LEADERSHIP, ASSEMBLED - A NARRATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF LEADERSHIP IN RELATION TO DEMOCRACY IN AVENGERS: DIVA PORTAL
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Leadership, assembled.
A narrative analysis of the construction of
leadership in relation to democracy in Avengers:
Infinity War and Avengers: Endgame.
Evelin Nyberg
Master thesis, 15 hp Supervisor:
Media and Communication Studies Ernesto Abalo
Sustainable communication Examiner:
Spring 2021 Leon BarkhoJÖNKÖPING UNIVERSITY Master thesis, 15 credits
School of Education and Communication Media and Communication Science with Specialisation
Box 1026, SE-551 11 Jönköping, Sweden in Sustainable Communication
+46 (0)36 101000 Term: Spring 2021
ABSTRACT
Writer: Evelin Nyberg
Title: Leadership, assembled.
Subtitle: A narrative analysis of the construction of leadership in relation to democracy
in Avengers: Infinity War and Avengers: Endgame.
Language: English
Pages: 50
Superhero film is currently a popular form of entertainment, which during recent years has
become political in its content. While research has previously shown that the superhero
narrative carries messages of ideology and social issues, little is known of how the film
genre communicates regarding leadership. Through examining the narratives in Avengers:
Infinity War and Avengers: Endgame, this study aims to explore how leadership is
constructed in relation to democracy in a democratic context by using the United States as
an example. The study utilises theorisations of democracy as well as representation theory,
supplemented by three concepts borrowed from the leadership theory trait theory. The
narrative analysis and the narrative plot points are used as method with a model of analysis
to retrieve the empirical evidence.
The study’s results show that the villain, while having a societal motivation which can be
considered democratic, mostly represented nondemocratic traits. The superheroes mostly
show democratic leadership, but they are not able to solve the conflict with the villain
democratically. This suggests that the leadership constructed in a democratic context still
contains some limitations, which could be connected to how nondemocratic actions are
justified in some situations even in the democratic context.
Keywords: Leadership, Democracy, Film, Superheroes, The United States, Popular culture,
Democratic cultureTable of contents
Table of contents ........................................................................................................................ 3
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 5
2. Aim and research questions.................................................................................................... 7
3. Background ............................................................................................................................ 8
3.1 The culture and the superhero .......................................................................................... 8
3.2 The Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) and the Avengers ............................................ 8
4. Research review ................................................................................................................... 10
4.1 Entertaining ideologies ................................................................................................... 10
4.2 Construction of justice and good and evil ...................................................................... 11
4.3 Differences between superhero and villain .................................................................... 12
4.4 The contribution of this study ........................................................................................ 13
5. Theory .................................................................................................................................. 15
5.1 Democracy ..................................................................................................................... 15
5.2 Representation theory ..................................................................................................... 16
5.2.1 Traits, power, and motivation ................................................................................. 17
6. Method and material............................................................................................................. 19
6.1 Narrative analysis ........................................................................................................... 19
6.1.1 Narrative plot points ................................................................................................ 20
6.1.2 Model of analysis .................................................................................................... 20
6.2 Material .......................................................................................................................... 22
36.3 Limitations and applicability of analysis ....................................................................... 24
7. Analysis ................................................................................................................................ 26
7.1 Peace with our allies ...................................................................................................... 26
7.2 Superheroes do not negotiate with villains .................................................................... 28
7.3 The nondemocratic villain .............................................................................................. 30
7.4 The greater good............................................................................................................. 33
7.5 The successful superhero majority ................................................................................. 36
8. Discussion ............................................................................................................................ 38
8.1 The inconsistent democracy ........................................................................................... 38
8.2 The insufficient democracy ............................................................................................ 39
8.3 The maintained democracy ............................................................................................ 41
8.4 Suggestions for future research ...................................................................................... 43
9. References ............................................................................................................................ 45
Appendix 1: Character background.......................................................................................... 49
41. Introduction
Superhero stories are some of the United States’ most profitable and beloved types of
narratives (Spencer, 2017). The superheroes are portrayed as leading in defeating the villains,
but little is still known about how that leadership portrays democracy. At the same time,
superhero leadership has become a metaphor used when analysing populistic leadership. For
example, Schneiker (2020, p. 857) presents the concept of the nondemocratic populist as a
superhero who is the saviour in times of crisis. Also, the superhero has generated a quite
popular discussion regarding the ideologies they represent and their disregard for democratic
institutions (see Bainbridge, 2017; Maruo-Schröder, 2019; Phillips, 2010), but how the
superhero’s actions represent leadership related to democracy, especially in the most crucial
moments of a conflict, have not been explored.
Recently, the plot of superhero films has become more political, complicating the perceptions
of good and evil. For example, Captain America: Civil War (Russo & Russo, 2016) explores
how the superheroes disagree over governmental control over superpowers. In this narrative,
both sides of the conflict make solid arguments for their sake and neither of the opposing
sides are portrayed as completely right. Furthermore, in the film Avengers: Infinity War
(Russo & Russo, 2018) Marvel Studios made the villain Thanos the main character by giving
him the traditional narrative of a hero, exploring the villain as a leader with motivations and
powers beyond just being evil. Most of the globally successful superhero films are produced
in the United States at the same time as the country is considered a leading democratic nation.
Thereby, it is interesting to investigate how fictional superpowerful leaders created in this
democratic context communicate democracy.
Films can communicate messages regarding leadership and democracy, while this is not their
main purpose. This is what Matthew Pustz (2012, p. 3) calls “casual learning”. While films
are mainly entertainment, they can teach the audience how to interpret the real world by
giving context to real complex issues in a fictional format (Pustz, 2012, p. 4). This ability of
popular film becomes especially important when considering their portrayals in relation to
democracy, which is related to the sustainable development goals set by the United Nations.
