OUNDLE SCIENCE 2019 - Oundle School
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OUNDLE SCIENCE 2019
Introduction
The Science Essay Prize is an opportunity for Oundelians of all
ages to follow their own intellectual curiosity within any area of
the sciences. Pupils are challenged to write an essay on an area
of science they find fascinating with dozens of pupils of entering
every year by writing wonderful essays about enormously
varied topics such as the search for immortality, quantum
computing, and optogenetics.
Pupils receive no direct help from their teachers, other than
a nudge towards something they might find interesting, and
complete the essays entirely in their own time. These are prizes
to win, such as being published in this short magazine and
some vouchers, but I believe that most enter because they just
want to know more about the world around them, and find the
pursuit and communication of knowledge reward of itself.
Mr O Peck, Head of Science
Cover image: ‘Serenity’ by Imogen Pecket, (U6 K)
2 Oundle Science 2019
Science Prize Essay Winners 2018 First and Second Form Developments in Adaptive Technology and Science for the Blind and Visually Impaired India Jubb (Sco 2nd)���������������������������������������������������������������������4 Third Form Multiple Sclerosis – What’s Happening Now? Will Barbour (L 3rd)���������������������������������������������������������������������6 Fourth and Fifth Form Proton Beam Therapy: Cancer Treatment Transformed Poppi Settas (L 5th)����������������������������������������������������������������������9 Sixth Form The Benefits of Asteroids: The Solar System’s Untapped Resource EvanBall (G L6th)������������������������������������������������������������������������12 Olympiad and Challenge Competitions Biology, Chemistry and Physics ������������������������������������������������18 Oundle Science 2019 3
Developments in Adaptive Technology and Science for
the Blind and Visually Impaired
India Jubb (Sco 2nd)
As a visually impaired person myself, I use adaptive She uses speech technology, which is a voice activated
technology every day. But there are many new developments programme which converts her spoken words into text, for
and old technologies designed for blind and visually impaired writing longer documents because it is quicker. She prefers
people, and I would like to know more about them. to use Braille if she has the time, though, because she finds
it easier to work with text than with sound as she finds it
Getting about and using public transport is a major challenge more convenient to visualise the whole document and it’s
for blind and partially sighted people. Guide dogs help a lot, also easier to move text around. When Louise is doing a
of course, but they can’t read maps and they’re not great presentation for her work, she will use Braille notes in the
at knowing when the ‘Green Man’ is showing at pelican way that a sighted person would use written notes. Children
crossings. Also, many blind people don’t use guide dogs at schools for the blind, such as New College Worcester, are
at all. So, how does a blind person find a pelican or zebra taught to read Braille and to use Perkins Braille machines
crossing and use it safely? It begins at ground level. You may to type from a very early age, and I think that this is very
have noticed paving slabs, often red or yellow, with raised important because it fosters independence and teaches
bumps on them, but had you realised that they’re always children to spell. Partially sighted children with degenerative
used at road crossing points? They’re called ‘tactile paving’ conditions are often taught to touchtype on a standard
because you can feel the bumps through your shoes. Crossing QWERTY keyboard, because once you’ve learned you don’t
the road, there is often more tactile paving or metal studs need to look at the keys so it’s a skill which they will still be
to make it easier to walk straight across the road. On many able to use when they lose their sight.
pelican crossings, there is a beeping noise when the green
man is showing. There’s also something else, which you’re Smart phones, tablets, and smart watches are extremely
very unlikely to have noticed unless you have been told about useful to the blind and visually impaired community. They
it. On the bottom of the yellow box where you press the all enable users to enlarge the fonts of their messages, and
button and the WAIT sign lights up, there is a little metal cone there is usually some kind of voice over technology available
which rotates when the green man is lit. It’s called a ‘tactile which tells users which icon they’re pressing, what they’re
cone’ and it’s particularly useful for blind people who are typing, and reads texts and emails. Apple is leading the
also hearing-impaired. Next time you’re waiting at a pelican field in this. All Apple products are accessible to blind and
crossing, check underneath the box! partially sighted users straight out of the box at no extra cost,
because VoiceOver and speech functions are already installed
On London buses, the button which you press to ask the and just have to be turned on in Settings. This is unlike
driver to stop has the letter S in Braille on it. More and more other platforms, where voice technology has to be bought
underground trains have recorded announcements before separately and installed, and is often expensive.
each stop, telling you which stop is next and which side of the
train the doors will open on, which is very helpful information Sport is an area where blind and partially sighted people
for blind or visually impaired people. Most London buses have often struggle because so many ball sports require hand-
announcements of their destination and current stop now, eye coordination, 3D vision, and depth perception. Some
too. Transport for London is trying to improve! sports, especially swimming, have developed ways to help.
In swimming, races at official ASA galas are started by a
Braille technology, speech functions on computers and light and a buzzer. Coaches also use whistles a lot to tell
mobiles, and screen reading technology have developed a lot. their swimmers what to do, because of the noise levels
A blind person who is a fluent reader of Braille can go much in a swimming pool. In Paralympic competition, there are
further than previously with the use of Braille computers, and ‘tappers’ at the end of each lane, who tap the swimmers on
even Braille printers (although they’re extremely expensive the head to tell them that they’re getting near the wall. Not
because they emboss the paper rather than using ink). My exactly high-tech, but it’s effective! Board diving is probably
friend Dr Louise Byles, who is completely blind, has a laptop the worst sport for a visually impaired person to try because
which has a Braille keyboard which she uses for taking notes. you can’t wear goggles for safety reasons. As my consultant
4 Oundle Science 2019
said when I told her I had taken it up ‘It’s the only sport we Researching this essay, I have found that adaptive technology
simply can’t help you with!’ Football is a popular sport for for blind and visually impaired people is developing fast. The
blind athletes, because it’s played with a ball which makes development of smart phones and VoiceOver technology in
a noise and because you don’t have to try to catch or hit particular was a great breakthrough, because it enables blind
the ball. In official Paralympic football, the goalie is the only and partially sighted people to communicate so much more
person on the team who isn’t completely blind, and who easily. I hope that further developments will mean that it’s
doesn’t wear an eyemask. At Rio 2016 Paralympics, all the easier for blind people to find paid employment, because
medals had a special feature designed for blind and visually at present the levels of unemployment in the community
impaired athletes: Gold, Silver, and Bronze medals each sound are very high. This is a terrible waste of a powerful resource
a different note when shaken. for society, and very bad for the mental health of the
people concerned. When intelligent, capable people are
Most of these inventions have little use outside the blind enabled to contribute to society in spite of their disability,
and visually impaired communities, but there is one I haven’t everyone wins.
