LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE - May 2021 AN ASSESSMENT OF TRADE, MORTALITIES AND ANTHROPOGENIC THREATS FACING - TRAFFIC ...
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May 2021
AN ASSESSMENT OF TRADE, MORTALITIES
AND ANTHROPOGENIC THREATS FACING
LIONS IN TANZANIA
AND MOZAMBIQUE
Katrina Mole
David Newton
LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 1
TRAFFIC REPORT
ABOUT US
TRAFFIC is a leading non-governmental organisation
working globally on trade in wild animals and plants
in the context of both Biodiversity Conservation and
sustainable development.
Reproduction of material appearing in this report
requires writtenpermission from the publisher.
The designations of geographical entities in this
publication, and the presentation of the material,
do not imply the expression of any opinion
whatsoever on the part of TRAFFIC or its supporting
organisations concerning the legal status of any
country, territory, or area, or of its authorities,
or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
boundaries.
PROJECT SupervisorS
David Newton1,2
The production of this publication was made possible with funding
Lead author provided by the Lion Recovery Fund. The authors thank the
Katrina Mole1 Mozambiquan Administração Nacional das Áreas de Conservação
(National Administration for Conservation Areas) (ANAC), specifically
Published by: Dr. Carlos Lopes Pereira for his continued support of this research.
TRAFFIC International, Cambridge, United Kingdom. Thanks also go to Marcelino Foloma from The World Wildlife Fund
for Nature (WWF) who assisted in obtaining research permits for our
SUGGESTED CITATION work in Mozambique. The authors would also like to thank the Tanzania
Mole, K. H., Newton, D. TRAFFIC (2020). An Wildlife Management Authority (TAWA) and the Ministry of Natural
assessment of trade, mortalities and anthropogenic
Resources and Tourism (MNRT), specifically Elisante Leguma, Fredrick
threats facing lions in Tanzania and Mozambique.
Ligate and Beatrice Mtui for their continued support and assistance
in collecting essential data for this report. Thank you to the TRAFFIC
© TRAFFIC 2020. Copyright of material published in
this report is vested in TRAFFIC.
East Africa office, specifically Shanny Pelle who provided logistical
support to Katrina Mole whilst in Tanzania, Linah Clifford who assisted
UK Registered Charity No. 1076722 with letters, data collection and general support; and William Crosmary
who also provided invaluable support and research contacts whilst in
Design Tanzania. Thanks also to Esther Sang’udi who supported with data
Marcus Cornthwaite entry and collection.
The authors would also like to thank Dr Colleen Begg (Niassa Carnivore
Project (NCP), IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group) and Dennis Ikanda
(TAWIRI) for peer reviewing the report, as well as providing guidance and
1
input while the document was still in preparation. Thanks to consultants
TRAFFIC, East/Southern Africa Regional Office, c/o IUCN ESARO,
1st Floor Block E, Hatfield Gardens, 333 Grosvenor Street, Hatfield, Mourice Victor and Samuel Bilerio who assisted in collecting interview
Pretoria, 0083, South Africa data in Tanzania and Mozambique respectively. Thank you to members
2
of staff from KopeLion (Ingela Jansson), WCS (Franziska Steinbruch
University of the Witwatersrand, School of Animal, Plant &
Environmental Sciences, 1 Jan Smuts Ave, Johannesburg, 2000 (now with ANAC)), Peace Parks-Limpopo National Park (Peter Leitner)
and Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority (Maige Deogratius)
who provided assistance and valuable input into this research. Much
gratitude to Michael Mole who assisted with the more complex ArcGIS
figures and mapping. The authors also thank Prof Antoinette Kotze from
the South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI) who provided
weights for lion parts. The authors also thank Marcus Cornthwaite for
the design and layout of the report.
table of
contents
page 4
INTRODUCTION
Executive summary
Recommendations
Acronyms and abbreviations
Literature review
Methodology
page 34
TANZANIA
Results
Conclusions and discussion
Recoommendations
page 56
MOZAMBIQUE
Results
Conclusions and discussion
Recoommendations
page 74
References
Endnotes
Image credits
Appendix I
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
T H E U N R E G U L AT E D A N D I L L I C I T T R A D E O F W I L D L I F E P R O D U C T S
A N D D E R I VAT I V E S P O S E S A S I G N I F I C A N T T H R E AT T O T H E
L O N G - T E R M V I A B I L I T Y O F TA X A S U C H A S W H I T E R H I N O C E R O S
C E R AT O T H E R I U M S I M U M , A F R I C A N E L E P H A N T S L O X O D O N TA
A F R I C A N A , A N D T H E A F R I C A N L I O N PA N T H E R A L E O .
In recent years, several studies have TRAFFIC’s Wildlife Trade and Information
highlighted concerns about an emerging System (WiTIS); grey and published scientific
and increasing trade in African Lion parts literature; interviews with wildlife authorities
and derivatives both domestically within and organisations, professional hunters,
African countries, and internationally to Asian local community members; and trade data
markets. However, the extent and impact of collected from government institutions and
this trade on lion populations in Africa remains customs authorities. Aspects of trade which
undocumented across most of their range. were investigated and reported on include: the
African Lion numbers are in decline primarily perceived trade of lion parts both domestically
due to anthropogenic influences such as and internationally; the extent and scale of both
retaliatory killing by humans, depletion of their domestic and international trade in lion parts
prey-base due to the bushmeat trade, habitat and derivatives, either sourced from legally or
loss and conversion, and poorly regulated illegally harvested lions; the geographic extent
trophy hunting. Understanding the additional of the illegal trade; and the location of potential
impact of trade on wild lion populations is poaching and trade “hotspots” within both
critical for current and future conservation of countries (Tanzania and Mozambique). The
the species. data gathered were then used to deduce the
potential impacts of harvest and trade on the
African In this study, TRAFFIC aimed to provide a greater current lion populations within each country.
Lion understanding of the impact of harvest and
numbers trade on wild lion populations in two countries
that have been identified as potential countries
In Tanzania, the results illustrate that the majority
of lion parts and derivatives are used and traded
are in of concern, Tanzania and Mozambique. The locally and have, most likely, been acquired for
decline report followed a non-detriment finding outline traditional use through historic and present-
primarily due to and utilised information on threats, biological day retaliatory killings. Distinct within-country
anthropogenic characteristics, national status, management regional differences existed with regards to
influences and monitoring, as well as data gathered from lion product use. Skin, tail and fat were the
4 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE
preferred products used in northern Tanzania, events continue on the current trajectory,
whilst central Tanzania had a preference for Mozambique’s wild lion populations will become
fat followed by claws and skin. In southern increasingly threatened.
