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INNOVATING PEDAGOGY 2021 Exploring new forms of teaching, learning and assessment, to guide educators and policy makers Agnes Kukulska-Hulme, Carina Bossu, Tim Coughlan, Rebecca Ferguson, Elizabeth FitzGerald, Mark Gaved, Christothea Herodotou, Bart Rienties, Julia Sargent, Eileen Scanlon, Jinlan Tang, Qi Wang, Denise Whitelock, Shuai Zhang Open University Innovation Report 9
Institute of Educational Technology, The Open University Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, United Kingdom Artificial Intelligence and Human Languages Lab/The Institute of Online Education, Beijing Foreign Studies University No.19 Xisanhuan Beilu, Haidian District, Beijing, China ISBN 978-1-4730-3170-8 Text and design © The Open University 2021 This report published 2021 First Innovating Pedagogy report published 2012 A full-text PDF version of this report is available to download from www.open.ac.uk/innovating Permission is granted under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 3.0 Unported Licence (CC BY- NC 3.0) to copy, redistribute, remix, transform and build upon this report freely, provided that attribution is made as illustrated in the citation below. You may make changes in any reasonable manner, as long as you indicate that you have done so and do not imply that the licensor endorses you or your use, and that you do not use the material for commercial purposes. To view a copy of this licence, visit creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/ Edited and typeset by The Open University Cover photograph by khoamartin / 123RF Picture credits: Grateful acknowledgement is made to the following sources: Page 10 Photo by Bannon Morrissy on Unsplash Page 15 Screenshot from Second Life, © Linden Lab Page 16 Photos courtesy of Rebecca Ferguson Page 17 Screenshot courtesy of The Open University. Reproduced with permission. Page 19 Image by John Hain from Pixabay Page 20 Photo by Karolina Grabowska from Pixabay Page 31 Photo by Ben Wiens on Unsplash Page 32 Photo by Wallace Chuck from Pexels Page 36 Photo by airfocus on Unsplash Page 45 Photo by Yuri_Arcurs / iStock / Getty Images Plus Page 46 Image courtesy of Christothea Herodotou Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders. If any have been inadvertently overlooked the publishers will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity. Suggested citation: Kukulska-Hulme, A., Bossu, C., Coughlan, T., Ferguson, R., FitzGerald, E., Gaved, M., Herodotou, C., Rienties, B., Sargent, J., Scanlon, E., Tang, J., Wang, Q., Whitelock, D., Zhang, S. (2021). Innovating Pedagogy 2021: Open University Innovation Report 9. Milton Keynes: The Open University.
Contents Executive summary 1 Introduction6 Best learning moments 10 Positive mental states for enjoyable and effective learning Enriched realities 14 Extending learning with augmented and virtual reality Gratitude as a pedagogy 19 Reflecting on attitude to improve wellbeing and learning Using chatbots in learning 23 Using educational dialogues to improve learning efficiency Equity-oriented pedagogy 27 Finding fairer ways to improve learning for all Hip-hop based education 31 Culturally relevant learning through hip-hop Student co-created teaching and learning 36 Teachers and students creating materials and curricula Telecollaboration for language learning 40 Using communication tools for collaborative language learning Evidence-based teaching 44 Using evidence from research to inform teaching Corpus-based pedagogy 48 Using authentic language data to support language teaching and learning
Executive summary
This series of reports explores new forms of teaching, learning and assessment for an
interactive world to guide teachers and policy makers in productive innovation. This ninth
report proposes ten innovations that are already in currency but have not yet had a widespread
influence on education. To produce the report, a group of academics at the Institute of
Educational Technology at The Open University, UK, collaborated with researchers from the
Artificial Intelligence and Human Languages Lab/Institute of Online Education at Beijing Foreign
Studies University. A long list of new educational concepts, terms, theories and practices
was proposed and then pared down to ten that have the potential to provoke major shifts in
educational practice. Finally, ten sketches of innovative pedagogies were compiled, based on a
review of published studies and other sources, and they are summarised below.
1 Best learning moments: The idea
of best learning moments builds on
when a teacher senses that students
are engaged and ready to absorb
the psychological concept of cognitive some insights, such as a general
absorption, or ‘flow’, defined as deep point from a shared experience.
involvement or immersion in an activity
or task, often accompanied by feelings 2 Enriched realities: It is increasingly
common to enrich reality with the use of
of enjoyment. People experience
this mental state and these feelings technology, and several types of reality
when engaged in an activity that is can be blended. When learners cannot
appropriately challenging to their skill be in the same place at the same time,
level, resulting in full concentration augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality
and focus. Best learning moments can (VR) can be used to make some exciting
result in deep learning and high levels and memorable shared experiences
of satisfaction, and they may also be possible. When an AR application is
particularly memorable. They may used, it overlays information on our
occur in situations involving hands-on surroundings or objects around us,
activity and participation, and they fit in while VR provides a three-dimensional
well with learner-centred approaches environment with which learners can
that take individual differences in interact. Such enriched realities extend
learning into account. Teaching tips for what is possible in education and training
creating memorable moments include and provide dynamic, new experiences
talking about students’ interests, asking that engage learners immediately. They
challenging questions and accepting that also open up opportunities that are not
all students are different. Technology- available in the classroom, such as
enhanced learning environments can be exploring places that would be difficult,
designed to create opportunities for best dangerous or impossible to visit for a
learning moments – for example, through learner – the surface of Mars or the
use of mobile devices, games-based inside of a volcano, for example. With
learning and immersive experiences, AR and VR, students can interact and
and through using data from learning work together, manipulating virtual
analytics. New ways of capturing best objects and moving around the setting
learning moments can support reflection together. These ways of engaging
on learning and improving the design can support them in understanding
of learning technology. Best learning concepts, practising skills and performing
moments can also be opportunities various tasks or procedures. Enriched
for ‘teachable moments’, which are realities are now used in many
unplanned opportunities that arise contexts including clinical and medical
settings, safety training and teacher
Executive summary 1
training. Small-scale use of enriched make sense of patterns in languages
reality is within reach for learners or behaviours. Chatbots bring new
with access to a suitable smartphone opportunities, such as immediate
and a good internet connection. problem diagnosis and interventions.
