can
Task and Competency Linkages be modified and made job specific.
Psychologists and subject matter experts
For a fully integrated, competency-based HR develop competency benchmarks. Psycholo-
system, tasks must be linked to the compe- gists develop benchmark level definitions314 • HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, Fall 2002
TABLE II Professional and Administrative Study Rating Scales.
Form Task Scales Competency Scales
Incumbents Frequency: Importance:
0 = Not Performed 1 = Not Important
1 = Every few months to yearly 2 = Somewhat Important
2 = Every few weeks to monthly 3 = Important
3 = Every few days to weekly 4 = Very Important
4 = Every few hours to daily 5 = Extremely Important
5 = Hourly to many times each hour
Need for Training:
1 = Training Is Not Needed
2 = Some Training Is Needed
3 = Considerable Training Is Needed
4 = Do Not Know/Not Part of the Job
Form S1-Supervisors Importance: Importance:
0 = Not Performed
1 = Not Important 1 = Not Important
2 = Somewhat Important 2 = Somewhat Important
3 = Important 3 = Important
4 = Very Important 4 = Very Important
5 = Extremely Important 5 = Extremely Important
Required at Entry:
1 = Not Needed for the Job
2 = Not Needed at Entry because it is
acquired through training or experi-
ence
3 = Desirable at Entry because those
who possess it develop competence
more readily
4 = Essential at Entry because those
who do not possess it will not acquire it
through training or experience
Form S2-Supervisors Importance: Distinguishing Value:
0 = Not Performed 1 = Not Valuable
1 = Not Important 2 = Somewhat Valuable
2 = Somewhat Important 3 = Valuable
3 = Important 4 = Very Valuable
4 = Very Important 5 = Extremely Valuable
5 = Extremely Important
Need for Training:
1 = Training Is Not Needed
2 = Some Training Is Needed
3 = Considerable Training Is Needed
4 = Do Not Know/Not Part of the Job
based on the literature review with higher lev- statements corresponding to each benchmark
els incorporating greater scope and complex- level. These panels then rate each example on
ity. Using competency definitions, a list of the extent to which it is related to the compe-
tasks linked to the competencies, and their tency and assign a level to each example, us-
own knowledge of the jobs, subject matter ing the benchmark definitions as the rating
expert panels develop examples of behavioral scale. The means and standard deviations ofDeveloping Competency Models to Promote Integrated Human Resource Practices • 315
TABLE III Competency Definition, Question, and Benchmark Levels.
Teamwork
Definition: Encourages and facilitates cooperation, pride, trust, and group identity; fosters commitment and
team spirit; works with others to achieve goals.
Competency-Based Questions: Describe a situation in which you worked with a team to achieve a common
goal. What was the goal? Who was on the team and how was the team assembled? What steps did you take
to work toward meeting the goal? What was the outcome?
Competency Benchmark or Mastery Levels
Level Definitions Behavioral Examples
Level 5 Level 5
Fosters group identity and pride; motivates team Encourages win-win approaches and solutions at
members to achieve goals; contributes to team’s labor–management meetings; works on a team that
proposal activities and effort to attain goals. develops and wins a large contract.
Level 4 Level 4
Contributes to team goal setting, work planning, Serves as a committee member to set goals and to
and progress; facilitates group discussions by promote charitable contributions (e.g., Combined
reflecting and summarizing members’ comments; Federal Campaign); participates in a series of team
helps team to make significant progress toward meetings to develop strategies to improve a
attaining team goals. procedure.
Level 3 Level 3
Contributes to group discussions by giving short Reviews and discusses the merits of candidate
informative presentations; cooperates with team software assigned by LAN task force; works with
members to complete tasks assigned to the team. another team member to interview customers to
determine service strengths and needs.
Level 2 Level 2
Contributes to group discussions; volunteers to Participates in meetings by citing experience with
assist another co-worker who has excess work. using a specific product or service; works tempo-
rarily in a department or unit where extra help is
needed.