In particular, the sixteenth goal mentions freedom, protection from violence and corruption,
as well as accountable leadership as part of sustainability (General Assembly, 2015, p. 25-26),
which could be considered as characteristics of democracy (Gastil, 1994; Tilly, 2007). But
there is a lack of knowledge on how leadership with regards to these characteristics are
5communicated in popular film such as the superhero genre. So, the superhero narrative, while
produced as entertainment, must be considered as constructing meaning in culture and
therefore could help or hinder the achievement of social sustainability.
The superhero narrative is mainly produced and spread from the United States, so the
country’s ambitions to also spread democratic values internationally are interesting to
consider in relation to the narratives. The political leadership of the United States state their
aim to uphold international norms, and to oppose those who work against the goal of a secure
and stable world (U.S. Department of State & U.S. Agency for International Development,
2018, p. 23). Also, they want to lead and unite the free world around their cultural values to
uphold liberty, empower their allies, and counter threats and opponents (U.S. Department of
State & U.S. Agency for International Development, 2018, p. 15). At the same time, the
country maintain several military bases in nondemocratic regions with the argument of
spreading democracy, while in fact the United States need to cooperate with the
nondemocratic regimes to ensure their access to these bases (Vine, 2017). Furthermore, the
United States has actively supported the overthrowing of democratically elected governments,
for example in 1953 the United States participated in the coup resulting in the reinstatement
of the monarchy in Iran (Merica & Hanna, 2013). The United States status as promoter of
democratic values and upholder of international norms has been further criticised. The
country presents itself as an exceptional country with a divine purpose to spread democracy,
which has been used to justify nondemocratic actions internationally (Chomsky, 2016).
While the United States presents themselves as leading promoters of democracy
internationally, Marvel Studios’s president states that Marvel believes “the Avengers are
global heroes, not just U.S. heroes” (Marvel Entertainment, 2015, 0:39-0:43). This creates an
interesting relationship where the superheroes in Marvel’s stories are considered as protecting
the society of earth, while still being based mainly in the United States. At the same time, the
United States aim to spread their values internationally and uphold international norms. So,
both the United States and Marvel’s superheroes are promoted as global actors working to
maintain the global society.
The next chapter will present the aim and research questions, then some further background
will be given on superheroes’ relation to culture and on the study objects. Then follows the
research review, presentation of theory and method, the analysis, and lastly the discussion.
62. Aim and research questions
The superhero film genre is a popular form of entertainment, at the same time it can
communicate complex issues such as democracy to the audience. In superhero film the
superhero is usually portrayed as leading in defeating the threat against society, but little is
known of how that leadership is representative of democracy. This is especially interesting
when considering that democratic aspects are part of the goals of sustainable development and
that superhero narratives mostly originate from the United States, a country which is mainly
considered democratic. This study aims to explore how the narratives in popular superhero
film construct leadership in a democratic context through the characters. The analysis covers
the narratives of two of the most popular superhero films from the United States, Avengers:
Infinity War and Avengers: Endgame, and the aim will be fulfilled by answering the following
questions:
- How are the superheroes and villains’ actions in the films’ crucial moments
representative of democracy?
- What motivates the choice of democratic or nondemocratic leadership by the
superheroes and villains?
The study will connect concepts of democracy and leadership theory to understand how
leadership is represented in the narratives. The United States will be used to exemplify how
the results connect to reality. This will contribute with knowledge on how superheroes
represent democracy through considering them as leaders. Furthermore, it will give
understanding as to how leadership is perceived in a democratic context.
73. Background
The first section will present some connections between the superhero and the United States’
culture. Second, some background on the Marvel Cinematic Universe, the MCU, and the
Avengers will be presented.
3.1 The culture and the superhero
John Shelton Lawrence and Robert Jewett have for a long time argued for the importance of
the selfless hero who steps in to defeat evil when the institutions fail in the culture of the
United States. In their book The Myth of the American Superhero (2002) they connect the
president’s executive power in the United States to the superhero. For example, they argue
that the actions of some appreciated presidents like George Washington and Abraham Lincoln
have been amplified and turned into superhero traits like selflessness and breaking rules for
what is right (Lawrence & Jewett, 2002, p. 132).
The interconnection between the superheroes and Western culture is also visible by looking at
the September 11 terror attacks. Images of the events in the media coverage were so extensive
internationally that it caused the entire Western society to feel as though they were victims of
the event (Davo, 2012, p. 240). This way the significant events in the United States were
appropriated on to the Western culture, making the tragedy in the United States into an attack
on all their allies. Connecting reality with the fictional world of superheroes, during the film
The Avengers (Whedon, 2012) the superheroes fight against Loki as he attacks New York, in
later films these events are referenced as the Attack on New York. As Loki is not from earth
and he controls the minds of humans, he is considered as attacking earth and humanity. Still,
the United States is centred which shows how the appropriation of the United States’ culture
on the entire world works also within the fictional superhero narrative. Because the United
States spread their culture so broadly it is necessary to also consider what kind of leadership
the country is promoting in relation to democracy.
3.2 The Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) and the Avengers
In the superhero film genre Marvel Studios has become the leading production company with
nine of their films earning more than one billion dollars worldwide (Box Office Mojo, n.d.).