They can provide learners with support
3 Gratitude as a pedagogy: Gratitude
involves the acknowledgement of
tailored to their needs – for example,
constructing an immersive learning
what people have or receive and the environment, analysing requirements
conscious action of wanting to give and initiating supportive conversation.
back in some ways. When applied in an Studies suggest that learners might
academic context, gratitude can help express themselves more freely with
students to improve student–teacher chatbots as they are not interacting with
and student–student relationships; it humans who might judge them. Chatbots
can help them to be more aware of have brought opportunities when tackling
their learning environment and increase the contradiction between large-scale
understanding and focus on their studies. and high-quality in learning. They enable
It can also improve mental health and greater personalisation by collecting data
wellbeing of both students and teachers from dialogues and learners’ behaviours
– for example, students improve their to provide support that is specifically
ability to remain resilient while facing tailored to each learner’s requirements,
difficulties in learning. One practical which might also help reduce educators’
approach to implementing gratitude as workloads. However, chatbots may
a pedagogy involves asking teachers not meet expectations if learners are
and students to examine their attitude not tolerant of their shortcomings,
before starting their teaching or learning such as a limited capacity to handle
and during learning activities. A more misunderstandings and breakdowns
detailed reflection can bring awareness in a conversation. Ethical issues
of any negative attitudes towards certain such as who owns and has access to
topics or learning activities. These are conversations between chatbots and
then analysed and replaced by elements humans also need to be addressed.
of gratitude. Students have reported
being more engaged and less distracted,
having great motivation for learning,
5 Equity-oriented pedagogy: Developing
educational opportunities that are
and having increased confidence and inclusive requires thinking not only
a deeper understanding of concepts. about equality in opportunities to
Gratitude as a pedagogy has been access education but also about equity,
increasingly included in the professional whereby each student can achieve
development of school teachers, similar positive outcomes, regardless
used in early childhood education of their background and characteristics
and explored in medical practice. such as gender, disability or ethnicity.
Finding fairer ways to improve learning
4 Using chatbots in learning: Using a
text-based or voice-based conversational
for all requires consideration of barriers
at many levels, from personal to cultural
interface to communicate with the and societal. Strategies in equity-
user, chatbots can answer and ask oriented pedagogy include listening
questions, guide learners and assist in to students and adapting teaching,
problem solving. This means that, when recognising uneven impacts of use of
a teacher is not available or cannot educational technology, awareness
help, learners are still able to make of how assessment practices can be
some progress. Increasingly, chatbots unfair and drawing on pedagogical
use artificial intelligence techniques to frameworks such as Universal Design
understand human languages, voices, for Learning (UDL). UDL seeks to
body language and behaviours, and to
2 Innovating Pedagogy 2021
accommodate individual learning emotional learning; increased literacy
differences and provides principles of development and critical thinking; and
curriculum design that focus on offering improvement in teacher and student
students multiple means of engagement, relationships. It is studied within
representation (e.g. alternative disciplines such as English, sociology,
formats) and expression or action. New linguistics, dance, anthropology and
technology and increased online and music. It has practical applications
hybrid learning provide opportunities from early years learning through to
for increasing personalisation and co- higher education levels of study.