Level 1 Level 1
Performs routine tasks to assist co-workers in the Coordinates with inventory clerk to ensure that
immediate work area; follows instructions to materials are unloaded and stored in the proper
complete assignments. order; completes forms clearly and accurately to
facilitate processing by another clerk.
these ratings determine benchmark examples Development of Competency Models
that will be retained for each level.
After finalizing the benchmarks, questions The size of the organization should be consid-
are written for each competency to elicit be- ered in determining the job analysis methodol-
havioral responses that can be tied back to the ogy. Larger organizations, like the federal govern-
benchmarks for rating purposes (see Table III). ment, should use survey approaches to collect
This represents an application of the behav- job analysis information to achieve sufficient rep-
ioral consistency approach, where past behav- resentation of the population, whereas smaller
ior is a good indication of future behavior organizations or jobs with few incumbents may
(Schmidt et al., 1979). be adequately represented through focus groups.316 • HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, Fall 2002
To develop federal competency models, well as ratings by supervisors of the require-
occupational analysis surveys are sent out to a ment that individuals have that competency
stratified, random sample of incumbents and upon entry into the job. Competency models
supervisors. The data are collected and ana- are also formed for several levels of each oc-
lyzed to identify critical competencies and tasks cupation (e.g., entry into the occupation, in-
for each occupation. The large number of re- termediate, full performing/journey). These
spondents for each survey (e.g., 7,938 for ex- competency models are intended for use by
ecutives, supervisors, and managers; 59,997 for HR professionals and line managers to inform
seventy-seven clerical and technical jobs; their daily HR activities by providing a sound
46,889 for 105 professional and administra- basis for their decisions. The key to the suc-
tive jobs) shows the scope of these projects. cess of this effort is to make this large data-
Data are analyzed for each occupation at every base easily accessible by providing informa-
grade (i.e., pay) level where there are sufficient tion in an automated format.
respondents. To create the final competency
model for an occupation or occupational group, Reasons for Automating Study Results
both incumbent and supervisor ratings are typi-
cally used. The Leadership Effectiveness Study, OPM wanted to provide line managers, HR
however, surveyed only incumbents. professionals, and employees with immediate
access to occupational information. With ad-
Developing Competency Models for an vances in technology, it became possible to
Occupational Group place this information in easy-to-use systems,
ensuring that it is used for daily HR opera-
To identify similar jobs within an occupational tional purposes as well as other programmatic
group, statistical analyses are conducted. Clus- initiatives. With the assistance of HR profes-
ter analysis is used to group occupations based sionals within the federal government, OPM
on similarities in ratings of competencies on designed two automated occupational data
importance. These clusters provide the compe- delivery systems, the Human Resource Man-
With advances in tency model for the occupational group in terms ager (HR Manager), designed for use by HR
technology, it of general job families. Table IV shows the re- professionals and line managers, and
became possible sults of the cluster analysis of the clerical and USACareers (originally called Career Counse-
to place this technical jobs. The occupational group compe- lor), designed as a career development tool for
information in tency model provides a general guide to federal use by employees. These systems not only pro-
easy-to-use
systems, ensuring
agencies about the competency requirements vide the results of the occupational analyses
that it is used for and similarities among jobs. It results in two sets but also useful applications of the data. In
daily HR of competencies: those core to the broad occu- addition, they place the same competency in-
operational pational group (e.g., clerical and technical oc- formation in the hands of managers and em-
purposes as well cupations) and the competencies core to a ployees, building a foundation for clearer com-
as other
smaller subset of similar occupations within that munication of occupational expectations and
programmatic
initiatives. group (e.g., administrative cluster). Using the career progression.
occupational clusters, competency-based prod-
ucts, such as selection examinations, can be de-
signed for groups of occupations, reducing the The HR Manager System
costs incurred by developing separate products
and tools for each occupation. The HR Manager was designed to provide
human resource professionals and line man-
Developing Competency Models for an agers with the data necessary to make in-
Occupation formed HR decisions. The HR Manager has
undergone significant transformations as tech-
The competency model, or occupational pro- nology has improved and as users have pro-
file, for each occupation for which there are vided suggestions. The HR Manager evolved
sufficient data is based on the ratings of im- from a strict data delivery system to one con-
portance by supervisors and incumbents as taining competency-based HR products (forTABLE IV Competency-Based Occupational Clusters and Associated Competencies for Clerical and Technical Jobs.