8All their films are connected to each other through being part of the same fictional universe
called the Marvel Cinematic Universe, or the MCU. The MCU incorporate parts of the real
world, as many films takes place on earth, however the fictional reality also involves fictional
features such as superpowers and intergalactic communities. Since the first film in the MCU
was released thirteen years ago they have produced over twenty-three films and several
television shows, with many more scheduled. The two latest films Avengers: Infinity War
(Russo & Russo, 2018) and Avengers: Endgame (Russo & Russo, 2019) are the culmination
of the preceding films.
The Avengers is one of the superhero teams featured in Marvel Comics, examples of others
are the X-men and the Fantastic Four. The Avengers have consisted of several different
superheroes over the years, but in the MCU the original team was Black Widow, Bruce
Banner, Captain America, Hawkeye, Iron Man, and Thor (character descriptions are found in
Appendix 1). Although, Avengers: Infinity War and Avengers: Endgame feature several
superheroes in addition to the original Avengers and they all fight against the villain Thanos.
The narratives of the two films draw inspiration from the comics book storyline The Infinity
Gauntlet from 1991, where Thanos wants to wipe out half of all living things by using the
infinity stones, six stones controlling different aspects of the fictional universe granting the
user immense power (Paul, 2017).
94. Research review
The study of how superhero narratives communicate social issues and reproduce social
structures is not novel. The rise in popularity of the superhero narrative, especially after the
terror attacks of September 11, 2001, have also raised the interest in the connections to
ideology, imagination of justice, and the political leadership in the United States. The results
of this study will connect to these previous results by further analysing how democracy is
represented by the superheroes and villains as leaders. Following sections will present the
existing results of how superheroes maintain ideologies and construct justice, and the
differences in character between superheroes and villains.
4.1 Entertaining ideologies
Superhero narratives have previously been analysed regarding their ideological and political
content, mainly linking them to the United States’ society and the United States’ policies
(Dittmer, 2007; Muñoz-González, 2017; Maruo-Schröder, 2019). There is an agreement that
the superhero narratives can influence perceptions of society and shape worldviews,
especially since the superhero narratives are very successful with a broader audience.
Dittmer (2007) focuses on the source material of the superhero films, the comic books. He
analyses the shaping of geopolitical worldviews through comic books with superhero
narratives and considers the effect of the seriality of these narratives. The results show that the
superhero embodies ideals of the United States, and those ideals stay the same because the
seriality of the narrative does not allow for too much character development (Dittmer, 2007,
p. 258). Meanwhile, the villain is ever-changing and represents the contemporary villain of
the United States, for example Nazis and Communists (Dittmer, 2007, p. 258). Dittmer (2007,
p. 264) concludes that while the narratives are supposed to show alterative societies, they are
created within the context of the real world which leads them to legitimise the status quo.
Another study exploring the preservation of the societal status quo in superhero narratives is
Muñoz-González’s (2017) study on Iron Man and Captain America: The Winter Soldier. The
focus of the study is to reveal the connection to contemporary real world political issues
carried by the values represented in a United States production (Muñoz-González, 2017). The
study analyses the narratives of the two films as well as the characters’ objectives (Muñoz-
10González, 2017, p. 69). The results show that the narratives use previous foreign antagonists
of the United States to represent the evil characters. For example, in Captain America: The
Winter Soldier the superhero endorsing organisation SHIELD is infiltrated by HYDRA, an
organisation deriving from Nazi Germany, and to beat HYDRA the United States’ value of
freedom is pitted against order (Muñoz-González, 2017, p. 72). Another way in which the
narratives exhibit and favours the United States’ values is through the indication that by
saving the United States the superhero saves the world (Muñoz-González, 2017, p. 73).
Finally, there is a binarity to how the conflicts are constructed, where every other option than
keeping the status quo, which is the goal of the superhero, will cause society to move away
from democracy (Muñoz-González, 2017, p. 76).
Maruo-Schröder (2019) argues that the superhero narratives reflect and influence ideas of
justice, mostly by putting safety and order opposite civil liberties. She concludes that the
superheroes tend to ignore democratic institutions, which is legitimised by their
unquestionable sense of justice (Maruo-Schröder, 2019, p. 14). It is the perceived limitation
of time in a crisis which justifies the state of exception for leaders, so the superheroes do not
have time to solve the crisis through diplomacy (Maruo-Schröder, 2019, p. 14).
These studies show that there are connections between socio-political norms and the
superhero narrative. The superhero narratives are usually told from a perspective which
reinforces ideas valued in the United States. And the critique of the United States’ society is
not delivered in a complex way, but simply ends up stating that the superhero’s success equals
the salvation of the United States, and therefore also the world.
4.2 Construction of justice and good and evil
Superhero narratives have been an object of study for a while in relation to criminology, law,
and justice. In these studies, the main focus has been on how the superheroes achieve safety
for the people and how that reflects ideas of justice and good and evil in real life (Bainbridge,
2017; Phillips, 2010; Sharp, 2012). These studies show how tightly connected perceptions in
real life are with how superhero narratives tell the story of justice.
By comparing how justice is served in superhero narratives and how real people imagine
justice, Sharp (2012) points out some connections. The way in which superheroes achieve
justice through punishment of the villain “actively draw upon the retributive desires of public
11imagination” (Sharp, 2012, p. 368). The analysis also show that the public imagination of the
law holds two ideas, one of procedural societal justice and one of individual retributive
justice, and the retributive justice is constructed as the imperative one (Sharp, 2012, p. 371).
This shows that the public imagination can both hold ideas of structures on a societal level
and an individual level, but the representation in superhero narratives mostly draw upon the
individual level.