creation of learning, although possible
inequitable effects of technology 7 Student co-created teaching and
learning: The co-creation of teaching
must be considered. Where the
focus is on developing individualised and learning materials by teachers
support for learners, this should not and students can lead to greater
reduce the social benefits of learning empowerment of students and better
together or unintentionally create relationships. Students can share
new barriers. By putting a focus on responsibility with teachers for designing
fairness, rather than on whether materials and activities as well as
access is possible, equity-oriented assessments. They can co-create new
pedagogies can offer a more holistic content and experiences or amend
approach when considering inclusion. existing ones. The approach resembles
‘communities of practice’, whereby a
6 Hip-hop based education: Hip-hop
based education focuses on the use
group of people come together, linked by
a common interest, and meet regularly
of hip-hop as a musical genre, culture in order to find ways of improving their
and art movement, both inside and practice. As students participate in the
outside a traditional school setting. It co-creation activities, they negotiate
uses elements such as rap music texts, with others and form and evolve their
videos, graffiti and breakdancing in identities. Examples of co-creation
curricula and in teaching and learning to range from small group activities, often
provide a culturally appropriate approach relating to specific courses, to larger-
that can empower marginalised groups scale involvements such as surveys,
of learners. Educators, scholars and interviews, consultations, testing of
students involved in hip-hop education materials, workshops and critical
challenge traditional educational systems reading of course content. Barriers to
and structures and attach particular uptake of this approach include the
value to the power of youth voice, culture need for students to have specific skills
and agency. Hip-hop based education or expertise, and a concern that their
requires critical reflection to ensure that involvement may change the direction
both teachers and students maintain of content creation from what was
an authentic learning experience originally planned. There may also
and a critical perspective. As well as be frustration when the process does
incorporating elements of hip-hop into not work smoothly, and there is a risk
teaching and learning, it is important that that co-creation may not involve all
teachers involve students in critically students, thereby contributing to feelings
examining negative aspects of hip- of exclusion. When co-creation works
hop that may reinforce or encourage well, students often report positive
sexism or violence. Hip-hop based feelings of enthusiasm and involvement
education has been shown to bring and they can acquire new skills. Co-
benefits that include greater student created materials may also save them
engagement, motivation and social and having to buy expensive textbooks.
Executive summary 3
8 Telecollaboration for language
learning: Learning a second language
idea originates from medicine, where
practitioners often make use of evidence
can bring many advantages, such as from research and experimental studies
an increased likelihood of attaining which they combine with information
further education, work and professional about their patients to make decisions
collaboration. The availability of about managing their health. Evidence-
free-to-use online communication based teaching examines evidence
tools has created new opportunities from research to determine whether
for authentic contexts for language there are proven benefits from a given
learning and cultural learning, in the pedagogical approach, or the conditions
form of telecollaboration projects that under which an approach will work. For
connect learners in different locations. example, robust evidence now exists
Telecollaboration enables a student that supports the provision of good-
to tutor another in their first language, quality feedback, the development of
while also learning their collaboration skills that can help students understand
partner’s language as part of the same how they learn, and giving homework
exchange. Such projects may be to students. Several national and
formally supported within an educational university-based centres design and
institution or informal. Telecollaboration implement studies that examine in a
has been found to improve learners’ systematic manner which pedagogical
communication skills, expand their techniques are beneficial, how different
vocabulary and grammar knowledge, and approaches to teaching are perceived
help them to appreciate other cultures by students and what their impact
and to use their second language may be on what is learnt. Evidence-
accurately and appropriately. Records based teaching can support teachers in
of telecollaboration may be useful for identifying and applying best teaching
follow-up tuition or task improvement. practices, debunking harmful myths
The quality of the learning opportunities about teaching and improving current
in telecollaboration is dependent on teaching and learning. A good strategy
learners’ commitment and motivation, is for researchers to work closely with
and learners and teachers may need to teachers to reflect on their needs, design
be trained in telecollaboration principles studies and produce evidence together.
and strategies. Some learners have
reported cross-cultural tensions when 10 Corpus-based pedagogy: A large
collection of texts or other samples
working on language tasks. Overall,
telecollaboration can contribute to of naturally occurring language – for
building a student-centred learning example, a collection of newspaper
environment characterised by peer articles across several decades or a
teaching, autonomous learning and collection of informal conversations – is
tailored learning based on learners’ known as a corpus. Language teachers,
personal interests and needs. students and developers of teaching
materials may access a corpus to obtain
9 Evidence-based teaching: Evidence-
based teaching is about using research
authentic linguistic data and devise
corpus-based tasks for teaching and
evidence to inform decisions about the learning. Corpus-based pedagogy has
best pedagogical approach to apply received attention in recent years as a
in a given domain. These decisions result of advances in computing science
may relate to which teaching strategy that facilitate extraction of information
to adopt to be able to teach a specific from a corpus – for example, to find out
topic, capturing the progress students how certain words are used. Learners
make over time, or assessing the can access online corpora with or without
effectiveness of one’s teaching. The the help of their teachers, and they can
4 Innovating Pedagogy 2021
analyse their own use of language by in a particular genre, and scrutiny of
comparing their linguistic choices with existing textbooks to discover their
the patterns and structures retrieved features and to suggest improvements.
from a corpus. The retrieval and It can also enable comparisons between
analysis of language use in context thus word usage or concepts in different
provides learners with a research-based languages to help develop cultural
understanding of language forms and awareness. Researchers maintain
functions. The corpus-based approach that there is a need for more corpora
can be applied in many areas including that are accessible, diverse and
learning languages for specific purposes, adaptable for language instruction.
teaching text analysis, support for writing
Executive summary 5
Introduction
This is the ninth in a series of annual reports on innovations in teaching, learning and
assessment. The Innovating Pedagogy reports are intended for teachers, policy makers,
academics, researchers, educational technology developers and anyone interested in how
education may change in the years ahead.
This 2021 report is the result of collaboration foregrounding positive attitudes that can help
between researchers from the Institute people to navigate an uncertain environment.
of Educational Technology at The Open
University (UK) and the Artificial Intelligence Challenges in emergencies
and Human Languages Lab/Institute of Work on this report began in May 2020, at
Online Education at Beijing Foreign Studies a time of great upheaval and disturbance
University. The report introduces ten to normal ways of conducting education,
innovative pedagogies that either already brought about by the Covid-19 pandemic.
influence educational practice or offer The pedagogical innovations described in
opportunities for the future. By ‘innovative our report are not a direct response to the
pedagogies’, we mean novel or changing challenges that so many educators have faced
theories and practices of teaching, learning because of this extraordinary situation, but
and assessment for the contemporary world, they are certainly relevant to those challenges.
often enabled or supported by technology.
