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Price `120 A De v e l op m e n t A n D e n v i ron m e n t f ort n ig h t ly
GeoGraPhy and you
Vol. 20, issue 1-2, No. 139-140, 2020
CapaCity
building for
Calamity
resistanCe
—saving
lives and
livelihoods.
Disaster
resilience
PersPectives
Disaster resilient
in frastr uctures in inDia
saarc: regional
Disaster PersPe ctive
The 2018 Kerala Flood:
BesT pracTi
pracTices
ces and
lessons learned
Flood risK reducTion
and resilience
re silience
G’nY SINCE 2001
GEoGraphYaNdYou.Com
GeoGraphy and you a dEvElopmENt aNd
ENvIroNmENt fortNIGhtlY
VOL. 20 ISSUE 1 & 2 No. 139 & 140 2020
DISaSTER RESIlIENCE pERSpECTIVES
6 Disaster Resilience Journey
to Sustainable India – 2030
Anil K Gupta
Planning and implementing disaster risk reduction
requires integration pathways and appropriate tools.
The transition from Hyogo Framework for Action to
the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction has
brought focus on specific goals, integrating climate
change adaptation and environment-disaster linkages in
all developmental sectors.
12 Disaster Resilient Infrastructures in India
Chandan Ghosh
Disasters have been inflicting heavy damage in terms of
deaths, injuries, destruction of our habitat and economic
activity. The economic impact of infrastructure damage
during extreme events are required to be evaluated,
particularly in the light of growing urban and coastal
establishments of the country.
26 Flood Resilience Capacity of Coastal
Ecosystem: Violation of CRZ Notification
Prakash Nelliyat
Coastal zones are facing multiple anthropogenic
challenges and the recent floods in the coastal cities
of Mumbai, Chennai and Kochi are examples. The
enforcement of the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)
Notification is however a challenge.
34 Flood Risk Reduction and Resilience
Surya Parkash and Harjeet Kaur
About 12 per cent of India’s land is prone to floods.
High intensity short duration rainfall; inadequate
reservoir regulation; reduced channel carrying capacity;
and, failure of flood management structures like levees
and embankments exacerbate floods.
40 Disaster Risk Reduction through
Humanitarian Supply Chain Development
Rajat Agrawal
Proper supply chain management for disasters, which is
known as humanitarian supply chain (HSC) can play a
vital role in disaster risk reduction. A properly planned
HSC where the private sector is also involved can help
in improving the response to the disasters.
46 The 2018 Kerala Flood: Best practices
and lessons learnt
Shailendra Rai
It is imperative to reconnoiter the potential best
practices, lessons learned and way forward from the
2018 Kerala Floods, which include community response
to disaster risk reduction and institutionalising capacity
building for flood risk management.
56 Ecosystem based approaches: Disaster
proofing India’s urban sprawls
Shalini Dhyani
India is undergoing rapid urban expansion. With
increasing population, rapid development and
infrastructure growth, urban sprawls are the new
hotspots of disaster. The article focuses on the Tier II city
of Nagpur, which is being developed as a Smart City.
66 Disaster Risk Reduction through
Sustainable Development Goals:
Vulnerability and trafficking
Mondira Dutta
Research shows disasters exacerbate pre-existing
vulnerabilities, which are often ignored in the
disaster risk reduction policies. The major global
policy instruments thus need to align to facilitate and
encourage better communication, participation and
create awareness thereby ushering in the sustainable
development goals under the 2030 development agenda.
74 Increasing Vulnerability, Risk and
Undermining Resilience: Some
Reflections
Sunita Reddy
With climate change and increase in the frequency and
intensity of disasters, sustainable living is imperative.
There is an urgent need to stop indiscriminate
development, which exacerbates vulnerabilities
in communities.
80 SaaRC: a Regional Disaster perspective
O P Mishra and M Ghatak
The SAARC region, one of the global disaster hotspots,
is prone to transboundary disasters. Analysis of available
dataset shows that majority of the countries have been
able to perform better in the terms of World Risk Index
by improving their adaptive and coping capacities even
though the exposure and vulnerabilities are higher.
PHOtO COuRteSy: AijAz RAHi
IN CONVERSaTION WITH GVV Sarma
Member Secretary, National Disaster Management Authority
20 Multi Hazard Disaster Risk Assessment: A Step
towards Disaster Resilience
IN CONVERSaTION WITH m mohapatra
Director General, India Meteorological Department
62 Predicting Weather-Related Disasters:
towards Accuracy
In BrIef
3 Letters; 4 Editor’s Note; 25 Term Power; 65 Term Power
Rating; 88 Books & Website
Expert Panel
Rasik Ravindra Sachidanand Sinha B Meenakumari Prithvish Nag
Geologist and Professor, CSRD, Former Chairperson, Former Vice Chancellor,
Secretary General, Jawaharlal Nehru National Biodiversity MG Kashi Vidyapeeth,
36 IGC, New Delhi. University, New Delhi. Authority, Chennai. Varanasi.
Ajit Tyagi K J Ramesh Saraswati Raju B Sengupta
Air Vice Marshal (Retd) Former Director Former Professor, CSRD, Former Member Secretary,
Former DG, IMD, General, IMD, Jawaharlal Nehru Central Pollution Control
New Delhi. New Delhi. University, New Delhi. Board, New Delhi.
Vol. 19, Issue 27, No. 138. 2019 titled ‘Migration and Development: The
Role of Migration in the Economic Growth of India’ was an enlightening
read. It highlighted the migration networks and patterns of the Indian
population on both international and domestic scale and how it is
GeoGraphy and you affected by the socio economic and climatic dynamics. I previously
thought that women were underrepresented in our tech sector but after
editor
reading the article titled, ‘Gender and Skilled Migration: Women in the
SuLagNa CHaTTOPaDHyay
Indian Tech Sector’ I was surprised that we have a larger representation
senior advisors of women in the sector than developed nations like the UK and the
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KRISHNENDu DaTTa i am grateFul to G’nY for sharing qualitative reading the geo-heritage issue with vivid
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cover Photo helped conservation world over—to help of the beautiful sites covered by the issue
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aLL RIgHTS RESERvED and Erra Matti Dibbalu in Vishakhapatnam The ozone Impact (Vol 19, Issue 23, No.