Tanzania fat was used widely. Poaching data
for Tanzania were severely deficient and likely Teeth and claws were the most common,
grossly underestimated. While the figures on internationally traded lion commodity from both teeth and
domestic, regional, and international trade Tanzania and Mozambique. The most common claws
recorded in this study only represent a portion destinations for these lion parts were Asian are the most
of the documented lion mortalities, a disparity countries, specifically Viet Nam. It is plausible commonly traded
exists between the declines predicted by the that the ease with which lion teeth and claws lion products
International Union for Conservation of Nature can be collected and concealed makes the internationally
(IUCN) and the Tanzania Wildlife Research trade of these products less risky to move and
Institute (TAWIRI). These findings suggest transport regionally and internationally. This
that either the full extent of trade is not being finding suggests a new modus operandi for lion asian
detected or anthropogenic lion mortalities (i.e. poaching. countries
poaching, retaliatory killings) are not being are the most
adequately reported. Levels of poaching and trade differ between common
Tanzania and Mozambique. In Mozambique international
In Mozambique, the data indicate that targeted targeted poaching for parts is substantial, destination for
poaching and suspected poaching incidences involving mainly claws, teeth and skin lion parts sourced
are high (74% and 48% of anthropogenic lion with evidence of trading towns in northern in both countries
mortalities in Niassa and Limpopo National Mozambique. Products used domestically and
Park respectively) with evidence of domestic, internationally correspond with parts that are
regional, and international trade of lion parts and targeted during poaching events, indicating a
derivatives. Slight regional differences existed potential international demand driving illegal
within-country with regards to lion product local harvesting. These targeted poaching
use. Claws, teeth and skin were the preferred incidences are a threat to Mozambique’s lion
products used in northern Mozambique, whilst population. Results suggest that Tanzania’s lion
communities in southern Mozambique showed trade is predominantly domestic and regional.
a preference for fat followed by skin and claws. Lion product use for traditional purposes is
Considering the local decline in lion populations widespread and interviews suggest that the
(Niassa and Limpopo National Park), their source of products is from current and historic
relatively low abundance in the country, and retaliatory killings. Retaliatory killings make
the significant number of targeted poaching up the vast majority of anthropogenic lion
events within core lion ranges, the current mortalities and are having a marked negative
impact of both domestic and international impact on population numbers. There is also
trade in lion parts and derivatives on wild qualitative evidence for targeted poaching
populations in Mozambique was found to be incidences which may be occurring in the
high and detrimental to Mozambique’s lion Ruaha-Rungwa region, however empirical data
populations and species persistence. If these are lacking.
LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 5
RECOMMENDATIONS:
B A S E D O N T H E F I N D I N G S O F T H I S S T U D Y, T H E
C R I T I C A L R E C O M M E N D AT I O N S F O R
TA N Z A N I A A R E :
To address the substantial numbers of The Tanzania Government should amend the
retaliatory killings that are likely to be occurring current hunting regulations to prohibit any lion
across Tanzania, more monitoring agencies hunts where lions are younger than the six-year
GENERAL
are needed in key lion areas such as the Selous minimum age restriction.
TANZANIA GOVERNMENT
region. These agencies could include NGOs,
tourism companies or government staff to The Tanzania Government should adjust trophy
assist with monitoring of lions and collaborate hunting fees to charge hunting operators per
and support communities to reduce human-lion lion hunt and refrain from charging a yearly fee
conflict. regardless of offtake.
TAWIRI needs to develop an updated The Tanzania Government should strengthen
TA N Z A N I A W I L D L I F E R E S E A R C H I N S T I T U T E
Conservation Action Plan specific to the African management of protected areas (PAs) with
Lion in Tanzania. The updated Action Plan specific emphasis on vacant hunting blocks
should have a specific focus on updating current where management is compromised and
lion population estimates to ensure that regular consider pursuing Public-Private Partnerships
lion surveys and monitoring programmes are for PA management in areas where no support
implemented across the country. or management exists.
The activities that have been achieved in the
current Carnivore Action Plan (TAWIRI, 2009)
need to be consolidated by TAWIRI and the Border control and customs officers at all ports
existing activities updated, paying attention to (i.e. sea, land, air) need to improve detection
ensure that all activities are accountable, timely, measures to ensure that all illegal trade is CUSTOMS AND LAW ENFORCEMENT
and conducted regularly. uncovered and information is gathered on
trafficking routes and commodities in demand.
TAWA should facilitate workshops and The relevant agencies (TAWA and the Tanzania
meetings within wildlife authorities, relevant Customs Authority) need to allocate additional
conservation organisations and communities to resources towards staff training in detection
TA N Z A N I A W I L D L I F E M A N A G E M E N T A U T H O R I T Y
boost awareness of the threat of lion poaching and screening techniques and technologies,
and trade. while institutional collaboration needs to be
improved to ensure that seizure data are
TAWA should develop a country-wide database accurately stored and accessible to those
for compiling and storing data on lion poaching needing to access them.
incidents.
Law enforcement agencies should collaborate
TAWA should identify key wildlife authorities in with wildlife authorities and make full use
areas recognised as potential trade/poaching of wildlife legislation to prosecute criminals.
“hotspots” such as the Ruaha-Rungwa region Tanzania should rate its success in countering
and the Ruvuma landscape and assist law illegal wildlife trade by the number of successful
enforcement and anti-poaching efforts in these prosecutions, in addition to the detection of lion
areas to ensure that lion mortalities are reduced. parts and derivatives at ports of entry and exit.
Relevant enforcement agencies such as TAWA
need to strengthen work on anti-trafficking and
investigations related to the illegal wildlife trade.
6 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE
C R I T I C A L R E C O M M E N D AT I O N S F O R
MOZAMBIQUE ARE:
It is a necessity that Administração Nacional das Border control and customs officers at all ports
Áreas de Conservação “National Administration (i.e. sea, land, air) need to improve detection
for Conservation Areas” (ANAC) improves measures to ensure that all illegal trade is being
regional lion management by providing support uncovered and information is gathered on
CUSTOMS AND LAW ENFORCEMENT
for research and programmes which promote trafficking routes and commodities in demand.
lion conservation, reduce human-lion conflict, The national government should allocate
conserve lion habitats and prey base, increase additional resources to training staff in detection
law enforcement and reduce illegal trade and and screening techniques and technologies.
strengthen community programmes. Increased institutional collaboration between
the Mozambique Customs Authority and
ANAC should provide a progress report on ANAC is needed to ensure that seizure data
activities (and their implementation) listed in the are accurately stored and accessible to those
2016 Conservation Strategy and Action Plan for needing to access them.
the African Lion. Subsequent to this progress
report, activities in the Action Plan should be Law enforcement agencies should collaborate
N AT I O N A L A D M I N I S T R AT I O N F O R C O N S E R VAT I O N A R E A S
consolidated and realistic and achievable goals with wildlife authorities and make full use
set for lion conservation and management. of wildlife legislation to prosecute criminals.