The pedagogies we settled on seem to reflect
As in previous years, the process of writing this some important sensibilities and concerns that
report has involved sharing ideas; discussing were being highlighted in discussions among
innovations; reading research papers, reports educators and policy makers during 2020.
and blogs; and commenting on each other’s Restrictions on human contact had put the
draft contributions. We worked together by spotlight on personal wellbeing and its impacts
first listing new educational concepts, terms, on people’s ability to teach and study. Efforts
theories and practices, then reducing these were redoubled to understand teachers’ and
to those that have the potential to bring about students’ personal circumstances and needs.
major shifts in educational practice. This What was learnt highlighted issues of social
report series has been published annually justice and equity, such as uneven access
since 2012, so the selection of the ‘top ten’ to teaching materials and suitable spaces,
pedagogies for the report is also guided by the support and technology. Just as knowledge-
fact that we do not want to repeat pedagogies generating communities within science,
we have presented previously, even if they are medicine, healthcare and other disciplines
only now starting to be recognised more widely were called upon to provide reliable evidence
as emerging trends. to inform important decisions relating to
The pace of innovation and the ability to managing the pandemic, similar requests
adopt new practices differs around the were made to various communities in the field
world, and of course not every suggested of education.
pedagogy is suitable for every setting. Yet Those with a great deal of experience in
increasingly, innovative pedagogies display a technology-enhanced and distance learning
shared propensity to promote connection and have been able to point to successful
collaboration (including between students and approaches, implementations and designs
teachers), taking learning beyond classroom supported by evidence from research and
walls into a virtual space and enabling practice. In response to a growing demand
participants to reach out to others who may for information on teaching at a distance,
be on the other side of the world. Several the Institute of Educational Technology
pedagogies also display a trend towards had already shared online a subset of our
6 Innovating Pedagogy 2021
innovative pedagogy descriptions from on them later. Best learning moments may
previous years, in the form of help sheets occur – though by no means exclusively –
for people who are trying out distance and when learners are using some technology-
online education for the first time, or who enhanced learning applications that have
have already taught at a distance and want been designed for an excellent ‘learner
to try something new1. Many institutes, experience’. These might be applications
organisations and governments around the or environments that extend learning with
world have provided other resources for augmented and virtual reality. Enriched
distance education and emergency remote realities provide experiences that engage
teaching2, 3, 4. learners immediately. Learning environments
using enriched realities offer remote
Wellbeing at the heart of participation and exploration, trips back in
education time or into the future, virtual rehearsals and
Several of the pedagogies outlined in this clinical simulations. Such experiences can
report promote awareness of the role of build confidence and lower the risk involved
attitudes and emotions in teaching and in a difficult procedure or activity, which might
learning. Educators want their students to also reduce anxiety.
pay attention in class but, ideally, they want
more: students should have the right attitude, Social justice and student
and they should be fully engaged and deeply participation
absorbed in their learning experience, since It is perhaps no coincidence that several
that will lead to higher levels of achievement pedagogies in this report are concerned with
and satisfaction. Gratitude as a pedagogy providing fair chances and enabling greater
suggests reflecting on attitude in order to student participation. In open- and distance-
bring about improvements in wellbeing, learning contexts, these have long been
relationships and learning. Practising gratitude cherished aims and have led to innovations
has been shown to lead to an increase in such as openly available online courses taken
students’ ability to focus in class and to by very large numbers of people who would
remain resilient when facing difficulties, while otherwise miss out on learning opportunities.
teachers have been better able to deal with Equity-oriented pedagogy has a focus on
stress. The approach seems highly relevant inclusivity, going beyond opening up access
in times of adversity and the positive feelings to education and asking how every student
it generates may go some way towards in a class (or cohort or programme, etc.) can
counteracting the emotional anxiety and achieve similar positive outcomes, regardless
cognitive stress brought on by uncertainty and of their background and characteristics such
insecurity at the present time. as gender, disability or ethnicity. A pedagogical
orientation towards equity requires teachers
Research suggests that people learn best to really listen to students, challenging them
when they are in a mental state that makes to address inequalities that may be created by
their learning easier or more enjoyable. some examinations and assessments as well
Best learning moments use heightened as by uneven access to, and ability to use,
attention and engagement signalling positive technology.
mental states that can lead to enjoyable
and effective learning. Although the concept One way to work towards fairness is through
of ‘cognitive absorption’ (a state of deep or student co-created teaching and learning,
total involvement) has been explored in the which can lead to greater empowerment of
past in relation to many human activities students and better relationships among
including learning, the ‘best learning moments’ students and between students and teachers.