Information Support Administrative Technology and Programs Financial
0072 Fingerprint Identification 0029 Environmental Protection Assistant 0204 Military Personnel Clerical & Technician 0344 Management Clerical & Assistance
0305 Mail and File 0086 Security Clerical & Assistant 0313 Work Unit Supervising 0361 Equal Opportunity
0350 Equipment Operator 0134 Intelligence Aid & Clerk 0332 Computer Operations 0503 Financial Clerical & Assistance
0356 Data Transcriber 0203 Personnel Clerical Technician 0335 Computer Clerk & Assistance 0525 Accounting Technician
1421 Archives Technician 0303 Misc. Clerk & Assistant 0390 Telecommunications Processing 0530 Cash Processing
2091 Sales Store Clerical 0304 Information Receptionist 0392 General Telecommunications 0540 Voucher Examining
0309 Correspondence Clerk 0394 Communications Clerical 0544 Civilian Pay
0312 Clerk-Stenographer & Reporter 0675 Medical Records 0545 Military Pay
0318 Secretary 0679 Medical Clerk 0561 Budget Clerical & Assistance
0322 Clerk-Typist 1152 Production Control 0592 Tax Examining
0326 Office Automation Clerical & Assistance 1411 Library Technician 0962 Contract Representative
0382 Telephone Operating 1702 Education & Training Technician 0963 Legal Instruments Examining
0986 Legal Clerk & Technician 2001 General Supply 0990 General Claims Examining
1001 General Arts & Information Assistance 2005 Supply Clerical & Technician 0998 Claims Clerical
1087 Editorial Assistance 2102 Transportation Clerk & Assistant 1101 General Business & Industry
1802 Compliance Inspection & Support 2151 Dispatching 1105 Purchasing
1106 Procurement Clerical & Assistance
1107 Property Disposal Clerical Tech
1531 Statistical Assistant
2131 Freight Rate
2132 Travel
2134 Shipment Clerical & Assistance
Stamina Reading Reading Reading
Writing Writing Writing
Speaking Speaking Speaking
Listening Listening Listening
Customer Service Customer Service Customer Service
Organizational Awareness Organizational Awareness Organizational Awareness
Manages and Organizes Information Manages and Organizes Information
Decision Making Decision Making
Reasoning Reasoning
Arithmetic/Mathematical Reasoning
Clerical/Technical Basic Competencies (associated with all four clusters)
Integrity/Honesty Technical Competence Flexibility Memory Teamwork
Conscientiousness Interpersonal Skills Self-Esteem Self-Management
Developing Competency Models to Promote Integrated Human Resource Practices
•
317318 • HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, Fall 2002
example, succession planning models, struc- “agency-specific” component that allows the
tured interview questions for selection). It California users to access their data and com-
consists of two major components. The first pare it to the federal data. Other public-sec-
component provides the results of the occu- tor organizations also began to see the benefit
pational survey, displayed by occupation and of using a common language. While some of
pay level for each competency scale (for ex- these have chosen to take part in the occupa-
ample, importance of competencies for tional studies (for example, the states of Michi-
entry-level secretary). These results formed the gan and Indiana), others matched their
basis for the first iteration of the HR Man- occupations to the federal occupations to be
ager, known as the Report Generator. able to use the system (for example, the state
Subsequently, OPM worked with users to of New Jersey). These matches are based on
develop the second component. This compo- the similarity between the state or local jobs
nent provides summarized data and and the competencies and tasks in the federal
Through competency-based HR tools designed prima- occupational profiles.