THROugHOuT THE wORLD. which are close to a geologists’ interest.— 134). It was interesting to read about
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The Editorial Advisor.
GeoGraphy and you 2020 3
Editor’s note
Sulagna Chattopadhyay
Founder-Editor,
Geography and You, New Delhi.
editor@ geographyandyou.com
Building from experience: Community
perceptions and gaps
I recently visited a village in the Champaran district
of Bihar in the midst of a cold wave and fell ill. The
houses made of brick and mortar have large roshandans
or a ventilators near the ceiling, which works well in
the gruelling Indian summer allowing hot air in the
room to escape but leave homes vulnerable in winters.
The brevity of Indian winters leads many to ignore
its malevolence, choosing to be exposed to the cold
air sinking through the roshandans into the rooms.
Although, in many regions the roshandans are shut off in
winter with panes of glass the lesser informed or poorer
households in Bihar choose to huddle and light a fire
in the room to ward off the cold. Lighting a fire leads to
heavy indoor pollution and in many instances results
in carbon-monoxide poisoning. This strange imbalance
between building architecture of the ancient and modern
brings into focus the lack of direction within rural and
urban communities in terms of disaster proofing.
Each disaster needs to be assessed keeping traditional
building norms in sight, educating from the bottom-up.
Masons to the top officials of the state can perhaps evolve
a building plan for a region, keeping local practices
in mind. It is imperative that disaster resilience is
built upwards from the unit level with a multi-hazard
perspective—optimum height of the plinth to combat
floods, reinforced structures for earthquake proofing,
cold and heat wave proofing among others.
This issue of G’nY discusses disaster resilience in India,
at the household, community and at the country level.
A paradigm shift in India’s disaster preparedness has
resulted in better outcomes, especially for cyclones.
Despite the reduction in lives lost in large scale disasters,
there is little progress as far as loss to livelihoods is
concerned. Building disaster resilience however, will aid
livelihood proofing along with saving lives, to usher in a
climate adapted tomorrow.
4 2019 GeoGraphy and you vol 19, issue 25 & 26 no. 136 & 137
Guest Editor’s note
K J Ramesh
Former Director General, India Meteorological
Department, Government of India.
kjramesh2607@gmail.com
A vicious cycle of people, property and
potential damage
It is alarming that climate and environmental risks have dominated
the results of World Economic Forum’s (WEFs) annual Global Risks
Perception Survey (GRPS). In fact, these risks accounted for three
of the top five risks by likelihood—extreme weather events; failure
of climate change adaptation and mitigation; natural disasters and
four by impact—water crises. Although extreme weather was the
risk of greatest concern, the survey highlighted the worries about
environmental policy failure due to inaction on ground. The results
of climate inaction are becoming increasingly clear. The accelerating
pace of biodiversity loss is of particular concern. Species abundance
has dropped by 60 per cent since 1970. In the human food chain,
biodiversity loss is affecting health and socioeconomic development,
with implications for well-being, agriculture and fish productivity
etc. Rapidly growing cities and ongoing effects of climate change are
making more people vulnerable to accelerated rising sea levels in the
recent past. Two-thirds of the global population is expected to live in
cities by 2050 due to recent urbanisation trends. Already an estimated
800 million people live in more than 570 coastal cities vulnerable to
a sea-level rise of 0.5 m by 2050. In a vicious circle, urbanisation not
only concentrates people and property in areas of potential damage
it also causes disruption by putting pressure on natural and socio-
economic resources. For instance natural sources of resilience such
as coastal mangroves are destroyed increasing strain on surface and
groundwater reserves. Intensifying impacts will render an increasing
amount of land uninhabitable. Prioritised strategic actions such as
appropriately adapting to various coastal hazards through grounding
structural engineering options to minimise flooding and inundation;
strengthening natural defenses such as shelter belt plantations,
geomorphological coastal features, etc.; and people-centric actions
ensuring risk proofing of households and businesses so as to ensure
multi-hazard resilience across communities.
India is according high priority to the implementation of disaster
risk reduction and climate resilience through building appropriate
early warning systems linked to emergency actions—linking
weather, climate, water, air quality and environment to help ensure
sustainability of natural resources.
GeoGraphy and you 2019 5
di s a s t er r esil ience
By Anil K Gupta
Disaster
Resilience
Journey to
SuStainable india
– 2030
Planning and implementing disaster risk reduction
requires integration pathways and appropriate tools.
The transition from Hyogo Framework for Action to
the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction
has brought focus on specific goals, integrating
climate change adaptation and environment-
disaster linkages—mainstreaming it across all
developmental sectors. This paper examines
PHoTo CouRTeSy: NAwAl PRAkASH, NDMA
emerging issues of research and strategies for
disaster risk framework strengthening and network
development to achieve the designated goals by
2030, as also envisaged under the Prime Minister’s
10 Point Agenda on Disaster Risk Management.
6 2020 GeoGraphy and you vol 20, issue 1-2 no. 139-140
Regular risk assessment
and preparedness
drills will result in
timely identification of
vulnerabilities to make
India disaster resilient.