Bainbridge (2017) analysed the difference in the meaning of the prefix “super” concerning the
hero and the villain in relation concepts such as justice and state of exception, by using
Marvel films as his study objects. He concludes that the superhero embodies the critique of
failures of the state, at the same time confirming the belief that a group of elites should have
the power to make executive decisions which effect the entire society (Bainbridge, 2017, p.
385). The villains’ function is seemingly to only justify the actions of the superhero
(Bainbridge, 2017, p. 386). However, he also argued that the definition of good and evil in the
superhero narratives became a matter of perspective, as both sides justified their actions by
the belief that they were doing the right thing (Bainbridge, 2017, p. 379).
Phillips (2010) investigates the justice of the superhero in relation to cultural messaging on
good and evil through studying the Batman film The Dark Knight. The analysis shows how
the law enforcement failed to get control over the villain, leading to the justification of the
superheroes’ illegal methods to maintain social order (Phillips, 2010, p. 39). The film sends
messages about what a hero is in a time of crisis and it influences ideas of what behaviour is
tolerable from leaders to achieve safety as well as reinforcing retributive ideas (Phillips, 2010,
p. 40). Phillips concludes her article with agreeing with a statement from the comedian and
political commentator Bill Maher that no one should believe that electing a superhero as
leader will solve society’s problems (Phillips, 2010, p. 40).
What is clear by looking at these different studies is that the superhero is the one considered
to know best, and they are presumed to act thereafter, which justifies them breaking the law.
As so much trust is put into the superhero, and so much mistrust in the villain, the examples
of their leadership should be further explored. Especially when considering the superhero
narrative’s impact on the public imagination.
4.3 Differences between superhero and villain
12As showed by the previous research, the superhero narratives are criticised for their portrayal
of the democratic institutions as failing, the society’s reliance on the single superhero to
defeat threats, and the support of the United States’ political ideology. The characters are
essential parts of the narratives and therefore they are also criticised as being a problematic
embodiment of nondemocratic portrayals. However, there are also arguments that there are
substantial differences in how the superhero and the villain are portrayed.
For example, Yogerst (2017) argues, with support of existing definitions of superheroes, that
superheroes are moral role models and should not be labelled as nationalistic fascists.
Through his discussion he shows that even if the private identities of superheroes are
sometimes known, the superhero still maintains their private identity and treats the superhero
identity as a work title (Yogerst, 2017, p. 12). The private identity also keeps the character
grounded and they understand the repercussions of their actions (Yogerst, 2017, p. 15).
Meanwhile, the villains usually only maintain one identity and is seemingly not concerned
with the effects their actions have on others (Yogerst, 2017, p. 16). In addition, the superhero
usually only uses their powers when it is necessary, while the villain tries to impose their will
on the people (Yogerst, 2017, p. 17). In conclusion, the results show that while the superhero
exhibit selflessness and responsibility, while the villain is forceful and selfish (Yogerst,
2017).
Yogerst (2017) points out some different traits of the superhero and villain in his article. Yet,
he does not consider that some traits might be portrayed as influential to character’s success
while other traits might just be portrayed for backstory, which would make them less
imperative for the narrative. However, the article suggests that the superhero and villain are
portrayed with different types of leadership.
4.4 The contribution of this study
Previous studies have shown that the superhero narrative is supportive of maintaining society
as it is (Dittmer, 2007; Muñoz-González, 2017; Maruo-Schröder, 2019). This study will
investigate which ideas about leadership in relation to democracy are entertained in a
democratic context through considering the characters in the superhero narrative as leaders.
As previously shown, the superhero narrative communicates cultural ideas on democracy and
justice, often through defying democratic institutions (Bainbridge, 2017; Phillips, 2010;
13Sharp, 2012). Yet, little is known if the leadership of the superhero characters in the narrative
represents the same defiance towards democracy, a gap which this study aims to fill.
Yogerst (2017) argues that the differences between the characters in the superhero narrative
need to be considered as he claims that the superhero is democratic while the villain is not.
This study adds to the discussion by considering both the superhero and the villain as leaders
to explore their differences and similarities to understand how leadership is constructed in a
democratic context.
145. Theory
To understand how democratic leadership is constructed in the superhero narratives of
Avengers: Infinity War and Avengers: Endgame the theory of democracy will first be defined.
This section will also mention populistic leadership as it has become a popular leadership
style in democracies. Moreover, as there is no established model of how to understand
fictional leadership, the study will borrow concepts from trait theory, a leadership theory used
to explain traits of real leaders. Trait theory argues that a leader consists of certain
characteristics which separates them from non-leaders (Zehndorfer, 2021, p. 21). The
concepts which are borrowed from trait theory are: traits, type of power, and motivation. And
to see how these concepts are represented in the narratives, the study will utilise
representation theory.
5.1 Democracy
Democracy can be simultaneously or separately regarded as civic activity, a form of
government, a regime, or a form of society (Rosanvallon, 2011, p. 187). Similarly, the
political scientist and sociologist Charles Tilly (2007, pp. 7-9) states that democracy can be
defined in four overall ways: constitutional, procedural, process-oriented, and substantive.
The constitutional, procedural, and process-oriented definitions are all concerned with
institutions, elections, and law, which are not to be focused upon here. The substantive
definition, however, concerns people’s life conditions and the promoted politics in a society
(Tilly, 2007, p. 7). Haack (2011, p. 23) describes substantive democracy as being about
constructing a society in which civil liberties and equality is promoted. So, substantive
democracy is more about the creation of a society which enhances certain values than being
about the institutions.
Rosanvallon (2011, p. 186) notes the need for paying more attention to the substantive
democracy, as it is about how society should be constructed for democracy to prosper.