leveraging rily for use in job design and description, re-
technology, the cruitment and selection, performance The USACareers System
HR Manager
management, and career development and
ensures that
occupational training. As additional occupational studies are USACareers, based on the same data as HR
information can performed, more data are added to the sys- Manager, helps employees to make informed
be used on a tem. In addition, feedback from users contin- choices when managing their careers. Several
daily basis to ues to be incorporated into new iterations of of the features in USACareers are identical to
support HR the system. For example, the Internet version those in the HR Manager so that a consistent
practices and
decisions. of the HR Manager offers many advantages message is conveyed for employees and man-
over previous versions. The advantages include agers. However, the data in USACareers are
the ability to make more timely updates of data for the employees’ own self-assessment and
and features, easier access from remote loca- development. Managers cannot view data for
tions, the ability to access the Internet-based an individual employee; therefore, employees
system without installing additional software, can use the system without concern for nega-
links to other relevant sites, and the ability to tive job impact. This system was designed to
transport data to other systems. Through le- help employees gain a better understanding
veraging technology, the HR Manager ensures of the competency requirements for their cur-
that occupational information can be used on rent jobs and to help them understand the
a daily basis to support HR practices and de- requirements of future career alternatives
cisions. OPM is also working to assist several through assessment, training, development
agencies that own HR Manager to integrate plans and activities, career exploration, and
the data into their HR information systems. the availability of job opportunities.
The initial HR Manager was designed for This comprehensive system was designed
federal agencies; however, state and local gov- to assist employees in a time when the federal
ernments have found the system to be of great government was reducing its numbers. How-
value in their HR processes. For example, the ever, it also helps employers understand the
state of California needed to conduct an oc- competencies of their current workforce. The
cupational analysis of its clerical classes to system provides the employer with reports that
form the foundation of a new clerical test. can be used to identify the overall results of
Instead of developing new task and compe- the competency assessments, assisting the
tency lists, they compared the competencies employer in workforce planning by identify-
and tasks on the federal survey of clerical and ing target areas of improvement.
technical occupations to the work of their
clerical classes. They found that the OPM Forming Partnerships: A Consortium
survey was comprehensive and subsequently Approach
administered it to employees in 90 clerical
classes. The results of the California data were OPM has established consortia of interested
placed in the HR Manager in a separate parties for both the automated systems andDeveloping Competency Models to Promote Integrated Human Resource Practices • 319
the occupational studies to pool financial and the importance of the new Standard Occupa-
human resources, benchmark best practices, tional Classification (SOC) that will provide
and facilitate the exchange of information. a standard classification of jobs that will be
These groups have grown to include federal used by all federal agencies in their data col-
agencies, state and local governments, and lection efforts (Pollack, Simons, Romero, &
nonprofit associations and public institutions Hauser, 2002; U.S. Office of Management and
(e.g., libraries, public colleges and training Budget, 2000). This system will enable pri-
institutes). The organizations participating in vate and public sector organizations to share OPM has
the consortia realize a return on their invest- labor market information, such as pay surveys. established
consortia of
ment as the data are applied to programmatic Additionally, organizations that provide infor- interested parties
and policy initiatives, as well to various HR mation to the Equal Employment Opportu- for both the
processes (e.g., development of succession nity Commission will use the SOC as a re- automated
planning models, development of vacancy or porting framework. The SOC working groups, systems and the
job announcements). responsible for the design of the new SOC, occupational
studies to pool
identified occupations that are based on work-
financial and
Applications of Competency Modeling ers who perform similar job tasks at similar human
skill levels. OPM provided occupational pro- resources,
There are two primary levels for use of com- files (i.e., critical competencies and tasks) for benchmark best
petency models. The first uses competency clerical, technical, administrative, and profes- practices, and
facilitate the
models for specific occupations to facilitate sional occupations to the working groups to
exchange of
HR activities. The second level uses compe- assist in this work. Clusters of occupations information.