approach uses this concept as a way to Co-creation can be direct, through joint
promote noticing such occurrences as activities such as production of learning
opportunities to intensify and sustain learning, materials and design of assessments, or
or to capture learning incidents and reflect indirect, by way of opinions, suggestions and
Introduction 7feedback offered through multiple means areas of interest and need. Just as in other,
including surveys, testing of new course possibly unfamiliar collaborative activities such
materials and critical reading of course as the content co-creation mentioned earlier,
content. Consideration should be given to students are likely to need some targeted
whether students have the necessary skills development in terms of their collaboration or
and competencies needed for full participation, creation skills and some strategies needed
and how these may be developed. It may be for handling tensions between participants
appropriate to work on developing a culture or conflict resolution. Making such skills and
of participation, so that it becomes a natural strategies explicit to learners may also be
and expected part of being a student. As part a new challenge for some teachers and for
of this process, there would be opportunities those who are designing skills courses for
to discuss benefits and drawbacks, how to students. Such skills developed in the safe
handle conflicts, and ways in which everyone environment of a telecollaboration project
can be included. could also be valuable for wider application
in other contexts, such as interactions on
Where students are already immersed in social media platforms that may be used
a distinctive culture outside class, elements for language practice, peer support or other
of their experiences and traditions can purposes.
be brought into class and incorporated
into course materials and curricula. As an Another growing area of opportunity is using
example, hip-hop based education connects chatbots in learning. These tools, based
with hip-hop as a musical genre, culture and on artificial intelligence (AI), could enable
art movement, using elements such as rap language practice via simple activities like
music texts, performances, videos, art and asking and answering questions, through
dancing. Apart from improvements in teacher to more advanced conversation designs,
and student relationships, the benefits of a such as enabling a learner to participate in
hip-hop based education include greater a story by responding to choices offered by
student motivation, engagement, social and the chatbot. Chatbots are currently mainly
emotional learning, literacy development designed for individual interactions, but in
and critical thinking. future they could support more collaborative
dialogues. For example, the Wysa chatbot5,
Expanding connections and which offers anytime chats with an artificial
collaborations agent to alleviate loneliness, stress or anxiety,
The idea of building relationships and also offers to bring a (real) therapist into
expanding opportunities for interaction and the conversation at the user’s request. By
cultural learning comes into play in other analogy, when a teacher is not available,
pedagogies, notably telecollaboration for learners can talk with a suitably designed
language learning. By connecting learners chatbot and are thus enabled to resolve
through free-to-use online communication some queries or make some progress with
tools and environments, collaboration at their learning, and could call on the teacher
a distance gives learners opportunities to or another helper when they are available
practise using a foreign language and to or when the need arises. Chatbots are
expand their understanding of other cultures, still imperfect and may not meet learners’
while also taking on the role of an informal expectations if there are misunderstandings
teacher of their first language (or another and breakdowns in a conversation, but they
language in which they are proficient). By are increasingly used in commercial contexts
working on joint ‘projects’, pairs or groups of and healthcare, and the repertoire of their
learners can proceed at their preferred pace application areas is rapidly growing.
and in good alignment with their common
8 Innovating Pedagogy 2021Evidence-based and data-based The evidence-based approach is also
visible in pedagogies that make use of
practice
large collections of data sets and corpora
Choices are often made based on established
(collections of texts or recordings). In corpus-
practices. One basis for pedagogical and
based pedagogy for language learning
technological decisions is using what is
and linguistic investigations, the retrieval
already known to work, even if it does not
and analysis of language use in context
necessarily work exceedingly well. When there
– for example, in a corpus of recorded
is a need or opportunity to change or adopt
conversations – provides learners with a
something new, we may look for evidence
research-based understanding of language
that will support our choices. Evidence from
forms and functions. Learning tasks can
research studies is not always easy to find,
be designed to help learners explore word
the findings can be hard to interpret, and
forms, uses and combinations, supported by
the whole process can be time-consuming,
increasingly intelligent tools that can provide
yet compared with past generations, many
different views of the corpus data. Language
teachers have greater access to evidence
learners, as well as international students
from research, which suggests that they could
in a variety of disciplines, can develop their
engage more with evidence-based teaching.
autonomy by analysing their own use of
While it may not be possible to source reliable
language and comparing their linguistic
evidence for every aspect of pedagogy, it
choices with the patterns and structures
now exists for such aspects as good-quality
found in a corpus. Exponential growth in
feedback, the development of skills that can
collections of research studies, and slower but
help students understand how they learn, and
steady growth in large collections of texts and
conditions that make homework practices
recordings, create opportunities for teaching
more effective. This report recommends that
and learning, but they also call for new skills,
researchers work more closely with teachers
analysis tools and adaptations in pedagogical
to reflect on their needs for research, design
practices.
studies together and produce evidence in
whatever forms would be useful for practice.
References
1. A set of ten help sheets from the Institute of Commonwealth of Learning (2020). Keeping the
Educational Technology at The Open University: doors of learning open: Covid-19. Available at:
Ferguson, R. (2020). Teaching at a Distance: https://www.col.org/resources/keeping-doors-
Methods that Work. Blog post with ten downloadable learning-open-covid-19 (Accessed: 27/11/20).
help sheets, 8 January 2020. Available at: 4. An article on how distance learning differs from
http://www.open.ac.uk/blogs/innovating/ teaching online in a crisis:
(Accessed: 27/11/20). Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., &
2. A list of educational applications, platforms and Bond, A. (2020). The Difference Between Emergency
resources aiming to help parents, teachers, schools Remote Teaching and Online Learning. March 27,
and school administrators facilitate student learning 2020. Available at:
and provide social care and interaction during periods https://er.educause.edu/articles/2020/3/the-
of school closure: difference-between-emergency-remote-teaching-
UNESCO (2020). Distance learning solutions. and-online-learning (Accessed: 27/11/20).