Consequently, there is also a need to see how society is currently constructed to see how it
should be altered in the future. Exploring how democracy is currently represented could give
indications to how society in a democratic context is currently constructed, by looking at how
the aspects of substantive democracy are represented by the leadership of characters.
Substantive democracy is mainly about the promotion of human welfare, individual freedom,
15security, fairness, social equality, public deliberation, and peaceful conflict resolution (Tilly,
2007, p. 7). Other aspects connected to substantive democracy are justice, human
development, and participation (Haack, 2011, p. 23).
Although, Tilly (2007, pp. 7-8) critiques the substantive definition as it does not deal with
possible compromises between the different aspects, meaning that some aspects of substantive
democracy can be achieved at the cost of other aspects. This becomes especially interesting
when considering populistic leadership, which has become a popular leadership style in
democracies as well as a concept compared with the superhero character and narrative. The
populist leader positions themselves as one of the people fighting against the elite, and often
claims to fight for democracy while counteracting it (McDonnell, 2017, p. 27). Also, the
populist leaders present themselves as the only ones capable of saving the people from crisis
(Schneiker, 2020, p. 862), which could justify them fighting for some democratic aspects by
sacrificing other aspects.
As the substantive definition of democracy is about how a society is constructed do make
democratic values prosper by promoting these values. It becomes the interesting definition to
use when exploring how democracy is represented by the leadership of superheroes and
villains, since it offers aspects which should be promoted in a democratic society. It is the
different aspects of the substantive definition of democracy that will be used when analysing
and discussing the empirical evidence. But, to enable the analysis of how leadership is
constructed in relation to this definition of democracy the study will utilise representation
theory.
5.2 Representation theory
Representation theory will be used as the overall theory to understand how the leadership is
constructed in the narratives, relating it to democracy. According to Hall’s (2013, p. 11)
definition of the constructionist approach to representation theory, meaning is constructed
through how a concept is referenced in culture. It is not the thing or concept itself which
creates meaning but the representational systems and signs which are used to interpret it
(Hall, 2013, p. 11). This means that the way democracy is represented by the leadership of the
characters in the narratives can reveal the meaning of leadership in the democratic context.
16Therefore, representation theory can be used to see how the superheroes and villains construct
leadership in a democratic context.
Many forms of representations have been repeated for such a long time in a culture that it is
considered a natural phenomenon rather than a social construction (Hall, 2013, p. 7). So,
repetitive images of leadership have created the social construction of leadership which is
taken for granted and therefore needs to be explored. A particularly effective way of
reinforcing social constructions in narratives is by not denying other possible constructions,
but by simply representing them in an unfavourable way (Ryan & Lenos, 2012, p. 180). In
this case, the narratives of study are produced in the United States, meaning that actions
critical of the United States’ international leadership could be embodied by the defeated
villain to enforce the United States’ construction of leadership.
To understand which actions of the superheroes and villains can be considered as
representations of leadership, the study will borrow concepts from trait theory. While trait
theory is a leadership theory usually focused on explaining real leaders, the concepts of what
constitutes a leader could be applied when analysing representation of leadership.
5.2.1 Traits, power, and motivation
In this study, the superheroes and villains are considered as leaders in a democratic context,
consequently they should be analysed based on what leaders consist of to gather the adequate
empirical evidence. Therefore, the study will borrow three concepts from trait theory.
According to trait theory, leaders consist of personality traits (Zehndorfer, 2021, p. 22), types
of leadership power, and leadership motivation (Zehndorfer, 2021, p. 28-29), among other
things. However, this analysis focuses on democracy, and not on the personality of the
characters, which is why democratic leadership traits will substitute the original personality
traits.
The study will use Gastil’s (1994) traits of democratic leadership to determine the democratic
leadership traits. These leadership traits are based on democratic aspects, such as those
discussed above, and focus on promoting democratic actions (Gastil, 1994, para. 13). His
traits are mainly focused on three areas: distributing responsibility, empowering the group,
and solving conflicts through deliberation (Gastil, 1994, para. 20). And he argues that
democratic leadership is foremost actions aimed to sustain democracy (Gastil, 1994, para. 19),
17therefore his democratic leadership traits are appropriate for this study as it focuses on the
actions of the superheroes and villains.
The second part of leadership which will be analysed is leadership power, a concept directly
borrowed from trait theory. As presented by Zehndorfer (2021, p. 28) there are five different
types of power that a leader can have: coercive, expert, legitimate, referent, and reward. These
powers are what leaders use to achieve their will. Considering which power the character’s
actions represent in relation to democracy in the crucial moments of the narratives will
indicate which power types are associated with success and failure of the superheroes, as well
as when it is motivated to use a certain power type.
Lastly, the analysis will cover the leadership motivation of the characters, which is also a
concept borrowed from trait theory. There are two main types of power motivation: self-
serving or societal, and if leaders have a high determination in their motivation, they are
usually more successful in their mission (Zehndorfer, 2021, p. 28). Leaders who prioritise
societal interests are generally preferred over leaders who put their personal interest first
(Rosanvallon, 2011, p. 185), which is also linked to how democratic leaders should have the
collective interest in mind (Gastil, 1994, para. 30). The motivation together with the
democratic traits and the power, all concepts borrowed from trait theory, will form the basis
of the model of analysis (presented in 5.1.2 Model of analysis).
Since the traits, power, and motivation can be combined in different ways in different
characters they are especially interesting to consider together with substantive democracy,
where compromises between different aspects of democracy is apparently possible. This
would entail that a character who has for example societal motivation, could use coercive
power to achieve their will, which would compromise democracy as it does not offer
individual freedom and lead to the assumption that some traits of democracy are considered as
non-negotiable, while others are not.