tency models of occupational groups to maxi- based on tasks and competencies were also
mize use of resources. Once developed, these provided to the working groups to help iden-
models can then be applied “as is” or tailored tify higher level categories in the SOC. For all
to facilitate the accomplishment of organiza- new occupational studies, OPM will collect
tional objectives. This section will discuss the data according to the new SOC structure and
development and application of these models provide the data to the SOC working groups.
to showcase the flexibility and range of use of These data will contribute to the empirical
competencies from programmatic and opera- foundation for future revisions of the SOC.
tional perspectives.
Competencies used to revise qualification stan-
Level One: Competency Models for Indi- dards. Building on the results of the occupa-
vidual Occupations tional studies, OPM began a comprehensive
review of federal qualification standards (mini-
Competency models are typically developed for mum qualifying standards to enter an occu-
individual occupations. To identify the critical pation) to identify how this occupational in-
competencies for an occupation, OPM uses formation can be used to update these stan-
supervisor and incumbent ratings of importance dards. Starting with pilot projects for accoun-
as well as the ratings by supervisors on the com- tant and information technology positions,
petencies that are needed for entry into a job. OPM is testing the modification of minimum
These critical competencies, along with criti- qualification standards used for federal posi-
cal tasks, form an occupational profile. Agen- tions. This change would move the federal
cies and their subject matter experts review government from using rigid, traditional
these models to ensure the fit of the model time-in-grade and experience requirements to
within the organization. OPM has used these a “whole-person” competency-based model,
profiles for a number of purposes, ranging from using the competency models of individual
input into major federal initiatives to the post- occupations. A competency-based approach
ing of job announcements. Some highlights of offers many advantages over the traditional
OPM’s application of these models follow. system for identifying qualified applicants for
federal positions. The competencies identified
Competencies and the Standard Occupational for occupations are soundly grounded in the
Classification System. OPM has recognized scientific analysis from the MOSAIC studies.320 • HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, Fall 2002
They can be applied in the selection process nouncements and to develop scoring mecha-
through a variety of candidate assessment nisms (e.g., crediting plans, rating guides for
techniques (e.g., structured interviews, on-line structured interviews) for evaluating the can-
tests, work sample assessments). This gives didates. Benchmarks and interview questions
agency officials new options for fast and flex- from HR Manager were used to develop a
ible hiring. As agencies have downsized, the modular-format structured interview that
importance of high-quality selections has in- could be administered on-line. Finally, a
creased and the criteria used to make these Web-based computer adaptive assessment sys-
selections have become more critical for de- tem was provided to pilot agencies so that
veloping a high-performance workforce. they could have access to over one hundred
Competency The two pilot projects testing the revised IT technical assessments.
benchmarks from
HR Manager standards will be evaluated by participating The results of this work led to a system
were used to agencies before being instituted throughout that focuses on an optimal competency pro-
develop vacancy the government. In the Accountant Pilot, the file for a job, not the minimum qualifications
announcements Chief Financial Officers Council of the Fed- for a job. OPM plans to continue development
and to develop eral Government, OPM, and a group of eight of the competency-based qualification stan-
scoring
mechanisms
agencies contributed to the development of a dards for other federal occupations.