mentioned yet which is better known for its cosmetic use
than for its original purpose. Botulinum Toxin was pioneered Sources:
by Alan B. Scott in the 1970s for the treatment of strabismus
tfl.gov.uk
(also called squint). This is when the muscles on one side
guidedogs.org.uk
of the eye are stronger than on the other, causing the eye
paralympic.org
to turn inward (convergent) or outward (divergent). An
newcollegeworcester.co.uk
injection of botulinum toxin, which is the most powerful toxin
Molly Burke on YouTube
and nerve agent in nature, into the medial rectus muscle
temporarily paralyses the muscle so that eye movement
becomes parallel. In the world of ophthalmology, botulinum I am also very grateful to Dr Louise Byles and Mrs Rebecca
toxin is always referred to either by its full name, or simply Moore for their help with this essay
as ‘toxin’, but it’s better known elsewhere by its other
name; Botox.
Oundle Science 2019 5
Multiple Sclerosis – What’s Happening Now?
Will Barbour (L 3rd)
MS or Multiple sclerosis affects the brain and the nervous Relapsing Remitting MS is the most common type of MS
system. MS is a neurological condition. It occurs due to the with 85% of people diagnosed having this type. This form
nervous system being broken down by a faulty immune of MS causes the patient to have sudden flares (or relapses)
system. The neurons in the body are protected by myelin of symptoms which could cause them to collapse. These
(a fatty protein). When the faulty immune system starts relapses will only last 24 hours at the most but are then
attacking the myelin, it can cause the electrical impulses that followed by periods of full or almost complete recovery (or
pass through the nerve to be disrupted or even stopped. remits). The remits can last from a few days to weeks or
These electrical impulses are the signals that go to and months. On average people that suffer with this type of MS
from your brain and they link it to the rest of the body. If an have around 2 attacks a year.
impulse cannot reach a muscle, that muscle will not know
what to do. MS causes you to be paralysed because as the
damage increases all of your body will be disconnected from
your brain through your nervous system. 2
“Sclerosis” means the damaging or scarring of small parts
of the tissue, (myelin in this case). It’s called “Multiple
Sclerosis” because scarring can happen in many parts of the
body. This is why many people can have different symptoms
and be affected differently by the same condition. In the UK
alone at least 100,000 people have MS. MS is a degenerative
condition. MS is not contagious so cannot be caught from
someone with MS.
Women are around 3 times more likely to develop MS Between 10 to 15% of people diagnosed with MS will have
compared to men. MS is usually diagnosed when people Primary Progressive MS. If someone has this type of MS their
are 20 to 30 years old; however people can be diagnosed at physical ability will always degenerate from diagnosis. It is
older and younger ages. very rare for people with this type of MS to have remits and
the patient will not recover. People may find that they have
times when their disability is level and not increasing.
3
Diagram showing distorted messages in the neuron
affected by MS
MS can be divided in to 3 main types, they are: Relapsing
Remitting MS, Primary Progressive MS, and Secondary
Progressive MS, but that doesn’t mean that everyone’s MS is
the same. Many people may have the same type of MS but
suffer from very different symptoms. This is one reason why
MS is so hard to diagnose and treat.
6 Oundle Science 2019
When people are diagnosed with Secondary Progressive MS Cladribine is a nucleoside analogue which means it can block
their MS will change over time. Secondary Progressive MS the DNA replicating itself in a certain way. When the DNA
will start by showing symptoms like relapsing and remitting replicates in this way, it would allow faulty B and T lymphocytes
MS but over time it will change to be more like primary (white blood cell) to be made. The B and T lymphocytes that
progressive MS. This means that their physical ability and have become problematic (part of the faulty immune system)
independence will decrease over time. It is possible that are thought to be the cells that attack the myelin that protects
people could be diagnosed with Relapsing Remitting MS but the neuron. By reducing the damage to the neurons it is hoped
in fact have Secondary Progressive MS. that the symptoms and the severity of MS will decrease. When
drugs destroy your immune system it leaves a danger that you
4 will not be able to fight very common viruses, for example
a cold. This why Cladribine is taken in two courses, with a
period of no medication in between, so that the damage to the
immune system is reduced as much as possible, and it gives the
immune system a chance to recover.
The condition MS has been recognised for 150 years but yet
we are unsure how to treat it or even what the causes for it Cladribine molecule 5
are. It is believed that the causes could be genetics.
Genetics are not the pure reason for developing MS because
we know MS is not inherited but some genes are more likely
to develop MS than others. It is currently thought that there
are other factors that can trigger MS e.g.:
• Infection - can damage the immune system
• A lack of sun light - would mean less vitamin D
• S moking - can cause lung damage that damages the
immune system
• S olvents - Long periods of time exposed to solvents
(Paint and glue solvents) Diagram of Lymphocytes attacking Myelin6.
• Obesity - can help develop MS according to several studies.
In conclusion MS is a degenerative disease and is not
contagious. Until recently there were no effective treatments
Generally treatment for MS is unpredictable and long lasting
for MS but there is now hope for those people who are
but there are always researchers looking in to new ways of
diagnosed with relapsing remitting MS. With more research
improving MS treatments.
every day we can hope that soon all MS could possibly have a
cure. My Aunt has relapsing remitting MS, she is on the new
One of the latest treatments for relapsing remitting MS Cladribine treatment and it has now been 9 months since her
is called Mavenclad the main drug it contains is called last relapse which is very encouraging. It is the longest time
Cladribine. Cladribine works towards reducing the number of she has gone between symptoms.
relapses. Cladribine is being used in Addenbrooke’s Hospital,
Cambridge. Cladribine has been found to reduce relapses in
patient’s MS by 58% compared to the placebo (no treatment).