Mozambique should rate its success in
Although ANAC has a formal national countering illegal wildlife trade by the number
trophy hunting regulation, we encourage of successful prosecutions, in addition to the
the Mozambique government to increase detection of lion parts and derivatives at ports
monitoring of legal hunting to ensure that of entry and exit.
legal lion harvest is sustainable throughout the
country.
ILLEGAL TRADE AND PROTECTED AREAS
ANAC should facilitate workshops and Increased support and resources are needed
meetings to increase collaboration between for tackling illegal wildlife trade in Mozambique.
different conservation organisations and ANAC should co-ordinate with organisations
wildlife authorities. These workshops could be such as the PAMS foundation and Wildlife Crime
used as a platform to strategise and devise Prevention (WCP) to support investigations and
methods and steps to reduce and mitigate lion anti-trafficking measures.
poaching and trade.
The management of protected areas (PAs)
Areas which have been identified as potential should be strengthened by ANAC, with specific
trade/poaching “hotspots” require further emphasis on vacant hunting blocks where
investigation and immediate action. ANAC management is compromised. ANAC should
needs to identify and provide support to key consider pursuing Public-Private Partnerships
wildlife authorities in areas such as the Ruvuma for PA management in areas where no support
landscape, Limpopo National Park and Niassa or management exists.
Special Reserve to help increase levels of law
enforcement and anti-poaching to ensure that
lion trade is reduced. Covert investigations
should be undertaken to examine and
understand the extent of trade in lion parts and
derivatives, trade routes, and the actors involved
in these areas.
LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 7
INTRODUCTION T H E A F R I C A N L I O N PA N T H E R A L E O W A S O N C E W I D E LY D I S T R I B U T E D ACROSS THE AFRICAN C O N T I N E N T W I T H A N E S T I M AT E D P O P U L AT I O N O F 4 5 0 , 0 0 0 I N T H E 1 9 4 0 S . T O D AY T H E T OTA L L I O N P O P U L AT I O N , A P P R O X I M AT E LY 20,000 INDIVIDUALS, OCCUPIES A FRACTION OF ITS FORMER RANGE A N D P O P U L AT I O N S O N LY P E R S I S T I N A R E A S T H AT A R E I N T E N S E LY M A N A G E D ( B A U E R E T A L ., 2 0 1 5 ; B A U E R E T A L ., 2 0 1 6 ). The species is listed as Vulnerable on the Red List of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). 8 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 8 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE
Lions are apex predators and play a central role substitutes in tiger wine or “bone strengthening
in maintaining a functioning ecosystem at all wine”; a knock-on effect seemingly related to the
trophic levels. The removal of lions or declines heightened protection of tigers in the early to mid-
in population numbers in an ecosystem often 2000s (Williams et al., 2015).
results in “predator-mediated trophic cascades”,
where other wildlife is negatively affected by the While the impact of this trade in lion parts and
absence of large carnivores (Green et al., 2018; derivatives is negligible for South African wild
Everatt et al., 2019a). Their occupancy at the lion populations, the impact on other populations
highest trophic levels, large spatial requirements, outside of South Africa is largely undocumented
and their relatively low numbers compared to prey and unknown (Williams et al., 2015). Numerous
species also makes lions excellent ecological seizures of illegal lion body parts across various
indicators of disturbances and ecosystem African countries where wild populations exist,
functionality for large protected area networks along with increased reports of lion poaching
(PANS) (Ripple et al., 2014; Watson et al., 2014). incidences, suggest that these trades may pose
a significant threat to several populations across
African Lion numbers are in decline across most Africa (2004–2014 data from UNEP-WCMC in
of their range except in a few southern Africa Funston et al., 2016). Those populations thought
countries, namely Botswana, Namibia, South to be most at risk are in East Africa, where lion
Africa, and Zimbabwe (Bauer et al., 2015). These populations have decreased by almost 60% in the
declines are primarily due to anthropogenic past two decades (Bauer et al., 2016).
influences such as retaliatory killing by humans
in response to livestock or human deaths (Ikanda In 2015, Williams et al., (2017) undertook a pan-
and Packer, 2008), depletion of their prey base African questionnaire and literature survey to
due to the bushmeat trade (Lindsey et al., 2013b), investigate the domestic and international trade
habitat loss and conversion (Riggio et al., 2013), and consumption of lion body parts across
and poorly regulated trophy hunting (Packer et al., current and former African Lion range states.
2009; Packer et al., 2011). In recent years, a new During this study, lion experts were consulted to
threat has also emerged: the trade in lion parts assess traditional medicinal practices (in Africa
and derivatives (IUCN 2006a,b, Bauer et al., 2016). and Asia), as well as perceived international
and domestic trade and use of lion parts and
Several studies have highlighted concerns about derivatives. Findings from the surveys suggested
the emerging and increasing trade in African that while the impact of international trade on
Lion bones and derivatives both domestically wild populations may be high, it remained mostly
within African countries, and internationally to undocumented. As a result, the domestic trade
Asian markets (Williams et al., 2015; Williams of lion parts was perceived to pose a more
et al., 2017). The African Lion bone trade has significant impact on wild lion populations than
complex drivers, spanning multiple countries the international trade. To monitor the potential
with a diverse array of cultures. Much of this impacts further, 17 countries of concern were
trade has been attributed to traditional medicine identified. These countries included Mozambique
practices in Africa and Asia (Bauer et al., 2016). and Tanzania. Tanzania is a lion stronghold,
Across the African continent, lion parts such as containing more than 40% of the African Lion
claws, skin, bones, teeth and fat are often used population (Riggio et al., 2013). Historically, lions
in traditional ceremonies and rituals, medicines, were widespread in Tanzania (Mesochina et al.,
and decorations (Williams et al., 2017), spurring 2010). Today they are still widely distributed in
a now illegal domestic trade. South Africa (as a relatively large numbers, but some populations
major legal exporter of lion bones) had seen an are decreasing and becoming increasingly
increase in the international legal export of lion fragmented. Some 37% of Tanzania’s surface
bones and skeletons to East and Southeast Asia area is designated for protection of biodiversity
(2017: 800 skeletons; 2018: 1,500 skeletons), in mostly unfenced reserves; however, trophy
although the trade was ruled unlawful and hunting occurs in 86% of this entire protected
frozen by a court order in 2019 (Venter, 2019). area network (Brink et al., 2016).