Available at: https://en.unesco.org/covid19/ 5. A therapist chatbot (‘Sometimes you need to talk
educationresponse/solutions (Accessed: 27/11/20). things through, but everyone seems to have an
3. A list of resources from the Commonwealth of opinion or analysis of your situation. All you need is
Learning for policy makers, school and college someone who will listen and ask the right questions to
administrators, teachers, parents and learners to help you figure things out. That's Wysa’): Available at:
assist with student learning during the closure of https://www.wysa.io/ (Accessed: 27/11/20);
educational institutions: https://www.mindline.sg/ (Accessed: 27/11/20).
Introduction 9Best learning moments
Positive mental states for enjoyable and effective learning
Potential impact: Medium
Introduction Background
Our ability to learn is connected to our state The idea of best learning moments builds on
of mind. We may feel alert and ready to the psychological concept of cognitive
take on a new activity, or we may be feeling absorption2 or ‘flow’3, which is defined as deep
distracted or anxious and be unwilling to involvement or immersion in an activity or
engage. Research suggests that people task, often accompanied by feelings of
learn best when they are in a mental state enjoyment. A ‘Music Paint Machine’ that
that makes their learning easier or more enables musicians to paint a picture by
enjoyable. Examples of positive mental states playing their instrument has been shown to
in the context of learning are the feelings of have the potential to turn the experience of
curiosity, interest, engagement, happiness, playing music, moving and drawing into an
optimism, confidence and calmness. A person optimal flow experience4 where the individual
experiencing a best learning moment might may feel as if they are transported into a new
have higher-than-average feelings of interest reality. These are mental states and feelings
in a task and will be able to respond with that people experience when engaged in an
appropriate skills to a challenge presented by activity that is appropriately challenging to
the task1. These moments can result in deep their skill level, resulting in full concentration
learning and high levels of satisfaction. and focus.
Best learning moments, also referred to as
‘optimal learning moments’, are an emerging
topic of current importance for several
reasons. One reason is that there are reports
of heightened attention and engagement when
using some technology-enhanced learning
applications, and these states of mind can
contribute to more effective learning. Best
learning moments may also be particularly
memorable, since strong emotions contribute
to the formation of long-term memories.
Therefore, long-term retention in memory
may be enhanced. Another reason is that Interest, challenge and skill: learning words while
there are new ways of capturing or recording absorbed in a crossword puzzle.
best learning moments and using them for
reflecting on learning or improving the design
of learning technology. Finally, best learning
moments align well with learner-centred
approaches that take into account individual
differences in learning. mental states and feelings that
people experience when engaged
in an activity that is appropriately
challenging
10 Innovating Pedagogy 2021In leisure time, feelings such as boredom or change in teaching method, such as when a
curiosity can lead individuals to look for an computer simulation is used.
enjoyable challenge and develop their skills
to be able to meet that challenge. Activities Best learning moments in
that people choose to do in their leisure technology-enhanced learning
time, such as painting, composing music, Learning activities and technology platforms
doing a crossword or taking part in sports can be designed to create opportunities
and rituals, may create good conditions for best learning moments. This approach
for best learning moments. The process of puts the learner at the centre of the learning
recognising a challenge and applying or process and focuses on the learning
developing necessary skills leads to discovery experience and its possible technological
and growth. The person may be so absorbed enhancement. It acknowledges the value of
in what they are doing or experiencing that a person’s enjoyment or satisfaction in their
they lose all sense of time. Such a state of interactions with technology.
cognitive absorption may last a long time,
although not necessarily. Designing the best possible ‘user experience’
with computer systems and applications
Best learning moments may occur in includes considering the user’s satisfaction
situations involving hands-on activity and (whether they will be satisfied with the system
participation, such as when trainee medical in their context of use) alongside other
staff are with patients rather than at their aspects such as ease of use, efficiency and
workstations5. Although listening, watching effectiveness. Designing the best possible
and reading also commonly result in a ‘learner experience’ for technology-enhanced
state of absorption and positive feelings, learning (TEL) involves consideration of
without the elements of appropriate skill and additional aspects, including the quality of
challenge they might not result in learning. the educational content and methods of
Researchers investigating learning in science evaluating learning. Many educators and TEL
subjects (biology, chemistry and physics) at researchers believe that learners using a TEL
secondary-school level have expressed the system should find the experience engaging
hope that ‘optimal learning moments’ might and relevant.
motivate individuals to seek similar types of
experiences in the future1 and will encourage Designing TEL systems that can promote
more students to study science subjects. or encourage best learning moments is still
a relatively new field, but there are several
Best learning moments could also be promising ways forward:
opportunities for ‘teachable moments’.