186. Method and material
Narrative analysis will be used as the method to analyse the leadership in the superhero films.
The study will also use the narrative plot points to determine the most crucial actions for the
outcome of the plot. To retrieve the empirical evidence an analysis model based on the
theoretical concepts will be applied to the narrative plot points. This evidence will then be
further analysed regarding how democracy is represented. Below, the narrative analysis,
including the narrative plot points and the model of analysis, is presented. Afterwards, the
narrative plot points of Avengers: Infinity War and Avengers: Endgame, which constitutes the
material of the study, will be presented. And lastly, the limitations and applicability of the
study will be reflected upon.
6.1 Narrative analysis
To understand how leadership in relation to democracy is represented in Avengers: Infinity
War and Avengers: Endgame the narrative analysis will be used as method. Narratives are a
connected chain of events (Abrams et al., 2010, p. 194), which represent messages about real
issues (Bignell, 2002, p. 196) as well as construct ideas in society (Hyvärinen, 2008, p. 12).
The narratives chosen for this study represent conflicts between superheroes and villains,
which will therefore also construct ideas of how these conflicts should be handled by those
involved.
The analysis of narratives makes it is possible to see which values are celebrated or
challenged in a society (Hansen & Machin, 2019, p. 152). Since the narratives of study are
heroic narratives, the superheroes will be able to reveal the shared norms and values of
leadership in the democratic context, while the villains will reveal the perceived challenges
and opposition of those values (Ryan & Lenos, 2012, p. 121). Therefore, it will be possible to
see which type of leadership is celebrated in the democratic context by looking at the traits,
power and motivation associated with the superheroes and what kind leadership is criticised
or discarded by analysing the villains.
The analysis will focus mostly on the sequences with the most importance to the overall
outcome of the films. There are certain points in the narrative where the conflict between the
characters causes the narrative to change its course towards a different outcome, so called plot
19points (Field, 2006, p. 45). As the plot points are the crucial moments of the films, analysing
them will reveal which actions are represented as causing the overall success or failure of the
characters’ leadership. These plot points are identified by using the paradigm of the
screenplay narrative designed by Syd Field.
6.1.1 Narrative plot points
The narrative plot points will be used as the method to determine the crucial moments of the
films. According to Syd Field’s (2006, p. 44) paradigm, all narratives are divided into three
acts: the setup, the confrontation, and the resolution. The first act ends with the first plot point
which is where the central conflict in the narrative is defined, usually this is represented by a
major obstacle for the main character (Field, 2006, p. 189). The midpoint is an event in the
middle of the narrative which causes the main character to change, this event usually adds a
new dimension to the character (Field, 2006, p. 207). The second act is about conflict and
ends with the second plot point which turns the story around (Field, 2006, p. 72). The third act
solves the story, focusing on if the characters achieve their goal or not (Field, 2006, p. 57).
To identify these plot points in Avengers: Infinity War and Avengers: Endgame, the films
have been watched to see which events in the narrative have the most impact on the outcome
of the film considering Field’s paradigm. In Avengers: Infinity War the plot points have been
identified focusing on the main character Thanos’s narrative and which points in the narrative
causes his actions to change to achieve his goal of eliminating half of all life. In Avengers:
Endgame the focus is on the goal of the superheroes to bring the eliminated people back and
ultimately defeat Thanos, and the plot points have been identified as the events which changes
the direction of their collective narrative.
6.1.2 Model of analysis
A model of analysis has been designed to retrieve the empirical evidence of the study. It
identifies how the concepts borrowed from trait theory – traits, power, and motivation – are
represented by the characters’ actions and dialogue in the narratives, as well as categorising
the actions as successful or unsuccessful. Below, the model is presented and further
explained.
20Democratic Nondemocratic Leadership Leadership
leadership leadership power motivation
Successful How are How are What type of What type of
character(s) democratic nondemocratic leadership power leadership
leadership traits leadership traits is represented by motivation is
represented by represented by the the successful represented by
the successful successful character(s)? And the successful
character(s)? character(s)? how? character(s)?
And how?
Unsuccessful How are How are What type of What type of
character(s) democratic nondemocratic leadership power leadership
leadership traits leadership traits is represented by motivation is
represented by represented by the the unsuccessful represented by
the unsuccessful unsuccessful character(s)? And the unsuccessful
character(s)? character(s)? how? character(s)?
And how?
Model of analysis for the study.
The actions and dialogue of the superheroes and villains in the narrative plot points will be
analysed to first determine which character is successful in achieving their will in the plot
point and which character is unsuccessful. This will reveal if the actions in the plot point are
represented by the narrative as favourable to the superhero or the villain. It will also reveal if
for example democratic traits are portrayed as sufficient in the safekeeping of society, or if the
character must resort to nondemocratic actions to succeed.
The democratic leadership traits will be identified as the traits presented by Gastil (1994), but
the aspects of substantive democracy will also be considered. Actions deviating from or
opposing the traits or aspects will be considered nondemocratic.
The types of leadership power which the characters can represent are coercive, expert,
legitimate, referent, and reward. Coercive power is mainly about the ability to punish
21(Zehndorfer, 2021, p. 28), and in this study it will also be considered as coercive power when
a character forcefully achieves their will. Expert power means having much knowledge
(Zehndorfer, 2021, p. 28), which in this case also will include having information or
knowledge other characters want. Legitimate power comes with a formal or hierarchal
position (Zehndorfer, 2021, p. 28), in this study legitimate power will include having a formal
position in the cinematic universe which comes with powers and duties, though not simply
being a superhero. Referent power is the power of having respect from others (Zehndorfer,
2021, p. 28), which will include other characters trusting the character to act. Lastly, reward
power is the power to reward others (Zehndorfer, 2021, p. 28), this study will also consider
the ability to help as reward power.