(e.g., crediting competency-based job profile for accountant
plans, rating positions. This job profile was based on the Competencies and HR functions. Finally, com-
guides for empirical data gathered in the occupational petency models for individual occupations
structured study. Focus groups were conducted to fur- provide the basis for daily HR activities. Many
interviews) for
evaluating the
ther define the technical competencies (e.g., agencies are using competencies as the foun-
candidates. economics and accounting), taking them to a dation for recruitment and selection. For ex-
lower level (e.g., budgeting concepts and prin- ample, recruitment or job advertisements at
ciples) than those found in the study of pro- many agencies now include competencies.
fessional and administrative occupations. The Additionally, the advertisements may ask ap-
pilot on IT occupations includes the develop- plicants to specifically address the competen-
ment of new specialty titles to replace the gen- cies or to answer competency-based questions.
eral computer specialist title. OPM used the The U.S. Mint has used this approach suc-
new SOC as its foundation for developing new cessfully and has found that the quality of
IT titles and definitions of the work associ- applicants has improved, with the added ben-
ated with these titles, while simultaneously efit of some unqualified candidates
working to revise the minimum qualification self-selecting out of the applicant pool. The
requirements for IT occupations using the data questions can also be used in structured in-
from the occupational studies. These terviews of qualified candidates. Rating crite-
competency-based requirements will be ria can be developed using the competency
aligned with the new title structure. A new benchmarks or levels.
occupational survey is being sent to identify Within the Employment Service (ES) of
the critical tasks and competencies for each the OPM, a pilot competency-based perform-
of the specialty titles. Results will be used to ance evaluation system has been established
verify the new classification structure and using competency benchmarks as the foun-
qualifications profile. dation for the system. This system was de-
OPM provides agencies participating in signed for all jobs within the ES using the
the pilots of the competency-based job pro- competency data collected in the occupa-
files with recruitment and selection strate- tional studies. Competencies were selected
gies and tools. These tools include new as critical elements in the performance man-
candidate assessment instruments, special agement system, based on information col-
recruiting material, a training program to in- lected on importance and distinguishing
sure correct and consistent application of the value (i.e., which competencies were rated
profile, and an outreach program to educate the highest for distinguishing superior per-
managers. Competency benchmarks from HR formers). Competency benchmarks were
Manager were used to develop vacancy an- used to anchor the rating scale for the per-Developing Competency Models to Promote Integrated Human Resource Practices • 321
formance review process. These competency of jobs are identified and the resulting com-
ratings are combined with ratings on the petency model is used.
achievement of results to provide a complete
picture of an individual’s performance. Assessment. OPM developed job clusters (see
Competency models of individual occu- Table IV) to provide the foundation for a new
pations also form the foundation for training selection test for federal clerical occupations.
and development activities. For example, the Four clusters of clerical occupations were By developing
Forest Service (FS) is deploying a identified, with a set of core competencies families and
competency-based training information sys- identified for all clerical occupations. For each bands of jobs that
are based on
tem using competencies from the HR Man- of the four clusters or families of jobs (e.g.,
common
ager as the basis for needs assessment. This administrative), additional cluster-specific competencies,
system will search course information and core competencies were identified. The cleri- employers are
identify courses that provide training on the cal examination measures both core and able to fully
competencies selected as critical for the job. cluster-specific competencies. The clerical test utilize their
Employees and supervisors provide ratings on is in modular form so that different sections resources by
developing and
competencies to identify which competencies of the test can be used for appropriate job fami- implementing
are most critical in an employee’s development lies (e.g., Arithmetic/Mathematical Reasoning training
during a given time period. The system will for jobs in the Financial Family; see Table IV). programs that
also feature an on-line catalog, approval of all reflect these
non-FS courses, and track the training his- Career banding. OPM’s job families have been competencies.
tory of individuals. Within the state of Colo- used as a foundation for occupational consoli-
rado, several departments have begun to use dation and career banding. For each job fam-
occupational profiles as a foundation for their ily, career bands can be defined. Career bands
career models. The Colorado Department of are broad levels (e.g., entry, intermediate, full,
Transportation (CDOT) has used critical com- and expert) for which required competencies
petencies to develop a competency-based en- are identified. This grouping is similar to the
gineering succession and development banding of pay grades in broadbanding, but is
planning model by tying engineering exami- not designed to modify pay grades. By devel-
nations and training to the competencies. The oping families and bands of jobs that are based
Colorado Department of Human Services is on common competencies, employers are able
also using a competency-based approach to to fully utilize their resources by developing
succession planning. It is using a “Competency and implementing training programs that re-
Assessment Form” to rate the current impor- flect these competencies. Employees, in turn,
tance and future importance of various com- can begin to understand the competencies
petencies for its managers and supervisors, and required for progression in their current jobs
to assess their current preparedness and fu- and become aware of other career alternatives.