The author is Professor and Programme Director; Policy, Environment and DRR issues—Centre for Excellence on
Climate Resilience; National Institute of Disaster Management, New Delhi. anilg.gov.in@gmail.com. The article
should be cited as Gupta A. K. 2020. Disaster Resilience Journey to Sustainable India
– 2030, Geography and You, 20(1-2): 6-11
GeoGraphy and you 2020 7
d
isaster Management vision – vulnerability’ as laid by Hyogo Framework for
new paradigm shift Action (HFA) has been attended inadequately
The Global Assessment Report by countries (Estrella and Saalisma 2012). In
of UNDRR (2018) has presented transition from HFA, the SFDRR has sought to
a new picture of disaster risk in place greater attention on integrating climate
developing countries that warns of major risks change adaptation, mainstreaming across sectors
from air pollution and biological hazards, besides of development with relevant tools of planning
floods, drought, landslides and earthquakes. and implementation at national, sub-national and
Over 4 per cent of GDP loss is projected annually local levels.
if disaster risk reduction is not put into practice.
The report estimated a USD 79.5 billion loss from resilient development: Critical to
climate-related disasters in 20 years in India sustainability
alone. Although the recent years see a substantial There is a growing demand for integrating disaster
reduction in deaths due to disasters, there is an risk analysis into programmes for promoting
increasing property, livelihood and resource community resilience and building sustainable
damage that has to be managed. social systems (Mileti 1999; Birkmann 2006). It
Investing in disaster risk reduction for— is a widely accepted sentiment that secure and
sustainable and resilient infrastructure; ecosystem resilient people will constitute sustainable and
services and environment management; climate healthy societies (Nirupama 2012). It requires
change adaptation; and, capacity building for developing flexible models of disaster risk
research, education and culture of safety the reduction strategy with integration of tools in
Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction policy and programmes at national, sub-national,
(SFDRR 2015-2030) priority would be to seek district or local levels.
a planning agenda particularly at sub-national The transition from ‘risk management’ to
and local levels. The second paradigm shift ‘resilience’ as a central theme manifests policy
from disaster centric to hazard-vulnerability- consideration of integrating disaster risk
environment centric, over the past decade is reduction within the overall framework of
inculcated in India as well. With several examples sustainable development. It also needs to break the
and pilots at various levels, the paradigm needs preoccupation with mega-disasters—tsunamis
strengthening and vertical and horizontal scaling. and earthquakes—to deal with chronic shocks
from frequent floods, droughts, storms, etc. to
policy research Contexts rapid urbanisation, air pollution, water crisis, and
Concrete measures for prevention and mitigation food insecurity that keeps communities locked
to reduce disaster risk has been a key aspect of in a cycle of crisis. Bringing humanitarian and
recent research. Disasters do not differentiate development communities together to invest in
between developing and developed nations and long-term solutions that build resilience among
affect a significant number of people each year the world’s most vulnerable is, therefore, critical.
(Nirupama 2009). However, the type and extent Implications of climate change impacts on
of consequences may vary widely. The sub-set hazards and vulnerabilities in disaster context
of hydro-meteorological and environmental have been discussed and recognised widely as has
disasters coupled with land-use complexities the need of integrating climate change adaptation
has emerged as a critical focus. Vulnerabilities and disaster risk reduction in the past decade.
of the people, land-inhabitations, resources and Mainstreaming disaster risk reduction approaches
infrastructure are governed and modified by the have been enumerated with specific reference
availability of natural resources, bio-productivity, to project cycle management (Trobe and Davis
technological know-how, people’s practices and 2005), sub-national development and land-use/
behaviour. Mainstreaming disaster risk reduction physical planning (NIDM 2014), tools for use by
into environment and development framework developmental organisations and governance
at local and regional levels, therefore has to be process (UNDP 2010). Current emphasis is on
a core strategy for sustainable development. researching and testing approaches, pathways
The issue of ‘addressing underlying causes of and tools of mainstreaming integration of climate
8 2020 GeoGraphy and you vol 20, issue 1-2 no. 139-140change adaptation and disaster risk reduction into
developmental planning across different levels and
sectors (Schipper and Pelling 2006; IFRC-RCS 2013).
india’s lessons and Contexts of
Journey ahead Disaster response
The Sendai Framework (2015-30) calls
for quantitative evaluation and reporting authority and
mechanisms, accountability, and integration.
It in fact, coincides with two strategic national functions need
reviews of disaster management in India—Review
of Disaster Management Act 2005 (P K Mishra
a shift towards
Committee) and CAG Audit of Disaster
Management System Performance (2013). The
decentralisation
Bangkok declaration on Disaster Risk Reduction and local capacity
(2014) and Special Report on Extreme Events
and Disasters (SREX) by the IPCC Report (2012) building for
calls for revamping the disaster management
system in India. The present system suffers from self-reliance.
extreme centralisation particularly in disaster
response and relief. Besides, financial mechanism,
in particular the mitigation financing (through
flexi fund) calls for customisation of existing
decision tools including Strategic Environmental
Assessment/Environmental Impact Assessment
(SEA/EIA), auditing, feasibility and financial ground level awareness and local capacity
clearances. System overhaul to avoid duplicacy networks resulting in minimising loss of life.
of mandates in response, training/education, However, the particular and general experience
research, data, and policy monitoring as also in of these cyclones, added to those of Kosi flood
calling for effective inter-agency coordination at 2008, Uttarakhand flood 2013, Jammu and
national and sub-national level. Kashmir floods 2014, recurring droughts in
Disaster response authority and functions need Bundelkhand, Telangana, Maharashtra and
a shift towards decentralisation and local capacity many other parts, reiterate on permanent or
building for self-reliance the understanding lasting losses to livelihood resources including
of which could help stress risk mitigation. ecosystem services—livestock, plantations/
Community based preparedness and raising a trees, orchards, gardens, farm soils loaded with
voluntary disaster-response corp by involving sand and silt, debris, water structures, storages,
ex-army personnel, independent experts / machines, etc.