Furthermore, the characters can either represent societal or self-serving motivation. Because
superhero narratives mainly revolve around the idea that the superhero should save the entire
world, this study will consider it self-serving if the character is only motivated by what is best
for themselves or their closest friends and family. Societal motivation is about acting
according to what benefit others or the entire society (Zehndorfer, 2021, p. 28). In this study
societal motivation will be considered when the character’s actions are motivated by the
greater good of society, regardless of the implications on the self or the closest friends and
family.
The results of the analysis will then be categorised based on themes found in the empirical
evidence. These themes constitute the headlines in the chapter presenting the results of the
analysis.
6.2 Material
The material consists of the characters’ actions and dialogue in the narrative plot points from
Avengers: Infinity War and Avengers: Endgame. The sequences containing the plot points of
the two films constitutes of approximately 20 minutes of the two films total time. But while
the identified plot points will be the focus of the analysis, the narratives are still connected
chains of events (Abrams et al., 2010, p. 194) and therefore previous or succeeding sequences
which influences the plot points can be included in the analysis.
The narratives of the chosen films are directly connected to each other, with the latter film
dealing with the consequences of the events in the first film. In addition, these are two of the
22most popular superhero films in the United States and the world, according to grosses (Box
Office Mojo, n.d.), making them influential both globally and in the United States’ culture.
They also contain several different superheroes and villains who can give a fuller
representation of leadership than if the narrative only has one superhero and one villain. In
Avengers: Infinity War the main character is the villain Thanos and therefore the narrative
focuses on him, while in Avengers: Endgame the main characters are the superheroes and so
the narrative focuses on them. This enables these two narratives to provide material regarding
the successful and unsuccessful leadership of both the superheroes and villains. Consequently,
conclusions can be drawn on how the superhero films communicate regarding leadership.
Based on the narrative plot points, the material will mainly consist of the sequences presented
below.
The first plot point of Avengers: Infinity War (Russo & Russo, 2018, 00:39:50-00:41:38) is
when the followers of Thanos fail to retrieve an infinity stone from Vision. Because of this
Thanos is forced to become involved with retrieving the stones, causing confrontation
between him and the superheroes. The midpoint occurs when Thanos forces his daughter
Gamora to reveal the destination of another infinity stone (Russo & Russo, 2018, 01:08:18-
01:10:52). In this scene he brings pain to his beloved daughter to be able to continue with his
mission, a change in character from the care and respect he has previously shown her. In the
second plot point Thanos sacrifices Gamora to get an infinity stone (Russo & Russo, 2018,
01:24:27-01:30:17), this is the final narrative turn before he faces the other superheroes and a
dark moment for the character as he loses his daughter. The solution of the story occurs when
Thanos has all the infinity stones but must fight Thor before he achieves his goal of
eliminating half of the population in the universe (Russo & Russo, 2018, 02:10:08-02:11:09).
In Avengers: Endgame (Russo & Russo, 2019, 00:33:57-00:36:37) the first plot point occurs
when Captain America, Black Widow, and Antman visits Iron Man to present the idea of
going back in time to collect the now destroyed infinity stones to bring the eliminated people
back, an idea which Iron Man dismisses. This scene shows the conflict between those who
have moved on from Thanos’s elimination and those who have not, which causes an obstacle
as the superheroes do not immediately reunite. The midpoint is when Bruce Banner is the first
who successfully secures an infinity stone in the past (Russo & Russo, 2019, 01:23:40-
01:26:25). Before this plot point the superheroes have struggled with completing their task but
afterwards, they are all successful. In the second plot point the superheroes have returned to
present time and have just successfully brought the eliminated people back when Thanos
23arrives and bombs the headquarters which injures and separates the superheroes (Russo &
Russo, 2019, 02:01:23-02:03:00). This is a dark moment for the superheroes as they are
divided and injured at the same time as their villain has returned. The solution comes after a
long battle against Thanos resulting in him possessing all the infinity stones again, when Iron
Man steals them and uses them to eliminate Thanos and his allies (Russo & Russo, 2019,
02:29:18-02:30:30). This completes the superheroes’ task of bringing everybody back and
saving them from Thanos.
In these plot points the model of analysis will be applied to identify the traits, powers, and
motivations represented in the narrative by the superheroes and villains. This will then be
analysed through representation of democracy to see how the leadership is constructed in the
films.
6.3 Limitations and applicability of analysis
The results of this study can be accused of being limited to the culture in the United States
and how they construct leadership since the films originate from there, which would make the
results inapplicable in other contexts. However, by considering democracy as a theory and not
just the United States’ democracy, the results become more general and can theoretically
encompass the overall democratic context. Also, while superhero narratives are connected to
the culture in the United States they are successfully spread globally, which can be proven by
their high world-wide grosses (Box Office Mojo, n.d.). The global success of the superhero
narrative does not immediately entail that conclusions can be drawn by this study on how
other cultures construct leadership, but it indicates the interest of the superhero narrative in
other cultures. So, the theoretical points made here on the construction of leadership in film,
with support of empirical evidence, could be interesting to further explore in other cultures as
well.
Also, the focus on the plot points can be questioned as it reduces the number of sequences
which are covered by the study, which could entail different results if other sequences in the
films were analysed. This is a reasonable concern. However, as most films follow the same
narrative structure which is based on plot points changing the course of the narrative to move
the story forward (Field, 2006, p. 50), it is possible to beforehand determine which events has
the most impact on the outcome of overall story being told. Therefore, these events also
24contain the characters’ actions which are the most crucial for their overall success or failure.