This is a promising sign.
Oundle Science 2019 7
References: https://www.mstrust.org.uk/a-z/mavenclad-cladribrine
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladribine
https://www.mssociety.org.uk/about-ms
https://frontend.roche.com/content/releases/
https://www.mssociety.org.uk/research
latest/30stories.msBreakingTheRulesEN.html
https://www.mssociety.org.uk/research/latest-research
http://www.closerlookatstemcells.org/stem-cells-and-
https://www.mstrust.org.uk/about-ms/what-ms/ms-facts medicine/multiple-sclerosis
https://www.mstrust.org.uk/about-ms/what-ms/types-ms “A guide to treatment with Zinbryta” by Biogen (April 2017)
https://www.mstrust.org.uk/about-ms/what-ms/causes-ms
1. h
ttp://www.closerlookatstemcells.org/stem-cells-and-medicine/multiple- 4. https://www.mstrust.org.uk/about-ms/what-ms/types-ms
sclerosis 5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladribine
2. https://www.mstrust.org.uk/about-ms/what-ms/types-ms 6. ttps://frontend.roche.com/content/releases/latest/30stories.
h
3. https://www.mstrust.org.uk/about-ms/what-ms/types-ms msBreakingTheRulesEN.html
8 Oundle Science 2019
Proton Beam Therapy: Cancer Treatment Transformed
Popi Settas (L 5th)
In 2007 I was diagnosed with an optic nerve glioma. I was £250 million solely to the matter of developing high energy
four years old. proton beam therapy in the U.K. I was surprised to learn that
it has in actuality, been in use for at least 20 years, and there
A glioma is a benign brain tumour which causes damage to are centres scattered all over America, in Switzerland and
surrounding tissues by compressing them and destroying Germany. Although there is no lack of evidence (from overseas
their function. My left optic nerve was being strangled and I centres in places such as Germany and the US) to support
was gradually losing vision in that eye. I underwent two types the efficacy of this treatment, it seems as though Britain has
of chemotherapy for nearly two years before I was deemed been in denial about its obvious superiority over conventional
to be in remission in 2009. radiotherapy in the case of solid tumours.
In 2016 I was again losing vision and experiencing pain in my The history of proton beam therapy began as early as 1919,
left eye. My brain scan showed that the glioma had grown when New-Zealand born Ernest Rutherford converted
in size and I would need treatment again. The prospect of nitrogen into oxygen through the use of alpha particles.
going through chemotherapy again was one I wholeheartedly When firing these alpha particles at nitrogen gas, he observed
rejected. I had no fond memories of all the needles, that hydrogen nuclei were emitted. Rutherford gave the
medicines, tubes and blood transfusions I had been subject to hydrogen nucleus the name “proton” which is Greek for “first”.
as a small child. Children under 8 years old are not routinely Rutherford’s strong foundation of the atomic structure, and in
offered photon (or conventional) radiation treatment due to particular the proton provided a basis for nuclear science and
the increased risk of side-effects on a young, growing brain. therefore its eventual application to medicine.
Children over 8 years old are only offered photon radiation
treatment as a last resort, once all other treatments, like 27 year old physics professor, Ernest O. Lawrence arrived
chemotherapy, have failed. Proton beam therapy was and still at the University of California’s Berkeley campus in 1928,
is not available to children in the UK. eager to break the seldom-crossed barriers between the
sciences. The promise of access to the University’s Chemistry
My parents, who are both health professionals, had to do their Department played a role in his success as a researcher.
own research and contact some proton beam therapy centres Having been inspired by a paper from the Norwegian
overseas to arrange for my treatment; on Valentine’s day 2017 engineer Rolf Wideroe, he developed a particle accelerator,
we moved our family to Heidelberg in Germany for six weeks with a distinctive circular shape, it was referred to by
of highly intensive Proton Beam therapy. My treatments lasted Lawrence as his ‘proton merry-go-round’ before receiving
for one hour a day, six days a week, and was almost needle its current name. The accelerating chamber of this first
free. The biggest imposition was wearing a tightly moulded ‘cyclotron’ measured five inches in diameter and was able to
fibreglass mask onto which laser sights are beamed for boost hydrogen ions to an energy of 80,000 volts. Despite
absolute precision during the treatment; well that and being being composed of a kitchen chair and wire clothes rack, it
fed into a huge white machine which looks like a spaceship. proved Lawrence’s point: that boosting a particles’ energy
before casting them at an object is in fact the most efficient
method by which to break apart atomic nuclei. By August
An astonishingly small amount was known, and still is known
1931, a ‘Radiation Laboratory’ was created on the University
about proton beam therapy in the UK. In fact, until a few
campus. Soon physicists and chemists became dedicated
short months ago, it was significantly far behind putting this
to the pursuit of nuclear science which led to the 60 inch
evidently effective treatment to use. As recently as April
cyclotron, described by those who saw it as a ‘truly colossal
2018, the first patient was given proton beam therapy in the
machine’. Use of this cutting-edge contraption in experiments
UK, at the new Rutherford Cancer Centre in Newport, South
allowed Glenn Seaborg to earn the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Wales. Within the next three years, there are expected to be
in 1951 which he shared with Edwin McMillan for their
at least 6 proton beam centres in the country, at locations
discovery of 10 transuranium elements, including plutonium,
such as Liverpool, Reading and London. One in Bomarsund,
americium, curium, einsteinium, and seaborgium (named
Northumberland is due to be opened and in use later this year.
after the man himself). Seaborg was also a pioneer in nuclear
Further research reveals that the government has committed
medicine, one of the first of his kind, discovering numerous
Oundle Science 2019 9
isotopes of elements with important applications in the Proton beams can be conformed (shaped in three
diagnosis and treatment of diseases, one of these notable dimensions) to fit the target area. A broad beam can be
discoveries was iodine-131, which is still used to treat thyroid carefully shaped to the dimensions of the tumour, and so
disease to this day, as well as also being used now to treat deliver most of the radiation to the targeted tumour mass,
thyroid cancer. not to the surrounding normal tissue. But the beam can also
be split into smaller individual beams of approximately 1mm
Having won his own Nobel Prize in 1939 for the invention in diameter and varying intensities and delivered to the target
of the original cyclotron, Ernest and his brother Dr John in a raster pattern, thereby minimising surrounding normal
Lawrence, Director of the University’s Medical Physics tissue exposure further.