ture preparedness to meet these needs. This
subset of applications represents how empiri- Succession planning. Another empirically
cally based competency models for individual based application of a competency model for
occupations provide the foundation for sup- an occupational group was the development
porting HR applications. of a leadership succession model that provided
the critical competencies for supervisors, man-
Level Two: Developing Competency Models agers, and executives. This succession plan-
for Occupational Groups ning model identified the competencies tar-
geted for training by the Federal Management
Using competency models based on an oc- Development Centers. Training course de-
cupational group can help streamline HR ini- scriptions are linked to these competencies.
tiatives, which will reduce resource needs, The leadership competency model for execu-
as well as provide a larger snapshot of groups tives was updated in 1998 (Eyde, Gregory,
of jobs. The groups of jobs can be based on Muldrow, & Mergen, 1999) using an exten-
empirical data or strategic needs. In both sive literature review, benchmarking study with
cases, the common competencies for a group the private sector, and executive focus groups.322 • HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT, Fall 2002
The updated model provided the basis for the The strategic use of competencies can also
Federal Senior Executive Service (SES) Lead- promote the desired culture of an organization.
ership Core Qualifications that are used to For example, the U.S. Mint has established an
assess applicants into SES positions. A future executive contract (i.e., a performance contract)
government-wide survey will expand on the that ties these concepts together. Instead of
research done for executives. Results will up- focusing only on results, the Mint also focuses
date the succession planning model developed on competencies used to achieve the results.
from the 1992 leadership study. By identifying competencies or groups of com-
petencies that are critical to the organization
Competencies and the Organizational Mission and placing them in a performance contract,
an organization is communicating the way that
The role of HR professionals has expanded to business should be conducted. Performance
include new responsibilities as a strategic part- contracts can result in decreases in grievances,
ner to management and change agent (Ulrich, absenteeism, and sabotage.
1997). Competencies support these new roles Changes in federal policy and HR prac-
since they can be linked to and promote the tices have been facilitated by competency data.
strategic mission and values of an organiza- In the early 1990s, the primary mission of ES
tion. The linkage of occupation-related com- was to recruit and retain a high-quality fed-
petencies and activities to the organizational eral workforce. Competency models provided
mission and goals provides a clear line of sight the data to promote this mission, by identify-
between individual and team performance and ing the critical competencies for different oc-
organizational success. The organization can cupations to establish the criteria for selection
reward the accomplishments directly related tests. Currently, with a tight labor market, it
to the agency’s mission and reward those com- important for the federal government to in-
petencies that drive organizational success. By crease the flexibility of its hiring system. ES is
aligning the strategic plan with competencies, using the results of the occupational analyses
an organization can effectively derive recruit- to pilot test a competency-based approach to
ment, selection, and training strategies that establish qualifications for jobs, resulting in a
will support projected future needs, resulting dramatic change in the way the federal gov-
in high-performing employees and a high- ernment can hire. These applications demon-
performance organization. strate the broad implications of the use of
To ensure the continual linkage of competencies to support HR initiatives.