A teachable moment is an unplanned • Learning with mobile devices (mobile
opportunity that arises when a teacher learning) offers good conditions for best
senses that students are engaged and ready learning moments because it highlights
to absorb some insights. For example, the participation, personal contexts and sensory
teacher may be able to make a general point experiences7. A related idea within mobile
from a shared experience. The teachable learning is that of an ‘opportune moment’,
moment is a fleeting opportunity that is sensed when students have short bursts of time
and seized by the teacher. Teaching tips for that they can use for learning in the course
creating personally memorable moments of their day. In this case, a mobile learning
for students include talking about students’ system might send a prompt or notification
interests, asking challenging questions and to a learner to alert them to a small amount
accepting that all students are different. of learning they can undertake, such as
memorising vocabulary6. The learner then
Other related concepts include breakthroughs chooses whether or not to engage, which
and critical events in learning. These are might depend on whether or not they feel it
moments when understanding of a difficult is the right moment.
concept is suddenly achieved thanks to a
Best learning moments 11• To engage learners, popular games-based understand the idea of best learning moments
TEL environments use multiple design from students’, teachers’ and researchers’
elements, such as avatars and storylines, points of view.
challenges, rewards and learning tools
such as journals8. Successful game types Best learning moments can be difficult to
include role-playing and fantasy games. capture, although use of a mobile-phone
Engagement in games is dependent app (for example, one designed specifically
on the design of the game but also on for ‘experience sampling’) is one way to
the players’ attributes, which include enable students to record an experience
their characteristics, personalities and very soon after it occurred. Using such a
motivations to play. mobile-phone app can also enable students to
spend a designated period of time reflecting
• Immersive experiences in virtual continuously on their best learning moments,
environments or when using social media sharing their findings with others and
are associated with freedom to explore, discovering what works best for their peers.
stimulation of the senses, adventure and
novelty. These experiences can induce Best learning moments are perhaps also
feelings of excitement, engagement and those that are worth remembering, or those
absorption. Individuals’ personality traits that tend to be captured in our memories.
play a role, with some being more eager Strong and lasting memories of what was
than others to expose themselves to new learnt tend to be associated with experiential
situations and stimuli. or active learning, with events or people that
• Learning analytics data from online learning students consider to be significant and with
environments and other sources such emotions they experienced at the time.
as student surveys could help teachers,
students, researchers and learning Conclusion
designers discover more about conditions The idea of best learning moments provides
supporting best learning moments. a helpful focus for identifying what different
people consider to be ‘best’ in a learning
Capturing best learning scenario. It encompasses several related
moments ideas that have been around in education
for a while. The best-learning-moments
How can we know when best learning
approach can be applied in teaching and
moments have occurred? Currently most
learning in a casual way by simply asking
of the evidence comes from students and
students what they consider to be their best
researchers. Students describing times when
learning moments and drawing conclusions
they experienced enjoyment, feeling happy,
from their responses for the design of learning
successful, confident or enlightened while
experiences for those individuals or groups.
learning, may be describing some of their
It can also be done in a more systematic way
best learning moments. Researchers have
by capturing evidence of such moments and
suggested that we need to focus on when an
analysing their components to develop models
individual is experiencing higher-than-average
of best learning moments for individuals or
feelings of interest, skill and challenge during
groups, for different disciplines and purposes.
a specific task and in relation to feelings
Best learning moments may empower
such as happiness, enjoyment, confidence
students through personal and emotional
and a lack of boredom or confusion1. Since
development, reinforcing positive experiences
any challenge may be perceived differently
and a recognition that learning can be
among students – some may welcome it,
enjoyable as well as effective.
some may find it causes anxiety or stress – it
seems there is a need for more research to
12 Innovating Pedagogy 2021References
1. A study that explored how often students were 5. A journal article describing a web-based educational
engaged in their science classes and their affective tool called ‘Learning Moment’ and its use in an
states, using an innovative methodology that emergency department:
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Resources
• Elements of best learning moments explained by • A teacher’s account of a breakthrough moment with
Professor Katariina Salmela-Aro from the University a challenging student:
of Helsinki: https://www.edweek.org/tm/articles/2013/06/11/
http://fellows.rfiea.fr/node/237 (Accessed: tln_cerevic.html (Accessed: 12/11/20).
12/11/20). • A ScienceDirect automatically generated page on
• Professor Stephen Heppell’s top ten characteristics the topic of teachable moments:
of best learning experiences: https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/
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(Accessed: 21/11/20). 12/11/20).
• Dr Chris Drew’s post on his website, giving examples
of teachable moments:
https://helpfulprofessor.com/teachable-moment/
(Accessed: 12/11/20).
Best learning moments 13Enriched realities
Extending learning with augmented and virtual reality
Potential impact: Medium
Introduction
Setting up an experiment in the lab, exploring Augmented reality and virtual reality are not
on a field trip, building a model together: entirely new – educators were already using
these are exciting and memorable educational them in the last century. What is new is their
experiences for learners in the same place increasing use in daily life, the falling prices
at the same time, but they pose a challenge of associated technology and the worldwide
during the Covid-19 global pandemic. demand for interactive but – as demonstrated
Augmented reality and virtual reality make during the Covid-19 pandemic, for instance –
these shared experiences possible. They also socially distanced educational experiences.
open up opportunities that are not available Together, these factors make it important to
in the classroom, such as experimenting with review what we already know about enriched
moon rock, exploring the depths of the ocean realities, to consider how they can be used to
or working together to build a village. support learning without massive investment
in technology and training, and to look forward
It is increasingly normal to enrich day-to-day
to possibilities that are currently being trialled.