These lion bones were reportedly being used as
LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 9
LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 9
Mozambique is a country with a complicated recovery. Mozambique’s National Parks and
history, ravaged by civil war spanning many protected areas are unfenced and often have
decades (1977–1992). During these times communities living within the parks’ boundaries
as well as post-war, poverty was high, where large areas are used to cultivate crops,
wildlife poaching was rife, and many wildlife graze cattle, and gather food (Everatt et al.,
populations were decimated (Bouley et al., 2019a). Bushmeat poaching of ungulates is
2018). Since then, conservation efforts have also widespread across these protected areas,
increased, and many organisations are working and in some areas of Mozambique, lions are
to restore conservation areas with species that targeted for their body parts (Everatt et al., 2015;
were once omnipresent (Bouley et al., 2018). Everatt et al., 2019b), or persecuted for livestock
Due to this complex history, lions are facing depredation.
both direct and indirect pressures during their
OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY:
In this report, TRAFFIC investigated the extent 1. The perceived trade of lion
of trade and harvest of lions in Tanzania and
parts, both domestically and
Mozambique. Interviews and consultations
were conducted to investigate the presence, internationally.
extent, and scale of domestic and international 2. The extent and scale of the
trade and harvest in both countries, specific
considerations are listed to the right. domestic trade in lion parts and
derivatives.
The report has been structured to provide
a multi-factorial analysis based on the non- 3. The extent and scale of the
detriment finding (NDF) format of Rosser and international trade of lion parts and
Haywood (2002). As reliable data are patchy,
TRAFFIC’s aim was to use information on derivatives, either sourced from
threats, biological characteristics, national legally or illegally harvested lions.
status, management, monitoring, and the
4. The geographic extent of the illegal
impact of legal, illegal, and unregulated harvest
and trade to produce an assessment of the trade and harvest of lions within
impact of these activities and associated Tanzania and Mozambique and the
parameters on the wild lion populations of
Tanzania and Mozambique.
location of potential poaching and
trade “hotspots”.
10 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUEACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
ANAC Administração Nacional das Áreas de Conservação “National Administration for Conservation Areas” (Mozambique)
CDV Canine Distemper Virus
CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
HLC Human-lion conflict
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
NCP Niassa Carnivore Project
NDF Non-Detriment Finding
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
PAC Problem Animal Control
PANS Protected Area Networks
SANBI South African National Biodiversity Institute
SSC Species Survival Commission
TANAPA Tanzania National Parks Authority
TAWA Tanzania Wildlife Management Authority
TAWIRI Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute
WCS Wildlife Conservation Society
WD Wildlife Division of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism
WiTIS Wildlife Trade and Information System
WMA Wildlife Management Area
UNCAC United Nations Convention against Corruption
UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 11LITERATURE
REVIEW
12 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUEGENERAL
BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LIONS
Habitat and Ecological adaptability
Lions commonly inhabit savannah habitats lions can be considered as generalists as they
across the African continent (Riggio et al., 2013); are not restricted to one habitat or prey species
however, lions are not limited to a particular (Government Gazette No. 41393, 2018). While
habitat and can adapt to survive in a variety of hunting success is dependent on habitat
different landscapes and ecosystems, including types, for example, longer grass (Funston et
semi-arid to arid environments (Bauer et al., al., 2001) or increased cover (Hopcroft et al.,
2016). Some lion populations have also been 2005), lions do have the ability to adjust their
known to occur in the savanna-forest biomes of hunting strategies to hunt in new habitats. Lions
Gabon and Congo (Henschel, 2009). Ecological can readily adapt and recover from various
adaptability refers to the degree to which a disturbances (Trinkle et al., 2017), for example,
species can adapt (i.e. habitat, diet, etc.). When population bottlenecks and disease (Packer et
compared to other mammalian carnivores, al., 1991).
Dispersal efficiency
Lions are the most social species of the Felidae To maintain dispersal pathways, it is essential
family, living in fission-fusion family groups to maintain habitat connectivity through
called prides (Kotze et al., 2018). Related protected areas and corridors (Cushman et
females tend to stay in their prides for their al., 2015). Many factors will influence the
entire life, while male offspring will leave their dispersal efficiency of lion populations; these
natal prides and go in search of their own include protected area size, the availability of
prides when they are about four years old wildlife corridors, as well as human-wildlife
(Trinkle et al., 2017). As such, lions have large conflict (Cushman et al., 2018). Space is a rare
spatial requirements with vast home ranges commodity in most African countries, with
and territories spanning hundreds of square wildlife and humans often competing for space lions are
kilometres (Macdonald and Sillero-Zubiri,
2002; Stolton and Dudley, 2019). Overall, lions
and resources. What space is available is often
fragmented and transformed (Macdonald and
long-lived
often living longer
are not considered good dispersers. In many Sillero-Zubiri, 2002). Cushman et al. (2018),
than 12 years in
cases, these dispersal events result in male suggest that “many existing protected areas
the wild
lions entering high-risk environments outside of are too small to support large populations and
protected areas (Trinkle et al., 2017). are therefore unlikely to be viable in the long social cats
term.” These small, protected areas promote they live in fission-
From a genetic viewpoint, the ability to disperse isolated populations that have no means of fusion family
between populations is a crucial factor in dispersal and may ultimately cause reduced groups, females
retaining the genetic viability of populations at a reproductive rates (due to inbreeding), and tend to stick with
landscape level by decreasing the likelihood of increased vulnerability to disease (Kissui and one pride for a
inbreeding and disease (Cushman et al., 2018). Packer, 2004). lifetime
LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 13Life history
Lions are long-lived, with males and females after 6–8 months (Packer and Pusey, 1983).
often living longer than 12 years of age in the wild Conception can take place from two years of
(Packer et al., 1988). Generally, lionesses give age (Rudnai, 1973) with intervals between litters
birth to between 1–4 cubs (Packer and Pusey, averaging two to three years. As a result, lions
1995) with a gestation period of approximately are considered to have a low reproductive rate
110 days (Rudnai, 1973). Cubs are weaned and are sensitive to over-utilisation.