volunteers / practitioners, ex-cadets (of National Sustainable Infrastructure: Disaster risks, with
Cadet Corps-NCC, National Service Scheme- underlying factors intensified with the impact of
NSS and Nehru Yuva Kendras), scout guide climate change, ecological degradation and lack
volunteers, colleges/schools, employee/merchant/ of proper governance, has resulted in greater
business associations, etc. would help strengthen damage to infrastructure in key sectors—power,
local capacities. transport, communication, agriculture, health,
education, and industrial production—thereby
india’s needs and priorities: Key hampering development. Damage to airports in
strategies the aftermath of cyclone Hudhud and Chennai
Livelihood Security: Handling of cyclone flood, to hydro-power, transport, tourism and
(Phailin 2013 Hudhud 2014 Phani 2019) has agriculture after the Uttarakhand floods and
been a success as the efforts, in the backdrop multi-sector infrastructure including education,
of 1999 super cyclone in Odisha, helped build health, etc. post Nepal earthquake, has placed
GeoGraphy and you 2020 9infrastructure resilience (safety, redundancy, apex institutions presenting serious gaps and
functional continuity) at the forefront in disaster challenges, that call for convergence. Therefore,
mitigation and preparedness. a consortium strategy may be adopted. The
Synergising the Sendai Framework with disaster management authority at the national/
Paris Agreement and SDGs: Environment sub-national levels need to be empowered and
and disasters are inextricably linked and equipped not only for policy recommendation/
important in achieving the goals of sustainable monitoring but also as 24x7 operational disaster
development (SDGs). Therefore, a convergence response headquarter.
between disaster risk reduction, climate actions Response: As experiences in the major disasters
and the SDGs is imperative for planning line in the recent past, response by the National
departments actions and budgets. Relating Disaster Response Force, though useful,
to Environmental Protection Act 1986 and has been highly expensive. It has therefore,
Disaster Management Act 2005, the district and heavily added to the cost of disaster impacts.
local plans need to categorically draw ‘mitigation Disaster response needs to be decentralised-
plans’ with district/local level ‘environmental -and an incident response system (IRS) may
actions plans’ as an adaptation strategy based on be customised and simplified to fit local
hazard-risk vulnerability contexts, eventually communities, building coordinated emergency
contributing to resilience building. response. Recent forest-fires in Uttarakhand
Financial Strategies: Well-known financial have revealed the sifgnificant response costs
mechanisms in India for disaster response due to lack of community involvement in
and relief—National Disaster Response Force- preparedness.
NDRF, State Disaster Response Fund-SDRF, Capacity building: Despite progress,
National Calamity Relief Fund-NCRF, Calamity institutional strengthening for education/
Contingency Fund-CCF, are largely in place training, research, extension and independent
to address damages (and to little extent the policy review/consulting in disaster
losses) and to assist partly in reconstruction/ management has been lacking in India. With
repairs. However, the paradigm shift to only one operational National Institute of
disaster risk reduction needs a strong focus Disaster Management (NIDM) (with another
in mainstreaming it with implementable upcoming at Vijayawada, Andhra Pradesh) it
guidelines and capacities for operationalising is perhaps time such institutes are established
financing investments rather than merely at zonal levels, to host expert and capacity
funding response and relief expenses. Insurance consortium with nationally established
mechanisms need to be integrated with institutes in the state—All India Institute of
provident fund, saving bank accounts and/ Medical Sciences-AIIMS, Indian Institutes
or basic amenities (electricity, water, etc) to of Management-IIMs,Indian Institutes of
encourage people adopt such measures. Technology-IITs, Indian Institutes of Science
Education and Research-IISERs, etc. Disaster
institutional Framework – needs risk reduction curriculum (including climate
and opportunities risk management). needs to be integrated with
Governance: It is high time that a systematic professional education and interdisciplinary
study to operationalise the recommendations programmes, viz. management/business
of Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG) continuity, environment/natural resources,
Reports on Disaster Management Performance health/medicine, and engineering.
and Mishra Committee Report (Disaster Role of Ministries and International Agencies:
Management Act Review) is carried out in Ministries at all levels need to mainstream
the light of recent developments. Key aspects disaster risk reduction into their governance
of environmental safeguards (Paris Climate and developmental structure, by creating a
Agreements, Sustainable Development Goals, specialised cell and integrating strategies into
United Nations Convention to Combat working plans guided by the NITI Aayog.
Desertification, etc.) and disaster mitigation Example set by countries like Myanmar,
(Sendai Framework) are dealt with by different Philippines, Sri Lanka, etc, the consortium
10 2020 GeoGraphy and you vol 20, issue 1-2 no. 139-140of international agencies including United enable a consolidated national capacity in the
Nations-UN, Deutsche Gesellschaft für form of an Indian Institute of Sustainability and
Internationale Zusammenarbeit-GIZ, Swedish Resilience (IISAR). IISAR may be mandated to
International Development Cooperation support capacity building, policy monitoring
Agency-SIDA, Department for International and international cooperation management
Development-DFID, etc. with the government, for professional advances and promotion of
academia and NGOs can work well for fundamental learning and innovations at
inculcating the culture of safety and prevention. international level, more particularly in Asia and
Key ministries such as the environment and Africa, besides catering to the needs at national
forests, water, agriculture, health, food, power, and sub-national levels.
industry and railways may establish specialised
institutions/centres for disaster resilience references
similar to initiatives by the Ministry of Rural Birkmann J. 2006. Measuring Vulnerability to Natural
Development at National Institute of Rural Hazards: Towards Disaster Resilient Societies, New
Development (NIRD). York: United Nations University.