Laboratory, collaborated in studying the medical and
biological applications of the cyclotron. Ernest himself even At high energies, protons are able to destroy the DNA of
became a consultant to the Institute of Cancer Research at cancer cells. A two stage linear accelerator is used to initially
Columbia University. An ambitious man, he had plans for a propel the protons to about 10% of the speed of light. Then
larger model of the cyclotron; with a magnet weighing 4000 the protons are directed through a synchrotron, which, with
tons, requiring a building 160 feet wide and the best part of the aid of powerful magnets, bends the proton beam into
100 feet tall to house it, construction of the whopping 184 a circular path; over the course of about one million orbits,
inch cyclotron (officially a synchrocyclotron) was completed in the protons are accelerated to about 75% of the speed of
1946. Sadly, in August of 1958 at the age of just 57, Lawrence light. The beam is then directed to the beam delivery system,
died of chronic colitis, but not before making his permanent called “gantry”. Typically a gantry weighs around 600 tons,
mark on the worlds of both physics and chemistry. A pioneer and can rotate 360 degrees with submillimetre precision.
in nuclear science with an interest in medicine, Lawrence’s Coming out of the gantry at 75% of the speed of light, the
research laid the groundwork for proton beam therapy as it proton beam can penetrate up to 30cm into the tissue, while
would allow protons to be accelerated to very high speeds. deviating no more than 1mm from the target.
Most people that I have spoken to have little or no knowledge In addition, the robot-based treatment table is adjustable in
of proton beam therapy. Neither had I until a bit over a year six ways. Combining these two movements enables an infinite
ago. Of course, having had a first-hand experience of the number of beam entrance angles to be realized for the
treatment from a patient’s perspective, I also found the beam delivery. This means that the individual pencil beams
science behind the concept incredibly interesting. are superimposed in the tumour and accumulate to deliver
the total dose at this site only. Especially if the tumour has
Protons deposit energy differently than electrons do. a complicated location in the proximity of highly radiation-
Compared to a photon beam, a proton beam that is delivered sensitive organs such as the intestines or the optic nerve,
with sufficient energies (or “modulated”) has a low “entrance the burden on these organs can be minimized by selection of
dose” (the dose in front of the tumour), a high-dose “Bragg particularly favourable beam entrance angles.
peak” region, which is designed to cover the entire tumour,
and no “exit dose” beyond the tumour. In contrast, photon This is the typical layout of a proton beam therapy facility:
beams deposit most of their dose in tissues in front of the
tumour, and continue to penetrate through the body after
passing through the target area, potentially causing damage
to other tissues.
1. Ion sources: This is where beams of positively charged
atoms – ions – are produced. To obtain prototns, hydrogen
gas is used, while carbon dioxide is used for carbon ions.
10 Oundle Science 20192. Two-stage linear accelerator: Ions are accelerated in high- radiotherapy. It is common knowledge that the two
frequency structures to up to 10% of the speed of light. aforementioned cause an exhaustive list of gruelling short
and long-term effects. I am unable to speak for others, but I
3. Synchrotron: Six 60° magnets bend the ion beams into a
myself experienced only tiredness and dry skin, hair loss at
circular path. Over the course of around one million orbits,
the site of the beam only, about a month after the fact. This is
the ions are accelerated to up to 75% of the speed of light.
all that there can be expected, with the exception of possible
4. Collimating system: Magnets guide and focus the beam in nausea and headaches. The targeted nature of proton beam
vacuum tubes. is what accounts for its lack of side-effects. The concentration
5. Treatment room: The beam enters the treatment room of this high energy beam of protons and the accurate and
through a window. The patient is positioned on a treatment calculated way in which it is applied mean that extremely
table that is precisely adjusted by a computer-controlled robot. little healthy tissue is affected.
6. Position control: With a digital x-ray system, images are
created prior to irradiation. A computer program matches the Protons were initially considered “fundamental” or
images with those used for treatment planning to precisely “elementary” particles. Today we know that each proton is
adjust the patient. composed of 3 quarks. Protons help bind the nucleus of an
atom together. They attract the negatively charged electrons
7. The Gantry: The rotating beam delivery system enables and keep them in orbit around the nucleus. They fuel nuclear
the therapy beam to be directed toward the patient at the fusion reactions in stars, like our sun. They can be used in
optimal angle. The gantry weighs 670 tons, of which 600 tons tumour treatment with great effect and one day they may even
can be rotated with submillimetre precision. give us the answer of what happened moments after the Big
8. Treatment room in the Gantry: This is where the beam Bang, through the experiments at the Large Hadron Collider.
exits the gantry beamline. Two rotating digital x-ray systems But maybe most important of all… they always stay positive!!
are used to optimize the patient position by image guidance
prior to the irradiation.
Me with my mask after my last treatment
Me on a treatment day Bibliography:
The treatment has so far been successful in brain tumours, https://www.physicsoftheuniverse.com/scientists_rutherford.
sarcomas, lung, liver, neck and prostate cancers. Clinical html. ‘Important Scientists – Ernest Rutherford’. 2009-2018.
trials are currently underway to open up an opportunity for
http://www.atomicarchive.com/Bios/Lawrence.shtml. ‘Ernest
patients with breast, cervical and bladder cancers, as well
O. Lawrence (1901 – 1958)’. 1998-2015.
as lymphoma to also receive proton beam. The number of
individual treatment sessions required depends on the type http://www2.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/early-years.
and nature of the tumour involved, but to give a general html. ‘Ernest Lawrence’s cyclotron’, Lynn Yarris, Berkeley Lab
number, I received 29. A small boy from London I met in Science Articles Archive.