Young Maasai men and boys are often responsible for protecting cattle from predators and herding their cattle to appropriate food and water sources
Interaction with humans
Lions thrive within protected area networks “distinct populations within a wider landscape
where human interactions are limited. with limited migration between them.” Thus, in
However, threats such as habitat loss, addition to trade impacts, lions are susceptible
disturbances, and conversion of wilderness to these fragmentation disturbances. Reduced
areas are all having a negative effect on lion or fragmented habitat often results in increases
Ala-mayo ranges across Africa (Riggio et al., 2013). in human-lion interactions and livestock
a traditional These culminating threats often lead to encounters. In these complex landscapes of
Maasai culture lion populations becoming susceptible to coexistence, humans are having a detrimental
that included a rite fragmentation across their landscapes which effect on lion population numbers and are
of passage where in turn means that populations often display contributing towards their decline both directly
young men would a metapopulation structure. Dolrenry et al. and indirectly (Oriol-Cotterilletal et al., 2015;
hunt and kill a lion (2014) state that these metapopulations are Suraci et al., 2019).
14 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUEMAJOR THREATS
DIRECT THREATS FACED BY LIONS
EXCLUDING REGULATED HARVEST
Targeted poaching Retaliatory killing
Traditional medicine and commercial use of lion In areas where humans and wildlife co-exist,
parts are driving an unsustainable trade in lion carnivores such as the African Lion are often
parts and derivatives across Africa (Williams et killed in retaliation for predation on domestic
al., 2015). In some areas, lions are falling victim livestock (Kissui, 2008). In East Africa, for
to targeted poaching for parts (Mesochina et al., example, in the Maasai culture, family wealth
2010; Everatt et al., 2019b) and this, along with is measured in cattle numbers, and thus
other significant threats facing lion populations, depredation is often a cause of conflict (Ikanda
is adding to population declines in most African and Packer, 2008).
countries.
In most cases retaliatory killings will happen in
Ritual/ cultural killing areas adjacent to protected areas where lions
occur in large numbers (Bauer et al., 2016;
In Africa, several cultures have strong traditional Eustace et al., 2019). With human population
links with the lion. In the Maasai culture, for numbers on the rise, it is easy to see why there is
example, it is a tradition for young men to hunt an increase in human-wildlife conflict as humans
and kill a lion as a rite of passage to adulthood and wildlife compete for space and resources.
(Ikanda and Packer, 2008; Mesochina et al.,
2010). These hunts are traditionally referred
to as “Ala-mayo.” This form of lion hunting
ROADKILL
was banned in the 1970s (Ikanda and Packer, In some areas, national highways cut through
2008); however, many people believe it still National Parks and reserves. On these national
occurs in secret. According to the literature
and also reported during interviews carried out
roads, people are negligent and do not obey the
speed limits.
retaliatory
for this study, lion products collected are the killings
tail, paws, and mane (Mesochina et al., 2010). This leads to numerous unnecessary deaths for predation on
These products are used in the celebrations, due to animals being hit by vehicles. In countries dometic livestock
following which the tail and paws are discarded where protected areas are often unfenced and are common in
(Mesochina et al., 2010). Traditional lion hunting major roads intercept protected areas, incidents areas where lions
also occurs in other local pastoral tribal groups, of roadkill are a common occurrence (Kioko et and humans
but it is not well documented. al., 2015). co-exist
LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 15Unregulated trophy hunting
Sport hunting is a multifaceted practice in for sport, it is the mature males that are targeted
commercial those African countries that still allow it. On (six years and older). In social cats such as
use the one hand, hunting blocks conserve vast lions, this can create a situation of abnormal
and traditional amounts of land for wildlife, which under male replacement that can lead to high levels
medicine are different circumstances may have been used of infanticide (Packer et al., 2009; Lindsey et
driving an for agriculture and grazing (Brink et al., 2016). al., 2012). Unmanaged or unregulated trophy
unsustainable trade The hunting blocks may also provide economic hunting can lead to unsustainable offtake which
in lion parts and benefits to neighbouring communities (Brink et can have a negative impact on lion densities
derivatives across al., 2016). However, there are also many negative (Lindsey et al., 2012; Brink et al., 2016).
Africa facets of trophy hunting. When lions are hunted
Problem Animal Control (PAC)
Lions are prone to conflict with humans, et al., 2010). In many cases, only the livestock
whether it be killing livestock or in some carcasses are discovered and reported, or in
cases, people. Problem Animal Control (PAC) other cases, if lions are encountered, they are
is a measure used to mitigate this conflict chased away. In many incidences where villages
(Mesochina et al., 2010). When human-lion are isolated, and wildlife authorities lack the
conflicts (HLC) occur, wildlife authorities, village human resources to send a representative out
game scouts, or game officers are called out to to assess the situation, these “problem” lions
assess the damage caused by the lions and if face persecution and are often killed or injured
deemed necessary, remove the individual. PAC by villagers themselves (retaliatory/revenge
can be challenging to implement as the lions killings). According to Mesochina et al. (2010),
may have already moved out of the area by the PAC is a viable option if it is implemented
time the wildlife authorities arrive (Mesochina correctly.
Diseases
Diseases such as bovine tuberculosis and small population does not fare as well with
canine distemper are a threat to lion populations disease outbreaks when compared to larger,
(Mesochina et al., 2010). Canine distemper virus less isolated populations like the Serengeti
(CDV) is a severe and often fatal disease (Myers lions (Kissui and Packer, 2004; Mesochina et al.,
et al., 1997). Outbreaks have been recorded 2010).
in Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania as well as in
the Serengeti ecosystem (Kissui and Packer Lions are also susceptible to bovine tuberculosis,
2004). The Ngorongoro Crater lion population a disease which is closely linked to bovine
is isolated due to geographic barriers making species such as cattle and buffalo (Michel
this population more susceptible to inbreeding et al., 2006). Buffalo is one of the top prey for
and diseases such as CDV (Kissui and Packer, lions and therefore this disease can spread to
2004; Mesochina et al., 2010). Increasing lion prides after lions consume infected buffalo
human populations, and thus domestic dogs meat from herds which have a prevalence of
(the supposed reservoir for CDV in northern bovine tuberculosis (Michel et al., 2006). When
Tanzania), around the crater are creating the bovine tuberculosis is present in a pride it can
perfect environment for CDV to be transferred have many adverse effects, one of which is
to the isolated crater lions (Kissui and Packer, reduced breeding success (Michel et al., 2006).