Chakrabarti P.G.D. and Gupta A.K. 2009. Flood Risk
Making the sendai Framework for and Management Challenges in Cities – Indian
disaster risk reduction operational Case Studies Project, Disaster and Development,
The Sendai Framework builds on both the 3(1): 1-14.
successes and shortcomings of progress in Estrella M. and N. Saalismaa. 2012. Ecosystem
strengthening disaster resilience over the past Management for Disaster Risk Reduction A.K.
ten years under the overarching direction of the Gupta and S.S. Nair (eds.), Ecosystem Approach
previous global framework. SFDRR specifies goals to Disaster Risk Reduction, New Delhi: National
for reducing mortality, minimising economic Institute of Disaster Management.
and infrastructure losses and getting countries IFRC&RCS (International Federation of Red Cross
to commit to disaster risk reduction strategies. and Red Crescent Societies) 2013.A Guide to
It also emphasises the role of international Mainstreaming Climate Change Adaptation and
cooperation and global partnership. However, the Disaster Risk Reduction, CH-1211 Geneva 19:
operationalisation and effectiveness of such global Switzerland.
policies at national, sub-national and local levels Mileti D. S. 1999. Disasters by Design: A Reassessment of
are found to be uneven from country to country Natural Hazards in the United States. Washington,
and within states. D.C. : Joseph Henry Press.
The vision and mission of India’s present NIDM (National Institute of Disaster Management).
government looks to benefit and serve 2014. Annual Report 2013-14. National Institute of
humanity—particularly the developing nations Disaster Management, New Delhi: India. Available
in Asia and Africa. This is relevant for the at: https://bit.ly/39rn1Vm
disaster risk reduction sector as well. India’s Nirupama N. 2009. Socio-Economic Implications
capacities in disaster risk reduction services– Based on Interviews with Fishermen Following the
training/education and advisory may be of Indian Ocean Tsunami. Natural Hazards, 48(1):
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safer place with sustainable livelihood and Nirupama N. 2012. Risk and Vulnerability Assessment:
infrastructure systems. A Comprehensive Approach. International Journal
of Disaster Resilience in the Built Environment, 3(2):
Way Forward 103-114.
With an excellent network of professional and Schipper L. and M. Pelling. 2006. Disaster Risk,
research institutions in coordination with Climate Change and International Development:
national disaster governance under the National Scope for, and Challenges to, Integration.
Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), Disasters,30(1): 19-38.
National Executive Committee (NEC) on Trobe L. S. and I. Davis 2005. Mainstreaming
Disaster Management and NITI Aayog, along Disaster Risk Reduction: A Tool for Development
with the (proposed) network of NIDMs may Organisations, Middlesex: Tearfund.
GeoGraphy and you 2020 11di s a s t er r esil ience
By Chandan Ghosh
Disaster
resilient
Infrastructures
in inDia
India's urban and semi-urban areas are
choked with unplanned structures built
haphazardly over the years. These areas
Photo Courtesy: Vinay Darekar
are extremely vulnerable to various
disasters and many cities like Delhi,
Mumbai are like ticking time bombs.
12 2020 GeoGraphy and you vol 20, issue 1-2 no. 139-140Disasters have been inflicting heavy damage in terms of deaths, injuries, destruction of our habitat
and economic activity. While over the last two decades india has much to share about its successful
response in terms of minimising life loss—infrastructure damage however, have remained very high.
the economic impact of these extreme events are required to be evaluated, particularly in the light of
growing urban and coastal establishments of the country. Citing case studies of vulnerable built up
facilities, this article presents disaster resilient infrastructure issues in india.
The author is a Professor of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, J&K, India. chandan.ghosh@
iitjammu.ac.in. The article should be cited as Ghosh C., 2020. Disaster Resilient Infrastructures in India,
Geography and You, 20(1-2): 12-19
GeoGraphy and you 2020 13N
atural disasters strike countries,
both developed and developing,
causing enormous destruction
and creating human sufferings
and producing negative
impacts on national economies. Due to diverse
geo-climatic conditions prevalent in different
parts, various types of disasters such as floods,
droughts, earthquakes, cyclones, landslides,
volcanoes, etc. afflict vulnerable areas. India
is considered one of the world's most disaster
prone countries. India's built-infrastructure
is unfortified to combat disasters such as
earthquakes, floods, cloudbursts, hailstorms,
lightning and even intentional disasters such
as terrorism, bomb blasts, cyber attacks and
fire. Unplanned infrastructure growth in the
unorganised sector for the last two decades
remains more or less unabated. The existing
urban infrastructure, particularly in Class-I
cities in India, can be harmed during future
disastrous events. As the rate and severity of
disasters increase, so does the possibility that
disruption of critical infrastructure could result
in widespread effects. Such impacts are more
evident as the vulnerability reduction measures
are overshadowed by increasing lacuna in quality
construction supervision and non implementation
of National Building Code (2016).
Disaster risk management is viewed as a
continuum that can be divided into two major
phases—pre-disaster phase (prevention,
mitigation and preparedness) and post-
disaster phase (response, rehabilitation and
reconstruction). Disaster resilience needs to
account for temporal and spatial changes in
hazard, exposure, and vulnerability, particularly
in rapidly urbanising areas or where climate
change impacts are becoming alarmingly
untenable. Efforts towards infrastructure
development continue to focus on the key
areas of physical and social infrastructure.
The effective functioning of the government
during any disaster event lies in collaborating
with other line departments, stakeholders and
agencies and lifeline facility managers to enhance
the resilience against all impending hazards.
India, while stepping up public investment in
infrastructure, has been actively engaged in
involving private and corporate sectors to meet
the growing demand.