Heidelberg had a more complex brain tumour and was https://www.ft.com/content/7a15b9e2-3d89-11e8-b7e0-
receiving 32 treatments. 52972418fec4. “First cancer patient receives proton beam
therapy in UK”, Clive Cookson. April 11, 2018
I believe, as I am sure many others who have received this https://www.klinikum.uni-heidelberg.de/Accelerator-
treatment do, that one of the things which makes it special facility.117968.0.html?&L=1. ‘Accelerator facility’,
is its incredible lack of side-effects compared to alternative UniversitätsKlinikum Heidelberg.
cancer treatments like chemotherapy and conventional
Oundle Science 2019 11The Benefits of Asteroids
The Solar System’s Untapped Resource
Evan Ball (G L6th)
When most people think of asteroids, they picture massive, signal and measuring the resulting reflection. This technique
barren rocks hurtling through space with no purpose except can tell us what the surface and even the insides of a celestial
to possibly cause a mass extinction by colliding with Earth. body are made up of. Psyche has one of the highest radar
However, asteroids are much more than just enlarged stones. albedos in the solar system: 0.42 ± 0.10 (AU). As seen in
They have the power to sustain humanity in space, add figure one, Psyche (with an asteroid number of 16) falls in the
multiple quadrillions of $ to the world economy, and even albedo range, shaded in pink, of asteroids mainly composed
help us understand more about our own planet. Asteroids are of iron and nickel.
the untapped source that could revolutionize and accelerate
not only the possibility of the presence of humanity in space, This composition is extremely useful as it can provide insights
but also the world economy and our understanding of where into the behaviour of Earth’s core. Our inner core, although
we come from and why we exist. having a diameter 10x larger than that of Psyche, is also
believed to have an iron-nickel composition, based on the
NASA estimates that all asteroid resources combined are magnetic field of Earth. Some astronomers dub Psyche as the
worth approximately $700 quintillion – about $100billion “naked planet core”, as it is believed that Psyche was once
per person on Earth. It is clear that humanity would benefit a planet but due to bombardment from other asteroids in
immeasurably from asteroids if we could use them effectively the early days of our solar system the outer layers and crust
and with care. This essay will explore why asteroids have the broke away, leaving an exposed core. In reality, we already
power to be one of humanity’s greatest tools in achieving know more about Psyche than our own planet’s core.
incredible goals, both academically and economically.
The Earth’s core reaches temperatures of 5,505°C, similar
On 4 January 2017, NASA approved a mission to the asteroid
th
to the surface of the sun. This scorching temperature would
Psyche 16. But out of the 18,136 Near Earth Asteroids (NEAs) melt any contemporary industrial instruments well before
that we know of, why was this one chosen for an $850 million they got close enough to take measurements. To this day,
mission lasting 3.5 years? the deepest manmade hole on Earth is the Kola Superdeep
Borehole (near Murmansk, Russia). This only reaches a mere
0.192% of the way to the centre of the Earth, but even at this
depth the temperature is more than 180°C. It is therefore no
surprise that the centre of the Earth is practically unreachable
and that an unmanned mission to Psyche – which is, as of 19th
September 2018, over 525 million km away –is considered
much more achievable than a plunge to the core.
On board the spacecraft destined for Psyche will be a series
of scientific instruments which will be used to investigate
the age, composition and history of the asteroid. The main
Psyche 16 is a unique asteroid. It measures almost 210km instruments on board will be mass and X-Ray spectrometers.
across, which is approximately 1/60th the size of Earth. It is These work by ionising a small sample from the surface and
not the largest asteroid we know off – which is Ceres with measuring the time the energised ion takes to travel a certain
a diameter of 946km – but it is the largest known M-type distance, or the wavelength of the wave-particle produced.
asteroid, or “metallic asteroid”, which make up about 8% of This can then be used to find out what elements are present
all known NEAs. Due to its unusually large size, Psyche is one in the sample, as well as their constituent percentages.
of the most studied asteroids. Research facilities across the There will also be a magnometer, hoping to give a better
globe have been using radar albedo techniques to study this understanding of the cause of Earth’s magnetic field.
metallic curiosity. Radar albedo works by transmitting a radar
12 Oundle Science 2019A mission to study an exposed, terrestrial core could have in space exploration costs. This makes asteroids a much
a huge beneficial impact on our understanding of our own cheaper and more sustainable option for extra-terrestrial
planet. For example, we may be able to discover the causes of industrialisation.
major and significant historic events such as the ice age. Not
only will this enable us to make more accurate predictions Metals would have a wide variety of uses for any proposed
about the destiny of our planet, but it will also help us in our space colony. First of all, industrial metals, such as iron, could
search for exoplanets; If we know more about our planet in lead to cheap construction in space, and also removes the
its early stages, we can use the conditions at these stages limitations of size. This could allow space colonies to develop
to help determine whether a planet will be able to sustain rapidly, as well as allow the building of large deep-space
human life in the future. For example, we believe that during spacecrafts that could carry 1000s of passengers. Secondly,
the Archean and Proterozoic periods there were relatively low Rare Earth Metals can manufacture structural and complex
concentrations of methane and oxygen in the atmosphere materials. For example, crystalline silicon is needed for the
and the Earth absorbed far more infrared light than it does production of photovoltaic solar cells, which would be the
now. Therefore, we could use the conditions of earlier stages main provider of electricity for a space colony. Clearly, shipping
of Earth to aid our search, despite at first consideration all these different metals from Earth would be impractical, and
being totally unsuitable for human life. Observing the core’s so the utilisation of M-type asteroids is essential to produce a
behaviour could also improve research into global warming self-sustaining space civilisation.