2004; Mesochina et al., 2010). This relatively
16 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUEPart of a team conducting the lion census in Tsavo East National Park, Kenya
LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 17A vet tries to save young male lion, poisoned after eating a poisoned carcass poisoned by local cattle herders
INDIRECT THREATS FACED BY LIONS
EXCLUDING REGULATED HARVEST
Prey-base depletion
The illegal bushmeat trade occurs in many trade is considered a significant factor which
countries across Africa (Lindsey et al., adversely affects this predator-prey interaction
2013b). Bushmeat has become an essential due to excessive hunting of certain ungulate
source of protein and income generation for species (Lindsey et al., 2013b). This can, in
countless people living in rural areas (Lindsey turn, have drastic consequences for predator
et al., 2013b). Wildlife was first targeted species that also rely on these prey populations
in areas where there was little protection. (Macdonald and Sillero-Zubiri, 2002). In
However, as areas surrounding protected areas Mozambique, human population numbers are
become over-utilised, protected areas are high, thus causing competition for the same
becoming negatively affected by unsustainable “prey” resource. In future, over-utilisation of prey
bushmeat poaching (Lindsey et al., 2013b). species will reduce their abundance and, in turn,
There is a delicate balance in the predator-prey lion numbers if this relationship is not managed
ecosystem relationship. The illegal bushmeat (Bauer et al., 2015).
Habitat loss due to human encroachment
One of the main threats to lion conservation an intensification of the resources needed to
is the issue of habitat loss and conversion of sustain more people. These resources could
bushmeat natural habitats to support growing human be in the form of grazing land for cattle or
depletes prey populations (Ripple et al., 2014; Watson et al., fields for cultivation, both of which transform
for lions but is 2014). and fragment natural habitats (Ripple et al.,
an essential 2014). For protected areas that are unfenced,
source of protein/ Lions do not cope well in human-modified encroachment into these natural areas is a
income for rural landscapes or areas with high human density. common occurrence. Packer et al. (2011)
communities With an increasing human population comes found high human populations around wildlife
18 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUEareas in Tanzania and concurrent declines in extremely susceptible to persecution due to
prey species (herbivores). Thus, people and increased contact and possible conflict with
carnivores are competing for the same limited livestock (Ripple et al., 2014).
space and resources, which makes lions
Indiscriminate killing (snaring/gin traps)
Lions are often the indirect casualty of break free, the snare often remains attached
poaching traps used to capture or kill wildlife for to its victim and can cause fatal injuries if
bushmeat. left untreated. Gin traps are still the preferred gin traps
method of poaching in many areas in are the preferred
In particular, wire snares and gin traps pose Mozambique. Lions caught in gin traps often method of
a significant threat to lions (Mesochina et al., lose their paws but have been known to recover poaching lions
2010, Figure 1). This method of poaching is and live on three legs. in many areas of
indiscriminate, and even if a lion manages to Mozambique
FIGURE 1
A lion that lost its paw and died due to a gin trap
LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 19NATIONAL STATUS OF LION POPULATIONS
TANZANIA: Abundance, distribution, and population Trends
Tanzania is a lion stronghold, containing more Population strongholds with estimates greater
than 40% of the African Lion population (Riggio than 1,000 include Selous, Ruaha-Moyowosi-
et al., 2013). Using population data provided Ugalla-Rukwa-Katavi, and the Maasailand
by TAWIRI, seven broad lion ranges were populations, the Selous population being
identified across Tanzania (Table 1; Figure 2). the largest (Figure 2). The latest population
The majority of their distributions occur within estimates place the current national population
Tanzania’s protected area network, which covers at approximately 13,818 lions (Table 1).
approximately 37% of the landscape (Figure 2).
FIGURE 2
African Lion Panthera leo distribution across the United Republic of Tanzania. Lion population data provided by
the Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (TAWIRI) and the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group, 2018. Lion population
distributions (brown, labelled 1–7) and population estimates (1–7) are summarised in Table 1. Data source for
lion distribution: Panthera and WCS 2016.
Total population estimate
~13,818
7000
6000
5000
Estimate
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Population ID
table 1
Tanzania African Lion Panthera leo population estimates
ID Lion Area Population size Status Year of Survey Source/Reference
1 North-western Tanzania 520 unknown 2010 TAWIRI, 2016b
2 Ruaha, Moyowosi, Ugalla, Rukwa-Katavi, 2,300 unknown 2010 TAWIRI, 2016b
3 Maasailand 3,700 declining 2015 TAWIRI, 2016b
D. Guthrie pers.
4 Saadani 40 unknown unknown
comm.
Mésochina et al.,
5 Swaga Swaga 33 unknown 2010
2010
Mésochina et al.,
6 Udzungu 25 unknown 2010
2010
7 Selous Ecosystem 7,200 stable 2015 TAWIRI, 2016b
Total 13,818
20 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUEMOZAMBIQUE: Abundance, distribution, and population Trends
According to the IUCN Species Survival population of lions (~ 34 individuals) which
Commission (SSC) Cat Specialist Group, (2018), occur within Limpopo National Park (Everatt
there are five lion populations distributed et al., 2014). Limpopo National Park forms
across Mozambique (Table 2; Figure 3). part of the Greater Limpopo Transfrontier Park
These populations are clustered in southern (GLTP); a more extensive ecosystem which
Mozambique (Limpopo National Park/Banhine also includes Kruger National Park, Banhine,
National Park), central Mozambique (Gorongosa, Zinave, and Gonarezhou National Parks. As a
surrounding Coutadas and Tete province) as result, population numbers will likely fluctuate
well as northern Mozambique (Niassa and over seasons and years as lions move between
surrounding Hunting Blocks). Niassa Special these protected areas. Niassa Special Reserve
Reserve has the highest population of lions is considered a stronghold for lions, with several
with between 800–1,000 individuals (Niassa older reports estimating stable or increasing
Carnivore Project, 2018), followed by central populations (Lindsay et al., 2012; Riggio et al.,
Mozambique (including Tete province) ~290 2013). However, recent annual report results
individuals (Jacobson et al., 2013; Bouley et al., show a declining lion population (Niassa
2018). Southern Mozambique has the smallest Carnivore Project, 2018).
FIGURE 3
African Lion Panthera leo distribution across Mozambique. Lion population data are taken from IUCN SSC Cat
Specialist Group, 2018. Lion population distributions (brown, labelled 8–12) and population estimates (8–12)
are summarised in Table 2. Data source for lion distribution: Panthera and WCS 2016.