14 2020 GeoGraphy and you vol 20, issue 1-2 no. 139-140Fig. 1: Country wise economic losses due to extreme event, indicating insured and uninsured assets
Total economic loss USD MM
5000 4571 2000 21591 10024 5000 3700 1660 136 2000 36406 4535
100 100
Total economic loss (Per Cent) 80
60
47
40 40
20
7 8
5 5 6 6
0.3 2 4
0
Uninsured
Honduras (Hurricane Mitch, 1998)
Bangladesh (Floods, 1998)
India (Earthquake Bhuj, 2001)
Poland (Floods, 1997)
Puerto Rico (Hurricane Hugo, 1989)
San Salvador, 1986)
Turkey (Earthquake Izmit, 1999)
Mexico (Earthquake, Mexico City, 1985)
Indonesia (Floods, 1996)
El Salvador (Earthquake
Columbia (Earthquake Armenia, 1999)
USA (Earthquake Northridge, 1992)
France (Storm Lothar, 1999)
Insured
MM=1000000
Source: Swiss Re
CatNet database,
AXCO database, 2004
India’s software part of physical and 76 per cent of people affected. Globally,
infrastructure—telecom, tech services, air and Indonesia recorded nearly half the total deaths
port services—which are assured to serve the (47 per cent), while India recorded the highest
society during normal period as well as the number of people affected (35 per cent) (Below
hardware component—road, urban transport, and Wallemacq 2018).
rail, power, housing, etc has been facing the brunt Geo-referencing for disasters since 2000 finds
of cyclonic storms. Even then, it is the hardware that in low-income disaster-affected countries an
component that perhaps deserves utmost average of 130 people died per million compared
attention. This also indirectly indicates the high to just 18 in high-income countries. This means
investment potential in roadways, railways, that people exposed to natural hazards in the
bullet train, freight corridor, power and the poorest nations were more than seven times
associated components. Fig. 1 shows the insured more likely to die than equivalent populations
and uninsured economic losses for countries, in the richest nations. Such data demonstrate
including India. Fig. 2 shows how century old that while absolute economic losses might be
Temple like regular structures collapsed during concentrated in high-income countries, the
Bhuj (2001) earthquake as the slender stone pillar human cost of disasters falls overwhelmingly
in the middle portion were not sufficient to resist on low and lower-middle income countries: The
horizontal shaking due to earthquake. Fig. 3 vulnerability to risk and degrees of suffering are
shows the impact of Bhuj (2001) earthquake on determined by levels of economic development,
buildings having soft storey which, collapsed vis- rather than simple exposure to natural hazards
à-vis use of cross bracing as retrofitting measures per se (Wallemacq 2018). Accordingly the
to safeguard such buildings. In 2018, there were report also mentions that—while the majority
315 natural disaster events recorded with 11,804 of fatalities were due to geophysical events,
deaths, over 68 million people affected, and mostly earthquakes and tsunamis, 91 per cent
USD 131.7 billion 1 in economic losses across the of all disasters were caused by floods, storms,
world. The burden was not shared equally as Asia droughts, heat waves and other extreme weather
suffered the highest impact and accounted for 45 events. From 1998 to 2017, disaster-hit countries
per cent of disaster events, 80 per cent of deaths, experienced direct economic losses valued at
GeoGraphy and you 2020 15USD 2,908 billion of which climate-related
disasters caused USD 2,245 billion or 77 per
cent of the total. Overall, reported losses from
extreme weather events rose by 151 per cent
during the time period.
Primary responsibility for protecting built
infrastructure rests with the private and public
sector owners and operators. In many cases,
they have already achieved progress. National,
state and district levels of administration are
also working to protect their own critical
infrastructure. The interconnected nature
of critical infrastructure, however, demands
an integrated approach across all levels of
government and private sector. These efforts
need to be pulled together into a collaborative
approach that will form the basis of an integrated
action plan to enhance the resiliency of
built-infrastructure across India. In addition,
early warning communication is an essential
component of managing risk and translating it
into understandable and useful information to
the society.
What is public Works infrastructure?
The US National Research Council panel refers
to a comprehension of infrastructure that
spans not only public works facilities, but also
operating procedures, management practices
and development policies that interact together
From 1998 to 2017, with societal demand and the physical world
to facilitate the transport of people and goods,
disaster-hit countries provision of water for drinking and a variety
of other uses, safe disposal of society's waste
experienced direct products, provision of energy where it is needed,
economic losses and transmission of information within and
between communities.
valued at USD 2,908 Built-infrastructure includes the
following sectors:
billion of which Energy and utilities—electrical power, natural
gas, oil production and transmission systems;
climate-related Information and communications
technology—telecommunications,
disasters caused USD broadcasting systems, software, hardware and
networks including the Internet;
2,245 billion or 77 per Finance—banking, securities and investment;
cent of the total. Health—hospitals, health care and
Photo Courtesy: author
blood supply facilities, laboratories and
pharmaceuticals;
Food—safety, distribution, agriculture and
food industry;
16 2020 GeoGraphy and you vol 20, issue 1-2 no. 139-140Soft storey failure in the
century old Cenotaph
before and after the
Bhuj 2001 earthquake
Water—drinking water and wastewater more integrated and holistic definition suggests
management; that resilience is the ability to withstand (absorb)
Transportation—air, rail, marine and surface; shocks and stresses, as well as the ability to adapt to
Safety—first responders, emergency services dynamic conditions and put in place mechanisms
and dams; that enable longer term, systemic responses to the
Government—services, facilities, information underlying causes of vulnerability. Resilience is
networks, assets and national sites and the capacity that ensures adverse stressors and
monuments; and, shocks do not have long lasting unfavourable
Manufacturing—defense industrial base, development consequences.
chemical industry. A resilience structure integrates livelihoods,
disaster risk reduction and climate change
disaster resilience adaptation approaches into a single assessment
Resilience is more than the ability of a system framework. Discussions on resilience have
to bounce back to its pre-disaster state. Rather, a evolved from characteristics based or outcome
GeoGraphy and you 2020 171 2
3 4
1. Soft storey collapses during Bhuj-2001 earthquake; 2. Parking facility
with cross bracing to resist horizontal force due to earthquake in ZoneV,
Guwahati, Assam; 3. Apartment building in Guwahati city without cross
bracing at the ground floor; 4. Soft storey collapse due to earthquake;
5. Impact of March 11, 2011, Japan earthquake on roads and its
reconstruction in just 6 days; 6. Impact of cyclone Fani, 2019 on the
Bhubaneswar airport, highlighting severe nonstructural damages
5 6
Photo Courtesy: author
18 2020 GeoGraphy and you vol 20, issue 1-2 no. 139-140based approaches to a focus on capacities. design, fire protection, building and plumbing
Building the resilience of individuals, services, building materials and construction
households, communities, or higher level practices (and construction safety) and for
systems to deal with shocks and stresses proper protection, upkeep and maintenance of
requires improving absorptive, adaptive, and water bodies by modifying the departmental
transformative capacities, which are distinct yet construction codes /specifications /manuals
interrelated and mutually reinforcing. of government construction departments.