- possibly the most talked about and crucial topic of the 21st
century – by being able to predict the past and future states
However, asteroids can provide more than just metal for
of Earth.
industry. What many consider to be the most important
resource for mankind is water. In 2014, it cost roughly
But the mission to Psyche 16 has raised questions and queries US$40,000 (£30,000) to launch a kilogram of stuff into space.
far beyond the realm of academia and science. Most notably, On board the ISS, astronauts limit their use of water to only
the asteroid mining business. Based on the metal markets 11 litres per day, but still this costs $440,000 per day per
of January 2017, it was calculated that the total worth of astronaut. Even although launch prices have recently fallen
Psyche 16 was $10 quintillion. To put this in perspective, this and the use of recycling techniques creating potable water
is 115,000 times larger the world economy of 2018! from urine and moisture in the air, the prices still remain
“astronomical”. Sourcing water from space could dramatically
Obviously, we must be cautious in our approach to mining lower the costs of space colonies and possible deep-space,
asteroids like Psyche (an extreme example). Having such a manned missions.
broad access to millions of tonnes of industrial and precious
metals could cause the price of them to fall dramatically and There are an estimated two trillion tonnes of water on
crash the economy, bringing a different meaning to the term asteroids. Whereas before we were looking for M-type
“asteroid impact”. This in turn could lead to more careless use asteroids for metals, to find water we must look for C-type
of metals, resulting in a dangerous growth in industrialisation, asteroids, especially CI and CM chondrites. C-type asteroids
which could destroy natural habitats and increase the rate make up roughly 75% of all NEAs, with chondrites making up
of global warming. Also, the cost of bringing materials back roughly 8%. These asteroids are important as they are known
to Earth, based on the price of brining moon rock back to to contain water and other organic compounds, such as amino
Earth, could be as much as $300,000 per gram. Even with acids and hydrocarbons. Water is even thought to constitute
a heavy drop in price per gram due to the economies of up to 22% of the mass of some chondrites. In most C-type
scale, returning substances to Earth greatly decreases the asteroids, water is contained by being bound in hydrated
profitability of industrial and even precious metals. minerals. Extracting the water from these minerals may require
some optimized engineering, but it is definitely plausible.
But maybe we need to think about uses beyond our own
humble planet. With the ever-growing popularity and funding Water is a life source and necessary for humans and plants
towards building a colony on Mars, it makes logical sense to survive. The ability to grow plants in space would,
to have a nearby resource for the needs of the settlers and as demonstrated in the film The Martian (2015), allow
their projects. It takes more energy to escape the first 300 prolonged stays in space as well as mark the first habitation
kilometres from Earth than the next 300 million kilometres… of another planet. But water can do more than just hydrate
and Mars is only approximately 55 million kilometres away and feed astronauts. The electrolysis of water can produce
from Earth. The energy required to escape a far-less massive hydrogen and oxygen molecules. These can be used, via
asteroid would be infinitesimal compared to that from Earth, combustion, as a clean propellant and fuel for space craft.
and it is estimated that it would lead to a 95% reduction
Oundle Science 2019 13This can enable cheap travel between extra-terrestrial bases. a small but rich country with a population 2.5 times that
The oxygen produced from electrolysis may also be used for of Peterborough, has been providing monetary support to
air both on board spacecraft and in future settlements, which Planetary Resources, making its launches possible. According
is another obvious benefit. to CrunchBase (a website that monitors start-up investments),
Luxembourg’s national bank awarded Planetary Resources
Aside from water, volatiles found on C-type asteroids hold the a grant of €25m to assist in its aim to launch an asteroid
key to developing a proto-Earth environment in an extra- prospecting mission. In more recent news, on 12th September
terrestrial setting. Like water, methane could also be used 2018, Luxembourg announced a €100m fund to invest in space
to produce rocket propellant. Carbon dioxide, ammonium technology start-ups, as well as announcing the formation of
hydroxide and ammonia are all essential as fertilizers to create their own space agency. Hoping to become a hub of space
an agricultural growth rate able to fully sustain a population industry they established a €200m line of credit for start-
of significant size. In addition, sulphur dioxide is essential as ups willing to move their headquarters to Luxembourg. If
a refrigerant, which would allow a wider breadth of scientific money wasn’t enough, new start-ups may also be drawn to
experiments to take place on another planet, as well as Luxembourg as they now allow private companies to own any
provide essential air conditioning. resources that they collect off of celestial bodies in space, a
controversial matter which many governments debate and ban.
This is a huge step towards the possibility of asteroid mining.
Clearly, if a space colony is to survive they will have to adapt
The aggressive line of action of Luxembourg may lead to one
and “live off the land”. This is not a new idea. In the 17th
tiny nation having almost complete control of the sky!
century, when Europeans settled in North America, they didn’t
bring all the metal, water, wood etc. that they needed to start
a colony. Instead, they used only the resources they found and Looking beyond space colonisation, the benefits described
scavenged. 400 years later and the USA is the world’s biggest above have a wide range of uses for other fields. One of these
economy and one of the leading political influencers. This is space exploration. Asteroids could provide a potential
happened with all colonial expeditions, and this is what the “service station” for space craft on deep space missions,
human habitation of Space will need. providing the potential for manned missions to go further
than those which need to carry all their resources with them
from start to finish. By setting up bases around and on C-type
In the history of colonisation, only a few pursued the goal
asteroids, these spacecraft refuelling stations could increase
of getting rich from the mineral resources of unchartered
humanity’s reach into the solar system.