Consequently, the characters’ actions in other points of the story, which potentially could
change the narrative, have not been chosen by the producers of the film to cause any
significant impact, making those actions less interesting for this analysis.
To make sure the analysis is focused on leadership the study borrows concepts from trait
theory. As this study connects leadership theory with representation theory and film studies in
a fairly novel way, there are no established methods on how to explore cinematic leadership
and retrieve the necessary empirical evidence, which could jeopardise the results. Therefore,
the model of analysis is largely based on a theory which conceptualises leadership and utilises
representation theory to link the concepts of leadership and democracy to its fictional
counterparts.
Lastly, one can consider the criticism of trait theory and argue that because who becomes a
leader is dependent on other aspects such as situation (Zehndorfer, 2021, p. 22), the narrative
analysis misses certain important aspects of the construction of leadership. For example, a
semiotic approach could include aspects of gender, ethnicity, and class in relation to
leadership, aspects which fall outside of the scope of this analysis. Nevertheless, a semiotic
approach would not encompass the narratives’ causal effects such the consequences of the
characters’ actions, for example if they are successful or not in achieving their goal.
257. Analysis
The overall focus of the analysis is on exploring how leadership is represented in a
democratic context in the narratives of Avengers: Infinity War and Avengers: Endgame. The
results are presented according to themes found in the representation of leadership by the
superheroes and the villains. Under Peace with our allies the superheroes’ ability to handle
conflict within the group is discussed, then Superheroes do not negotiate with villains will
present how conflicts between the superheroes and the villains are handled. Under The
nondemocratic villain, the representation of the villain is in focus. The greater good discussed
the motivations of the characters, then The successful superhero majority presents the results
related to how the superheroes act as a group. To ease the understanding of the analysis,
character descriptions can be found in Appendix 1: Character background.
7.1 Peace with our allies
Most of the conflicts in Avengers: Infinity War (Russo & Russo, 2018) were between
superheroes and villains. However, in Avengers: Endgame (Russo & Russo, 2019) the villain
was not present for a large part of the story, so some conflicts in the film took place among
the superheroes and their allies. Two plot points in Avengers: Endgame (Russo & Russo,
2019), the first plot point and the midpoint, involved conflicts either among the superheroes
or between the superheroes and an ally.
In the first plot point of Avengers: Endgame (Russo & Russo, 2019, 00:33:57-00:36:37)
Captain America, Black Widow, and Antman want Iron Man to help them to figure out time
travel so they can collect the infinity stones from the past and bring the eliminated people
back. Through how the superheroes approach each other they exhibit several democratic
traits. For example, Iron Man greets his old friends and listens to their idea, then he explains
the scientific reasons to why time travel will not work (Russo & Russo, 2019, 00:34:22-
00:34:31). While Captain America, Black Widow, and Antman listen to Iron Man’s expertise
they also argue in different ways for why they should try time travel, logically by mentioning
that Antman survived something similar to how they plan to execute time travel (Russo &
Russo, 2019, 00:34:31), and emotionally by saying that the infinity stones could be retrieved
and used to bring everyone they lost back (Russo & Russo, 2019, 00:34:51-00:34:56). They
26all take time to listen to each other before they present counterarguments, clearly wanting to
solve this conflict peacefully through deliberation.
The plot point ends with Captain America saying that time travel could be their second
chance of saving everyone, Iron Man responds: “I got my second chance right here, Cap.
Can’t roll the dice on it.” (Russo & Russo, 2019, 00:36:25-00:36:30), referring to his daughter
whose life he cannot risk. This exemplifies their different motivations in this plot point. While
Captain America, Black Widow, and Antman want to try to bring everybody who were
eliminated back, a societal motivation, Iron Man focuses on his family, a self-serving
motivation since he ignores the superhero mission to save society. Still, both sides show
respect towards the other, by listening and accepting their disagreement, this respect could be
considered as referent power. Also, Iron Man, being the expert on the science of time travel,
holds expert power. Importantly, neither side is coercive towards the other, which is mostly
demonstrated through how the sequence ends with them accepting their difference of opinion.
Iron Man is also granted individual control as he can opt out of helping the others.
Throughout the plot point, they all remain friendly towards each other, exemplified through
Iron Man inviting the others to dinner despite their disagreement (Russo & Russo, 2019,
00:36:15-00:36:20).
Another sequence which shows conflict between the superheroes and their allies is the
midpoint of Avengers: Endgame (Russo & Russo, 2019, 01:23:40-01:26:25) where Bruce
Banner tries to retrieve one of the infinity stones from the Ancient One in the past. Like the
first plot point of Avengers: Endgame, the midpoint features deliberation through listening to
the other’s opinion, as Bruce Banner tries to convince the Ancient One to give him the
infinity stone. However, there are a few differences to the behaviour in the different plot
points. While the characters in the first plot point accept the difference of opinion and move
on, Bruce Banner continues the discussion until he is successful. The Ancient One does not
want to give the stone away because that would make the people in her reality vulnerable to
evil, but Bruce Banner counters that if she gives him the stone he could travel back in time
again to return it (Russo & Russo, 2019, 01:23:51-01:24:43). When this does not convince the
Ancient One, since it is her duty to protect the stone as the Sorcerer Supreme, Bruce Banner
brings up how the present-day Sorcerer Supreme willingly gave the stone to the villain
Thanos which finally convinces her to concede (Russo & Russo, 2019, 01:24:59-01:26:04).
So, as Bruce Banner’s mission is about to fail, he resorts to using slight coercive power as he
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