Though in normal road construction practices Hazardous event specific long-term monitoring
no such earthquake forces are incorporated in and forecasting, real-time monitoring and
design as yet, Fig.4 shows an example of fast communication and short-term prediction
recovery during great Pacific Ocean Earthquake mechanism disseminated through line
Tsunami (March 11, 2011) in Japan. In Fig. departments and IoT based mobile Apps have
5, impact of Fani (2019) cyclone to airport to be introduced. Furthermore, all building
infrastructure, which is otherwise structurally development and regulating agencies with the
resilient but high wind speed (200km/hr) caused right level of professional human resources to
non-structural damages. Therefore, in order to deal with proactive responses needed with the
cater such impact of high winds, airports need to building professionals and builders need to be
facilitate wind forces passing through the airport strengthened. Techno-legal and techno-financial
establishments for which computer simulation regimes while approving constructions are to
using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) be devised, enacted and enforced uniformly so
are useful. that each individual becomes an agent of change,
adopting disaster resilient measures integrated
resiliency of infrastructure with the nation’s governance. Latest model
Strengthening the resiliency of critical building code use needs to be assured, with
infrastructure can be described as actions and appropriate importance factor, ground motion
programmes that: characteristics defined by microzonation and
Assess and prioritise risks based on defined other mapping survey tools. Designing of the
building typology; facility in a manner that it is able to function on
Conduct rapid visual screening for checking its own for at least four days. This would require
building health status; storage of sufficient fuel for emergency standby
Take mitigative measures to reduce the power supply systems, reserve water supply and
potential for disruptions; provisions for waste water storage. Ensuring
Conduct exercises to assess measures and that access to the site will not be impaired by
identify strengths and areas of improvement; earthquake damage. An onsite peer review
Refine and upgrade critical infrastructure and/or third party check of the structural and
plans in all sectors. architectural designs during the implementation
process must be mandated. A comprehensive
Way Forward system to monitor construction quality needs to
In order to make built-infrastructures disaster be put in place to track significant change orders
resilient all state governments and municipal/ that might imply subtle reductions in structural
local bodies (urban and rural), development or non-structural seismic performance.
authorities, special and new town development
agencies, etc. need to modify, revise, and references
revamp the master plan, existing building Wallemacq P, 2018. Economic Losses, Poverty
bye laws; development control rules (DCR); and Disasters 1998-2017, UNISDR.
planning standards; town planning rules; Available at https://www.researchgate.net/
special regulations for fire, structural, health, publication/331642958_Economic_Losses_
construction, electric and life safety, in line Poverty_and_Disasters_1998-2017
with the NBC 2016 by suitably adapting it with Below R. , P. Wallemacq 2018. Natural disasters -Lower
local variation as may be needed. The NBC 2016 mortality, higher cost. USAID and UCL. Available at
needs to be adopted as the basis for all structural https://cred.be/sites/default/files/adsr_2017.pdf
GeoGraphy and you 2020 19In con v er s at Ion Multi Hazard Disaster Risk Assessment: A Step Towards Disaster Resilience GVV Sarma, Member Secretary, National Disaster Management Authority, talks to G’nY about building multi-disaster resilient infrastructure through comprehensive and integrated guidelines by involving entire geographic and socio-economic ecosystems. G’nY. What is the multi-hazard technology-driven strategy through in isolation may result in a situation disaster risk reduction approach? a culture of prevention, mitigation, where mitigation measures proposed How is it different from other preparedness and response. Thus, as a solution for one risk may create approaches used in disaster risk since the beginning, we have focused vulnerability for another hazard. reduction? our approach towards multi-hazard National Disaster Management Plan, The national vision as enshrined disaster risk reduction. 2016 also highlights the multi-hazard in the National Policy on Disaster Multi-hazard disaster risk approach at all stages of disaster risk Management, 2009 is to build a reduction approach is to assess reduction. It emphasises upon risk safe and disaster resilient India by a composite risk from all hazards assessment to be carried out with a developing a holistic, proactive, so that integrated planning can be multi-hazard concept leading to fool- multi-disaster oriented and undertaken. Looking at hazards proof land use planning, promoting skill 20 2020 GeoGraphy and you vol 20, issue 1-2 no. 139-140
Local governments,
international and
regional organisations,
non-governmental
organisations and
communities may be
engaged, to develop
effective strategies—
tailored to local contexts
and the needs of
populations—to reduce
disaster-related risks.