territories at the start. Leading the charge this time around is
Planetary Resources, a private company founded in January
2009 with the aim of “providing resources to fuel industry Another benefit is space tourism. Companies worldwide are
and sustain life in space”. They are working on the idea of investing into the new “designer” holiday destination for
increasing the efficiency of space colonisation through utilising the rich and famous. In the US, Virgin Galactic dominates
asteroid resources. Already they have launched satellites like the industry with successful supersonic tests of their VSS
the Arkyd-6 to test the technology they will use later on to Unity, whereas over in Japan, the Japanese Shimizu Corp., an
detect which asteroids are worth mining. Arkyd-6 contains engineering and construction firm, has developed a plan for
an A6 instrument, which is a broadband imager measuring an orbiting hotel with 64 rooms and a mass of 6000 tonnes,
between 3 to 5 microns within the infrared region of the which they pledge to have aloft by 2020. Space tourism is
electromagnetic spectrum. This region is particularly sensitive quickly coming to fruition and, in a few years, we might have
to water, and can detect it in asteroids millions of miles away, potentially thousands of people orbiting the Earth or even
even if it is only bound in hydrated crystals. The much more on the moon for their summer holiday. Using resources from
recent Arkyd-301 mission (launched on 12th January 2018) asteroids to supply these cruise-ship like hotels makes sense
has used this instrument along with others to gather data financially and logically.
by analysing asteroids and performing theoretical mining
simulations to determine the quantity of water available on Asteroids can also expand our knowledge of space. As
thousands of different asteroids. discussed earlier with Psyche 16, asteroids are relics of time,
holding untold stories waiting to be discovered. Analysing
Obviously companies like Planetary Resources are not yet asteroids may help us progress deeper into the secrets we
turning a profit due to the simple fact that they have not are still nowhere near to discovering, such as some of physics
yet achieved their goal of mining asteroids. Despite this they more puzzling and debated questions, like what causes
have still received significant funding, with a surprisingly gravity and the reasons behind quantum mechanics. By
small country offering extremely large support. Luxembourg, having the opportunity to study celestial bodies with varied
compositions, speeds, orbits and rotations, we can test our
14 Oundle Science 2019theories in different environments, which would lead to a before. Firstly, astronomers across the world have observed
better understanding of the reality we live in. that ‘Oumuamua’s brightness dims by a factor of 10 every
7.3 hours, telling us that it spins. Although this is common
We may also be able to discover if in the beginning of with many asteroids in our solar system, what really makes
the solar system the building blocks of life (e.g. Adenine, ‘Oumuamua stand out is that this data tells us that it is
Thymine) were present, perhaps answering the age-old highly elongated (as shown in figure 2): its length is roughly
question that has puzzled scientists for decades: the source 400meters, and its width is estimated to be only a 1/10th of
of life. OSIRIS-Rex, an asteroid sample return mission that. No asteroid in our solar system that we have observed
launched by NASA on 8th September 2016, will return samples has such extreme dimensions. Not only are its dimensions
from the carbon-rich asteroid Bennu. When returned to Earth strange, but also the fact that it seems to be accelerating away
in 2023 these samples will be studied to help us delve deeper from the sun. This is highly unusual, but some astronomers
into the past of our solar system and hopefully answer some have put it down to the fact that ‘Oumuamua might be partly
of these questions. propelled by the loss of water vapour and other gases, but at
levels that would not be detected by instruments.
On the topic of understanding more about our universe,
interstellar asteroids may provide us with information The strangeness of ‘Oumuamua has the ability to tell us
about other star systems. In October 2017, an unexpected of the star system it once fled. Already we can tell from
event rocked the world of astronomy as, for the first time, its highly elongated shape that it most likely came from a
an interstellar asteroid was detected passing through our contact binary start system (one with two stars that orbit
solar system. ‘Oumuamua, which is Hawaiian for “to reach around a common barycentre), or that it was the result of
out”, was first detected on 19th October 2017, but, after its a violent event (such as a stellar explosion) which caused
slingshot around the sun, quickly faded from sight in January it to be ejected from its star system. The presence of
2018. However, in the short period of time before it hurtled ‘Oumuamua excites us with a tangible, macroscopic object
away at a speed of 95,000 kilometres per hour, we still got a that has travelled in interstellar space. This could provide
good idea about this exceptional phenomenon. us with clues about how other solar systems were formed,
what the interstellar environment looks like and it could
even answer the ancient question about whether our solar
If you had to sum up the findings in one word, it would be
system is special in any way. Initiative for Interstellar Studies
“strange”: ‘Oumuamua is not like anything we have seen
have published a paper suggesting hypothetical missions
Oundle Science 2019 15to ‘Oumuamua, under the name of Project Lyra. This is no Rowan, Karen. “5 Reasons to Care About Asteroids.” Space.
easy feat, with the speed of ‘Oumuamua being almost twice com. 11/06/2010. https://www.space.com
that of Voyager 1, the fastest deep space craft we have ever Griggs, Brandon. “How asteroids can help us reach Mars.”
built. If launched, the spacecraft would reach ‘Oumuamua in CNN. 19/10/2015. https://edition.cnn.com
5-33years and rendezvous far past Saturn. This would make
Atkinson, Nancy. “Human Mission to an Asteroid. Why
communications and the use of solar power increasingly
should NASA go?” Universe Today. 23/08/2011. https://www.
difficult, adding to the struggle of designing a spacecraft.
universetoday.com
However, according to the initiative, this moment is a once
“NASA’s Asteroid Initiative Benefits from Rich Histroy.” NASA.
in a lifetime opportunity and is too good to be missed. But
10/04/2010. https://www.nasa.gov
others hold a more optimistic view, saying that an interstellar
visit may occur every year, we just haven’t noticed it before Aziz, John. “How asteroid mining could add trillions to the
now. If this is the case, studying ‘Oumuamua will give us the world economy.” The Week. 25/06/2015. http://theweek.com
ability to plan a more detailed observation of interstellar Saletta, Morgan and Orrman-Rossiter, Kevin. “All of
asteroids in the future, and these resources may be the humanity should share in the space mining boom.” Phys.org.
secret to discovering more about the situation beyond our 18/04/2016. https://phys.org
own humble star. Chandran, Nyshka and Jegarajah, Sri. “Governments should
collaborate on space mining for humanity’s benefit.” CNBC.