TOTAL POPULATION ESTIMATE
~1,295
table 2
Mozambique African Lion Panthera leo population estimates (IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group 2018).
ID Lion Area 2005 Population NUMBERS 2018 Population NUMBERS Source/Reference
8 Gile 30 0 Lindsey et al., 2017
9 Tchuma Tchato no data 185 Jacobson et al., 2013
10 Gorongosa/Marromeu 174 104 Bouley et al., 2018
11 Limpopo National Park no data 34 Everatt et al., 2014
12 Niassa Special Reserve 1,025 972 Begg et al., 2017
TOTAL 1,229 1,295
LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 21Searching for lions as part of a national census in Kenya
MANAGEMENT PLANS
TANZANIA
L I O N S A R E R E P O RT E D LY A C T I V E LY M A N A G E D I N M O S T A R E A S
O F TA N Z A N I A . I N 2 0 0 9 , A C A R N I V O R E A C T I O N P L A N , W H I C H
W A S A C O M B I N E D P L A N F O R L E O PA R D S A N D L I O N S , W A S
D E V E L O P E D B Y TA W I R I ( TA W I R I , 2 0 0 9 ) .
TAWIRI has implemented this Action Plan and communities, and hunting companies and
over the years has undertaken monitoring and photographic tourism are also supporting
surveys across Tanzania. TAWIRI (2016a) rural communities.
outlined five implementation activities for
4. Policy and land-use: the ongoing
lions which the Management Authority are
establishment of Wildlife Management Areas
undertaking:
(WMAs).
1. Management: a status assessment was 5. Trade: Hunting Regulations have been
conducted (Mesochina et al., 2010); population amended and updated (newest version
monitoring of “key” lion populations (Selous, 2015) to promote a sustainable harvest. The
Serengeti, Ngorongoro and Tarangire); and Wildlife Division has developed a monitoring
surveys of lion “hotspots” (Selous, Rungwa and programme and harvest rate for lion hunting
Maasai Steppe and West Kilimanjaro).
Additionally, the Wildlife Division worked
2. Mitigation: identify research priorities and with the International Foundation for Wildlife
projects in conjunction with non-governmental Management (IGF Foundation) and this
organisations (NGOs) to address the central collaboration resulted in the Conservation Lion
issue of human-lion conflict in pastoralist Status report which was published in 2010 by
communities to equip communities with Pascal Mesochina et al., as well as a monitoring
new techniques to protect their livestock and system for lion hunting and an ageing system
improve husbandry practices. and restrictions for these hunts from 2011–
3. Socio-economics: many communities are 2018. The programme is overseen by TAWA.
living close to wildlife, especially those near Currently, the Carnivore Action Plan (TAWIRI,
National Parks. Some 25% of fees received 2009) is the only plan in use; however, the
from professional hunting goes back to Wildlife Division (funding dependent) would like
the District Councils. Tanzania National to update the Carnivore Action Plan and develop
Parks Authority (TANAPA) has implemented a plan specific to Panthera leo.
community programmes that uplift local
22 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUEMOZAMBIQUE
I N 2 0 0 9 A C O N S E R VAT I O N L I O N S TAT U S R E P O RT F O R
M OZ A M B I Q U E WA S P U B L I S H E D (C H A R D O N N E T E T A L.,
2 0 0 9 ) . T H I S R E P O RT I S A G U I D I N G D O C U M E N T F O R T H E
C O N S E R VAT I O N S TAT U S O F L I O N S I N M O Z A M B I Q U E A N D
OUTLINES LION RANGES, HISTORICAL AND CURRENT
A B U N D A N C E , T H R E AT S , H U M A N - L I O N C O N F L I C T A N D L I O N
HUNTING IN MOZAMBIQUE.
This document is not an Action Plan, and as facing lion management and conservation.
such, it has no implementation or actionable The 2016 revised Action Plan contains specific,
activities for lion conservation, monitoring and actionable activities for lion management
research in Mozambique. within Mozambique. These activities fall under
six broad objectives namely, 1) Management;
In 2010, the first Conservation Strategy and 2) Mitigation; 3) Socio-economics; 4) Policy
Action Plan for the African Lion (Panthera l. leo) and land-use; 5) Politics, and 6) Trade. Each
were published for Mozambique (Fusari et al., of these objectives has specific targets and
2010). In 2016, the Administração Nacional das activities associated with it, as well as timelines
Áreas de Conservação (“National Administration for completion/implementation of each activity.
for Conservation Areas”) (ANAC) developed
a revised document, the National Action Plan However, the Action Plan also notes several
for Conservation of the African Lion (Panthera knowledge gaps for each of the six objectives
leo leo) in Mozambique (ANAC, 2016). These listed above. The most important of these from
Action Plans are comprehensive documents the 2010 and 2016 Action Plans and relevant
which outline the status of lions in Mozambique to this report are summarised below:
as well as the threats, gaps and constraints
1. Lack of regular monitoring of lion status and threats.
2. Unknown levels of retaliatory killing (especially in the south of Mozambique).
3. Lack of understanding of cultural and anthropological matters related to lions.
4. Weak law enforcement when violating the use of natural resources.
5. Indiscriminate killing of lions for PAC.
6. Lack of appropriate knowledge and awareness of the existing legal framework.
7. Lack of recognition of the conservation value and importance of lions.
8. Local communities are often not aware of the full economic value of natural resources.
9. Lack of incentives for lion conservation.
10. There is a general shortage of both human and financial resources for the management of
wildlife, including lions.
LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 23TROPHY HUNTING HARVEST
THE AFRICAN LION IS LISTED AS VULNERABLE ON THE IUCN
R E D L I S T TM A N D I N A P P E N D I X I I O F C I T E S . A C C O R D I N G T O
C I T E S , I N T E R N AT I O N A L T R A D E I N S P E C I M E N S O F A P P E N D I X
I I S P E C I E S M AY B E A U T H O R I S E D B Y T H E G R A N T I N G O F A N
E X P O RT P E R M I T O R R E - E X P O RT C E RT I F I C AT E .
No import permit is necessary under CITES harvest (for instance, Problem Animal Control)
(although a permit is needed in some do take place in Tanzania and Mozambique,
countries that have taken stricter measures especially if lions have killed humans. However,
than CITES requires). Permits or certificates this type of harvest is conducted by the relevant
should only be granted if the relevant authorities wildlife authorities in each country (i.e. ANAC in
are satisfied that certain conditions are met; Mozambique and Wildlife Department/TAWA in
above all, that trade will not be detrimental to Tanzania) and not by professional sport hunters
the survival of the species in the wild. Note (Mesochina et al., 2010). PAC is not used as a
that, aside from trophy hunting, other types of method of population control.