reality with the use of technology. Lenses
in telescopes, microscopes and spectacles
What enriched reality can offer
enable us to see things more clearly or to
see the world in new ways. Portable music Enriched reality extends what is possible
systems add a soundtrack to our lives. in education and training, and it provides
Scanning a QR (quick response) code with exciting new experiences that engage learners
our smartphone links us to information immediately, including:
about an object or a location. Millions of • remote participation – field trips provide
people around the world have been playing opportunities to broaden understanding
augmented reality games such as Pokémon and develop new skills. VR widens the
Go for years. Many of today’s college students possibilities, enabling exploration of places
have explored virtual worlds such as Minecraft that would be difficult, dangerous or
and Club Penguin since they were small. impossible to visit for a learner, such as the
These days, several types of reality are surface of Mars or the inside of a volcano
blended. Day-to-day reality – or physical • time machine – trips through time are
reality – is our normal experience. Augmented possible; students can walk with dinosaurs,
reality (AR) can be viewed through a device engage with historic events or watch
such as a smartphone. When we use an landscapes change over the centuries
AR application on the device, it overlays • simultaneous engagement with physical
information on our surroundings or objects world – augmented reality allows learners
around us. That information might appear as to interact with the world around them and
text, video, audio or graphics (for example, with AR elements at the same time
mythical creatures). Virtual reality (VR) is
computer generated and typically experienced • remote presence – people who cannot be
via a headset; it provides a three-dimensional together in the physical world can interact
environment we can interact with – for and work together in a VR environment,
example, a place where we can move through manipulating virtual objects and moving
a landscape, lift objects and chat with friends. around the setting together.
14 Innovating Pedagogy 2021In a virtual world, students can develop their understanding of structures such as aqueducts by working
to recreate them.
These ways of engaging can support learners Making use of enriched reality
in understanding concepts, practising skills
All over the world, enriched reality is being
and performing tasks or procedures:
used to support learning. The following cases
• focused immersion – educators can shape introduce some of the possibilities.
or modify a scenario, drawing attention to
Clinical simulations enhanced with mobile
the aspects that are important or stripping
mixed reality: Researchers in Auckland, New
away elements – for example, showing
Zealand, gave student paramedics a 360°
a human body and then the underlying
overview of a critical-care scenario using a
skeleton or muscles
VR headset and handheld controllers1. The
• dive deeper for a more nuanced sights and sounds of the video helped to
understanding of content – learners have immerse them in the scenario. Students were
time to explore elements of an experience provided with information and updates by
in detail and can re-run each one many radio and text, as in an emergency situation.
times They evaluated the scene in an authentic
• virtual rehearsal – in virtual reality, way before moving into a simulation suite to
the same situation can be encountered collect patient information and ‘treat’ a realistic
multiple times so students can trial different mannequin.
approaches, perfecting an emergency
Medical training: Enriched reality makes
response technique, practising a difficult
it possible to look inside the human body
procedure or coordinating teamwork
without making an incision. This is useful for
• just-in-time support – in an augmented medical training in equipment, techniques and
or virtual environment, students can pull up procedures2. Virtual reality can also be used
information that is immediately relevant to to simulate patient interactions. Practising
what they are trying to do – for instance, procedures in simulated environments is
a set of instructions on how to perform an a low-risk way of developing skills. For
unfamiliar procedure. example, students at the Beijing University of
Chinese Medicine learn acupuncture with VR
technology3.
Enriched realities 15A projection in Bath fills in missing elements of a A second projection adds detail and colour to the
ruined temple pediment. original ruined temple pediment.
Roman history: The Roman baths in the city Safety training for construction workers:
of Bath, UK, enhance understanding of the The most memorable form of safety training
historic site with enriched reality. Animated is experiencing or witnessing an accident. In
projections and soundtracks populate the the USA, the Center for Innovative Research
site with ancient Roman visitors who move in Cyberlearning (CIRCL) is developing VR
around the space, interact, bathe and chat. training that makes this approach possible
The fragmentary remains of the magnificent without harming students. The virtual
temple pediment are regularly enriched with experience is enhanced by ‘haptic’ technology
projections that add missing sections and that recreates feelings of touch and motion.
colours4. Learners will be able to explore a hazardous
virtual environment. If they don’t avoid all
Signing avatars: Learning sign language the dangers, they will receive audio, visual
from videos and pictures is challenging, and feel feedback that simulates what
because two-dimensional representations would happen if they made the same
cannot capture all aspects of communication. mistake at work6.
The SAIL project at Gallaudet University in
Washington, DC, has developed a 3D learning Teacher training: Kent State University in
environment. Signing avatars were created Ohio has been using 360° cameras to produce
by using motion-capture recordings of deaf immersive videos of classrooms. These are
signers. Learners encounter these avatars in used by teachers in training to create a shared
a VR environment accessed via head- experience that supports rich conversations
mounted goggles. In this environment, their about what is going on at different points in
movements are captured via a gesture- the room and in the lesson. The technology
tracking system. A teaching avatar guides also makes it possible to compare and discuss
learners through a lesson in which they the different aspects that trainees and experts
observe and produce signs5. focus on during the lesson7.
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