This essay has so far covered the possible benefits after 09/11/2016. https://www.cnbc.com
asteroids have been harvested for information and goods. But Chapman, Harris and Others. “The benefits of hard bodies”.
to quote Arthur Ashe, a 20th century American athlete with a Astrobiology Magazine. 10/02/2003. https://www.astrobio.
philosophical passion, “Success is a journey, not a destination. net
The doing is often more important than the outcome.” In Planetary Resources. https://www.planetaryresources.com.
order to achieve mastery of the skies, we will, without a (05/09/2018)
shadow of a doubt, have to have international co-operation
Oduntan, Gbenga. “Who owns space?” Science Alert.
and investment. Some sources believe the cost of starting an
27/11/2015. https://www.sciencealert.com
asteroid mining program will be upwards of $100 billion. The
gargantuan scale of this project means that it will need the “NEO Basics.” NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory. https://www.
backing of multiple private companies and countries, despite jpl.nasa.gov (12/09/2018)
Luxembourg’s best efforts. This would create an international “Psyche 16.” NASA Solar System Exploration. 05/12/2017.
co-operative with a joint mission. By forcing countries to https://solarsystem.nasa.gov
work together in a world currently dominated by trade wars, Lant, Karla. “NASA Is Fast-Tracking Plans to Explore a Metal
civil wars and nuclear threats, it seems that asteroids may Asteroid Worth $10,000 Quadrillion.” Futurism. 28/05/2017.
even have the benefits of bestowing a more peaceful political https://futurism.com
world on Earth. Space Resources. https://spaceresources.public.lu/en.html.
(14/09/2018)
To conclude, asteroids provide a wealth of resources: Calderon, Justin. “The tiny nation leading a new space race.”
knowledge, money, power and even peace. The rise of global BBC Future. 16/07/2018. http://www.bbc.com/future
warming and overpopulation show us that our mighty planet
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is struggling to sustain us. We are living in an age on the verge
Today. 12/09/2015. https://www.universetoday.com
of yet another industrial revolution. Asteroids are the oil of the
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Oundle Science 2019 17Olympiad and Challenge Competitions
Biology Olympiad Chemistry Olympiad
Four members from each of the Upper Sixth and Lower The Chemistry Olympiad is the leading chemistry competition
sixth received medals this year in the Royal Society of for pupils in secondary education across the UK. Run annually,
Biology’s British Biology Olympiad which challenges the Olympiad is an opportunity for pupils to ‘pit their wits’
Sixth Form students to expand and extend their talents against challenging chemistry problems that are either linked
considerably beyond the demands of the A Level Biology to material they may have studied or derived from information
examination specification. Thomas Riegels who received his provided within the paper. This helps develop creative thinking
second gold was in the top 7% of all participants this year. and allows application of existing knowledge to unfamiliar
and novel contexts. To achieve success, pupils need to
Winners of the Biology Olympiad think both deeply about their subject as well as laterally to
the problems set. To achieve any level of award is a great
Thomas Reigels (S U6th) Gold achievement. Once again, the School has had great success
Marcus Fforde (S U6th) Silver with three Upper sixth pupils (two currently holding places to
read Chemistry at Oxford, and the third to read Chemistry at
Giorgio Alberto Meanti (Ldr U6th) Silver
Manchester) scoring Gold Awards. Equally impressive, when
Cariad-sher Austin (L L6th) Bronze considering that they sat the paper a year early, four Lower
Ruzhang Fu (C L6th) Bronze 6th pupils managed to achieve a Silver Award.
Timothy Leung (C L6th) Bronze Winners of the Chemistry Olympiad
Georgie Smith (D U6th) Bronze
Marcus Fforde (S U6th) Gold
Ralph Yardley (B L6th) Bronze
George Gibson (Ldr U6th) Gold
Biology Challenge Tom Wise (G U6th) Gold
Evan Ball (G L6th) Silver
The Royal Society of Biology’s Challenge 2019 competition
had 47,183 entrants from 527 schools worldwide this year. Brian Cheng (C U6th) Silver
Aimed at third and fourth Form pupils there were some very Danila Frolkin (StA U6th) Silver
impressive performances by the younger age group this year Gordon Lin (C U6th) Silver
which shows that this competition rewards those whose
Wil Parker Jennings (Ldr L6th) Silver
general knowledge of Biology has been enhanced by wider
reading, watching natural history programmes and taking Sonya Paramonva (D L6th) Silver
notice of biological items in the news. 181 lupils were Thomas Riegels (S U6th) Silver
awarded certificates and it is great to see that so many of
Marie Shen (N L6th) Silver
our pupils are genuinely aware of our natural flora and fauna
beyond the demands of any examination specification. Poppy Buckley (S L6th) Bronze
Jamie Sherrard (S U6th) Bronze
Winners of the Biology Challenge Solomon Unwins (G U6th) Bronze
William Bowker (StA 4th) Gold
Robert Brettle (B 4th) Gold Physics Olympiad
Arthur Burgess (G 4th) Gold The GCSE Challenge paper is a single, one-hour paper that
Tom Calveley (L 4th) Gold is suitable for Year 11 pupils. The paper includes challenging
Thomas Caskey (L 4th) Gold multiple-choice and short answer sections that aim to stretch
and challenge students’ knowledge and understanding of
Adley Chan (S 4th) Gold basic physical principles. Only 5% of pupils who attempted the
Henry Gardiner (StA 4th) Gold incredibly difficult GCSE Challenge paper achieved a gold
Amelie Holtby (Sn 4th) Gold award this year (112/2200) with only an additional 250 pupils
nationally achieving a silver award.
Thomas Liddy (G 3rd) Gold
Benjamin Marshall (StA 4th) Gold Winners of the Physics Olympiad
Jimmy Milne (Ldr 4th) Gold Tom Aubury (L 5th) Gold
Oliver Stanton (StA 3rd) Gold Jack Campbell (F 5th) Gold
Theo Turner (Sc 3rd) Gold Yue Hin Cheung (L 5th) Silver
Ben Webber (F 4th) Gold Edward Day (G 5th) Silver
Gabriel Woodhull (G 4th) Gold
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