TANZANIA
Tanzania has extensive landscapes that have areas (Game Reserves, Game Controlled Areas,
been set aside for wildlife and Biodiversity Open Areas, Wildlife Management Areas),
hunting Conservation (~37%), including National Parks, except National Parks and the Ngorongoro
blocks Game Reserves, Game Control Areas, Wildlife Conservation Area. Hunting companies are
are allocated via Management Areas, or Open Areas (Mesochina leased land (hunting blocks) by the government,
a closed tender et al., 2010; Brink et al., 2016). Tanzania also with a lease length of five years and are each
process, and has the largest population of lions when issued with a species-specific quota per hunting
according to compared to other African countries (Packer et block and season (Lindsey et al., 2013a; Brink et
regulations, sport al., 2011; Riggio et al., 2013). Hunting blocks are al., 2016). Lion hunts are only issued to clients
hunting is allowed allocated via a closed tender process (Lindsey who purchase a 21-day safari (Packer et al.,
in designated et al., 2013a), and according to regulations, 2011).
wildlife areas sport hunting is allowed in designated wildlife
24 LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUEOnly wild lions are harvested in Tanzania. In
terms of sport hunting, Tanzania is at the
gross income received from trophy hunting (per
km2) was highest in Tanzania, Zimbabwe, and
40% of the
top of the list of trophy hunting destinations, Namibia. The ability to harvest lions is financially quota fees
especially for species such as lion and leopard significant, and lion quotas are available in most are paid by
(Packer et al., 2011; Brink et al., 2016). Trophy hunting areas in Tanzania. According to Lindsey hunting operators
hunting brings in a substantial (~USD424/km2)2 et al., (2013a), an amount equal to 40% of the in Tanzania to the
amount of revenue for the country (Lindsey total quota fees are paid by hunting operators government
et al., 2012). Lindsey et al., (2012) conducted to government, regardless of whether lion hunts
a study to assess the financial impact which are successful. Thus, the practice of sport/
lion trophy hunting had across five countries trophy hunting in Tanzania is beneficial to the
(Tanzania, Mozambique, Namibia, Zambia, and economy in terms of annual income.
Zimbabwe). The authors concluded that the
HUNTING QUOTAS
Sport hunting was previously managed by based on surveys and reports (where available),
the Wildlife Division of the Ministry of Natural as well as recommendations from hunting
Resources and Tourism (Wildlife Division). operators and staff from the Wildlife Division
Currently, the newly formed Tanzanian Wildlife (Lindsey et al., 2013a). According to TAWIRI,
Management Authority (TAWA) manages (2016a), population estimates, research work
permitting, and quota numbers. TAWA issues and field personnel are also consulted when
species-specific quotas per hunting company setting the annual quota number. This quota
per annum (Brink et al., 2016). The hunting system is in place so that TAWA can monitor
companies can then choose how many of these the harvests for each hunting operator. Hunting
quotas they would like to sell to clients in the operators are required to notify TAWA of the
form of specific hunting packages. number of lions harvested per hunting season,
which is verified by local wildlife officials who
Annual quotas are set by the Quota Allocation are present on hunts. The government imposes
Advisory Committee, which consists of selected a harvest threshold of approximately 200 lions
experts from TAWIRI, the University of Dar annually. This is based on the best available
es Salaam, Sokoine University of Agriculture, scientific advice which underpins a harvest
University of Dodoma, the College of African of 1 lion/1000 km2 for the Selous-Nyerere
Wildlife Management, and the Wildlife Division ecosystem and 0.5 lions/1000 km2 for other
(TAWIRI, 2016a). These quota numbers are ecosystems (Packer et al., 2011).
MONITORING AND REPORTING
Tanzania has strict hunting regulations which offences and penalties (Wildlife Conservation
were last updated in 2015 (Wildlife Conservation (Tourist Hunting) Regulation, 2015; TAWIRI,
(Tourist Hunting) Regulation, 2015). Guidelines 2016a). No opportunistic lion harvests are
and reporting measures are in place to ensure permitted in Tanzania. According to The Wildlife
that harvests are sustainable (Benyr et al., Conservation Tourist Hunting Regulations
2017). According to the NDF published by (2015), a Wildlife Officer or certified village
TAWIRI, (2016a), Tanzania follows an adaptive Game Scout is required to be present during
management strategy for trophy hunting so new every hunt, provided the hunting block is under
issues can be addressed and regulations can be the management of an Authorised Association.
revised continuously. Strict hunting regulations After a hunt is completed, whether successful
are followed (Wildlife Conservation (Tourist or unsuccessful, a Safari return form must be
Hunting) Regulation, 2015; TAWIRI, 2016a), completed and pictures, measurements and
which include application procedures, hunting samples for DNA analysis must be collected and
restrictions (e.g. age restrictions), management these, along with the skull, must be delivered
and supervision of hunters, and outlines to the management department (Benyr et al.,
LIONS IN TANZANIA AND MOZAMBIQUE 252017). The skulls are then aged by the TAWA as Further verification of these “blind” skulls is
well as experts from TAWIRI and the results are carried out by lion experts (Benyr et al., 2017).
stored in a database (Benyr et al., 2017). These The relevant CITES export permits will only be
skulls are then catalogued and stored as “blind” issued if the age of the skulls has been verified,
samples with no details of hunting company or and the correct paperwork has been submitted
client attached to each skull (Benyr et al., 2017). (Benyr et al., 2017).
Ageing protocols
Hunting operators and clients may only hunt of trophies in some cases. Hunting operators
male lions that are six years or older; this is who hunt lions in the 4–5 age class may still
the minimum age for Tanzania (Lindsey et al., export these trophies; however, operators
2013a; Wildlife Conservation (Tourist Hunting) will incur fines (Benyr et al., 2017). Any males
Regulation, 2015). The use of age-based hunted which are below four years of age may
hunting systems is required to ensure the result in the professional hunter’s licence being
sustainable harvest of lions (Miller et al., 2016; cancelled and no export of these trophies
Begg et al., 2017). Section 27 (1) of the Wildlife is allowed (Benyr et al., 2017). To age lions
Conservation (Tourist Hunting) Regulations, correctly, professional hunters use indices such
(2015) states that if hunting operators are as mane development, the colouration of the
found to be contravening these regulations, nose and assessment of the lion’s teeth (White
fines are prescribed, as well as confiscations and Belant, 2016; Benyr et al., 2017).
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