GeoGraphy and you 2020 21development for multi-hazard resistant G’nY. In the South Asian context, what possible and efficient. South Asian
construction, strengthening ability changes can multi-hazard disaster regions face a range of common natural
of communities to manage and cope risk reduction approach herald in a hazards, including cyclones, droughts,
with disasters based on a multi-hazard regional or community level? earthquakes, floods, landslides and
approach and also on ensuring that Regional disaster risk reduction is tsunamis. Demographic changes,
multi-hazard resistant features are one of the essential tools to minimise rapid urbanisation, environmental
incorporated in planning and execution losses caused by natural hazards degradation and climate fluctuations
of social housing schemes. across country borders. Due to have further increased people’s
geological, social, cultural and political exposure to natural hazards, resulting
G’nY. How can the complexities that resemblance, different countries in frequent and severe disasters
arise from multi-hazard assessment from one region often share similar and compounding the impact of
be resolved at a regional scale? Can characteristics of disaster risks, which complex emergencies. In addition,
threats be weighted and ranked? make regional disaster risk reduction declining socio-economic conditions
Multi-hazard risk assessment (MHRA) of some populations have increased
is a way to understand the hazards, vulnerabilities to hazards in the region.
vulnerability (both intrinsic and extrinsic) Governments in south Asia are
and risks arising from the geographic investing in disaster risk reduction
location and socio-economic backdrop. and improving their countries’
Complexities will arise in understanding response capacities from the
and comprehending these multi-layered, community to the national level. Local
location-based information of different governments, international and regional
themes. However, resolving this organisations, non-governmental
information for different stakeholders organisations and communities may
is also carried out along with the be engaged, to develop effective
assessment itself. Risk communication strategies—tailored to local contexts
and dissemination is an activity and the needs of populations—to
undertaken with each stakeholder Due to rapid reduce disaster-related risks.
department along with the final end At the regional level, multi hazard
users—the people and the civil society.
urbanisation and disaster risk reduction approach would
By involving all stakeholders from the scarcity of land, poor bring several changes. First, it would
initial stages of this assessment will help improve preparedness, mitigate severe
reducing or demystifying complexities.
people are pushed to impacts of disasters and strengthen
No, the risks cannot be weighed settle in vulnerable disaster response mechanisms at the
and ranked in general sense. However, regional level. Second, the regional
weighting and ranking is carried out areas. This can be disaster management system can
in order to prioritise multitude of avoided through a be strengthened to reduce risks and
hazards, vulnerabilities and risks when to improve recovery management
the available resources and funds are multi-pronged approach at all levels. Then, support can be
limited. This is a way of incorporating by taking into account sought in hazard identification,
the human element into the system analysis of existing capacities,
before we take steps to allocate financial the physical, social and monitoring, early warning and early
resources. For example, if we need to action through partnerships and
economical aspects of
find a disaster risk reduction activity and joint programming. Fourth, new
allocate limited funds, we need to find communities. programmes, policies, institutional
out an activity which will influence the arrangement legislation, human
lives of more beneficiaries or an activity resource and capacity developments
whose benefits will last longer, etc. can be executed in view of pre-planning
22 2020 GeoGraphy and you vol 20, issue 1-2 no. 139-140and risk reduction. Also, regional There are two levels of risk prevention, preparedness, response,
platforms, forums and coordination assessments—national and local. The relief and mitigation.
mechanisms can be established among first is a strategic risk assessment that The various stakeholders who could
various stakeholders for exchange of supports the design of national disaster be part of risk reduction planning are
knowledge, information and expertise. risk management strategies, policy and government officials who work for the
Finally, development of common hazard regulations, disaster risk management town or city, such as local geologists,
risk management plans amongst the programming and budget allocation. engineers, land-use planners, etc.;
affected countries at regional level can The second—local risk assessment academic and research institutions
be supported such as integrating a is an operational risk assessment for that can provide technical expertise;
coastal risk mitigation plan. disaster risk reduction action planning, low-cost staff/ volunteers / NGOs /
At the community level, it is contingency planning, pre-disaster civil society who can provide up-to-
necessary to empower local authorities recovery planning and urban planning. date data on the locality and training
and communities to reduce risks resources; local and international non-
including through resource incentive governmental organisations can offer
and decision making responsibilities. expertise, as well as local knowledge
It is important to reduce vulnerabilities particularly if they have locally worked
and increase capacities of vulnerable for a long period; and community-based
communities to cope with, prevent, organisations including religious,
Senior members of
or minimise loss and damage to life, gender and youth-based groups
property, and the environment with a society can offer around particular interests, such as
view to hasten recovery. Community environment and social improvement.
participation in pre planning, search
invaluable information Multi-stakeholder workshops and
and rescue, relief, response and post- about past events and other consultations forums are also
disaster recovery needs to be enhanced some ways of getting inputs from
through prioritising the most vulnerable
how good practices stakeholders. Disaster risk reduction
groups and localities. evolved in the area. planning is a priority-setting and
partnership-building exercise to
G’nY. How does the approach hope coordinate the efforts of multiple
to integrate multi-stakeholder agencies and levels of government and
participation in risk assessment? society. This means the process needs
Building a resilient society with to be inclusive and participatory, and
appropriate coping mechanisms is the the local planning authority
basic principle behind any disaster risk The disaster risk reduction process would benefit from identifying and
reduction process. Risk assessment systematically involves different engaging stakeholders in the risk
allows for the determination of the stakeholders in risk reduction planning assessment process.
acceptable level of risk, defined as including local government and other As mentioned earlier, the process
the level of losses that is acceptable competent authorities like district of MHRA needs a multi-stakeholder
without destroying lives, national disaster management authorities, state participation, right from the first
economy or personal finances. Once disaster management authorities; NGO stage-identifying the hazards. The
the current and acceptable levels of risk networks; volunteer groups; financing understanding of MHRA cannot be a
are determined, disaster risk reduction institutions; private/business; media; top down and a classroom oriented
plans and strategies could be revised Red Cross society; hospitals and fire process, but a co-learning experience.
or developed so that they have the fighting and other services; academic When the stakeholders are involved
measurable goal of reducing the current community; and, individual households. from the first stage, they understand,
risk to acceptable levels. Risk reduction Timeliness is the essence with each own and feel the process and accept the
involves—hazard, vulnerability and stakeholder having their responsibilities outcomes and outputs.
capacity assessment. in different phases—such as disaster Identifying the stakeholders is
GeoGraphy and you 2020 23You can also read