workforce competencies to an organization’s
strategic mission and the adaptation of com- Future Directions
petencies to the changing business environ-
ment, an organization can conduct periodic OPM was created to ensure that a merit sys-
competency audits using its performance man- tem of hiring and promotion is maintained in
agement results. Aggregating individuals’ the federal government. Recent and future
strengths and weaknesses on mission-critical work adds to this mission by supporting the
competencies will allow the organization to basic elements of a merit system, as well as
assess the strategic objectives that can be promoting the selection of individuals with the
achieved with its existing workforce. The skills optimal combination of competencies for per-
gap analysis at the organizational level pro- formance within an occupation and for the
vides key information for workforce planning best fit with the organization. The results of
strategies. The competency audit will allow the the MOSAIC studies have provided the foun-
organization to determine how to leverage its dation for OPM’s policy initiatives as well as
resources most effectively with regard to the for integrated HR tools for managers, employ-
strategic mission. The audit provides a focused ees, and applicants. This foundation of occu-
approach for relocating employees within the pational information is essential for HR to be
organization and providing training and de- value-added in the twenty-first century by as-
velopment where they can serve the best or- sisting organizations in moving forward and
ganizational purpose. responding quickly to their changing needs.Developing Competency Models to Promote Integrated Human Resource Practices • 323
Occupational information allows HR to bring tors, OPM will work to ensure a common lan-
useful information and data to the decision- guage for describing jobs. OPM will continue
making process, while reducing the risk of le- to provide data to support national initiatives.
gal challenges for their organization. Although many organizations will probably
The federal government, as well as many never conduct the large-scale occupational
other organizations, must be able to more analyses that OPM does, organizations can
quickly adapt to changes. OPM will continue build on the publicly available competency
to leverage technology and improve method- models developed by OPM. OPM plans to
ology to ensure the competency models re- continue its work with competency models and
main current and applicable and that these ensure that results are publicly available so
models are quickly distributed. By building that these models may be a source of infor-
partnerships with the public and private sec- mation for other organizations.
Donna Rodriguez is a research psychologist at the U.S. Office of Personnel Manage-
ment. She has been responsible for planning, conducting, and automating the results
of government-wide job analyses studies. She has assisted many public-sector organiza-
tions with strategies on implementing competency models to increase workforce qual-
ity and performance. Donna received her Ph.D. in Industrial/Organizational Psychology
from Georgia Institute of Technology.
Rita Patel is currently a senior consultant for Unisys, providing organizational assess-
ment, design, and human capital services in the public sector. She served as a research
psychologist with the U.S. Office of Personnel Management for more than five years.
She conducted two government-wide job analyses studies and helped design a system
for delivering job analyses data. Rita received her Ph.D. in Industrial/Organizational
Psychology from the George Washington University.
Andrea Bright has been involved with designing and implementing automated job
analysis delivery systems at the U.S. Office of Personnel Management. She has been
particularly involved with bringing these systems to state and local government users.
Additionally, Andrea has been responsible for planning and conducting government-wide
job analysis studies and assisting in the implementation of competency applications.
Donna Gregory directs the Personnel Resources and Development Center, a psycho-
logical research center that conducts basic, applied, and innovative research in every
area of human resource management to support the mission of the Office of Personnel
Management. Ms. Gregory has been instrumental in the development and implemen-
tation of multi-purpose occupational studies and competency modeling. She is cur-
rently a Senior Executive with the U.S. Office of Personnel Management.
Marilyn K. Gowing is currently Vice President for Public Sector Consulting and
Services with the Washington office of Assessment Solutions, Inc. (ASI)/AON Consult-
ing. Prior to joining ASI/AON, Dr. Gowing was a member of the Senior Executive Ser-
vice for the U.S. Office of Personnel Management where she directed the Personnel
Resources and Development Center. Her publications include two books, Taxonomies
of Human Performance (with Edwin A. Fleishman) and The New Organizational Real-
ity: Downsizing, Restructuring and Revitalization (with John Kraft and James Campbell
Quick). Dr. Gowing is currently a member of the Emotional Intelligence Consortium
chaired by Daniel Goleman and Cary Cherniss of Rutgers University, and she has
authored a chapter on measures of emotional intelligence in a book published by the
Consortium.You can also read
