Second life application of automotive Li-ion batteries: Ageing during first and second use and life cycle assessment - Zenodo
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Proceedings of 7th Transport Research Arena TRA 2018, April 16-19, 2018, Vienna, Austria
Second life application of automotive Li-ion batteries: Ageing
during first and second use and life cycle assessment
A. Pfrang1, A. Podias1, S. Bobba2, F. Di Persio1, M. Messagie3, F. Mathieux2
1
European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Directorate for Energy, Transport and Climate, Energy Storage
Unit, Westerduinweg 3, NL-1755 LE Petten, The Netherlands
2
European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Directorate for Sustainable Resources, Land Resources Unit,
Via E. Fermi 2749, 21027 Ispra VA, Italy
3
Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Electrical Engineering and Energy Technology,
Mobility, Logistics and Automotive Technology Research Centre – MOBI, Pleinlaan 2, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
Abstract
The commercialisation of electric vehicles has accelerated in the global market, responding to the need of global
CO2 emissions reduction and of energy security. This, in turn, has led to rapidly increasing demand for high-
energy density traction Li-ion batteries, and will also translate into an increase of waste xEV batteries after
having reached first use End-of-Life in vehicles. Collected batteries are typically recycled. However, their
residual capacity could be used in second use applications before recycling.
The performance of Li-ion cells, namely change of capacity and impedance during calendar and cycle ageing has
been analysed beyond the end of first use. Fresh cells, cells aged in the laboratory, and cells aged under real-
world driving conditions, have been characterised applying second use stationary grid-scale duty cycles.
An analysis of the resource efficiency of second-use application of Li-ion batteries from vehicles is presented.
This includes an assessment of materials needs and a Material Flow Analysis to estimate the amount of available
batteries entering the waste flow after their use in the automotive sector. An adapted life cycle based
methodology is presented – taking in consideration experimental performance data – to produce a holistic
analysis considering technical, environmental, economical perspective of the foreseen second-life system.
Keywords: Li-ion battery; electric vehicle; second use; life cycle assessment.
A. Pfrang et al. / TRA2018, Vienna, Austria, April 16-19, 2018
1. Introduction
A fast increase of xEV deployment in the near future is anticipated by the European Roadmap for the
Electrification of Road Transportation and other sources (Lebedeva, Di Persio, & Boon-Brett, 2016; Pillot, 2017;
UNFCCC, 2015). At the same time there is an increasing demand for high-power and high-energy density
traction batteries, where Li-ion batteries are the most promising technology for EVs (Chmura, 2016; Gasparin,
2015; Kahl, 2013; Navigant, 2016; Richa, Babbitt, Gaustad, & Wang, 2014). This trend will inevitably translate
into an increase of end of first life Li-ion batteries (LIBs).
Currently almost 100% of lead based batteries in Europe are collected and recycled by the battery industry (EC,
2014; Eurobat, 2014). Consistent with the European Directives (End-of-Life Vehicles or ELV Directive
2000/53/EC and Batteries Directives 2006/66/EC), industrial (incl. traction batteries) and automotive batteries
have to be recycled.
Having reached first use End-of-Life (EoL) in vehicles, LIBs still have a residual capacity (varying typically
between 60% and 80%), which could be employed for other purposes, e.g. within the electrical grid distribution
system and/or off-grid applications. Considering the novelty of the topic, international and European industrial
activities, research and development (R&D) projects, and demonstration projects already exist (by different
consortia such as BMW/Vattenfall/Bosch, Nissan/Sumitomo Corporation, see also (A. Podias et al., 2017)),
underlying that the second use of LIBs is of high interest for several actors of the value chain.
Waste legislation in Europe follows the waste hierarchy1 (Directive 2008/98/EC) for managing waste, where
recycling is considered the optimal solution only after reuse. This is also consistent with the Circular Economy 2,
which aims at keeping the added value in products for as long as possible and at minimizing waste.
In the SASLAB (Sustainability Assessment of Second Life Application of Automotive Batteries) project – an
exploratory research project by the European Commission's Joint Research Centre – the goal is to explore the
emerging area of second-use of xEV traction batteries and to develop and apply a methodology to analyze the
sustainability of such systems. SASLAB particularly aims at better formalizing and defining a realistic second
use battery system, testing performance thereof (using experimental facilities and physical modelling),
developing relevant performance indicators for the foreseen system (adopting a life cycle thinking approach) and
finally discussing results also considering future policy-relevant research needs including economic and social
perspectives.
In this paper, the change of capacity and impedance during calendar and cycle ageing of Li-ion cells (e.g. LMO-
NMC/graphite) are illustrated (section 2). Further cell composition was determined by opening and analysing
cell components. These experimental data on composition and performance, complemented by modelling results,
are used as input for the environmental assessment of specific case-studies in which repurposed xEV batteries
could be adopted (section 3).
2. Experimental tests
2.1. Li-ion cells tested
Within SASLAB, performance of Li-ion cells in first use (automotive) and second use is experimentally assessed
for several types of Li-ion cells. The results shown here originate from the investigation of commercial
automotive cells with a rated initial capacity of 38 Ah with a blended cathode, based on LMO lithium manganese
oxide (LiMn2O4) and NMC lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (LiNiMnCoO2). Fresh LMO-NMC/graphite
cells and cells of the same type aged under real-world driving conditions, disassembled from the battery pack of
a used series-production EV, were investigated ("aged cells"). At disassembly, the EV had driven 136877 km
and the capacity estimated by its battery management system was 30.91 Ah.
1
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/framework/index.htm
2
http://ec.europa.eu/environment/circular-economy/A. Pfrang et al. / TRA2018, Vienna, Austria, April 16-19, 2018 This paper presents initial experimental results of the JRC's exploratory research project SASLAB and further results can be found in (Podias et al., 2017). The work is ongoing and new results (e.g. cycling tests in extended first automotive use and second use applications) will be communicated in forthcoming publications. 2.2. Calendar ageing and cycle ageing tests The performance of these cells for first use is assessed by applying two protocols at different temperatures: 1) constant current (CC) - constant voltage (CV) charge / CC discharge protocol and 2) a protocol translating World-wide harmonised Light-duty Test Cycle (WLTC) to cell level. The performance of pre-aged cells is further examined under duty cycles that resemble those of second use grid-scale applications (again at different temperatures): PV firming, PV smoothing, primary frequency regulation and peak shaving. These duty cycles are described in detail in (Conover et al., 2016; David Schoenwald & James Ellison, 2016; D. Schoenwald & J. Ellison, 2016). This was complemented by analysis of the cells' performance in calendar ageing at different temperatures. During calendar life testing (but also during first use and second use cycle life, cycle ageing results not shown here), a set of tests is performed at periodic intervals, every 42 days, to establish the condition and rate of performance degradation of cells: quasi-open circuit voltage (quasi-OCV) vs. state-of-charge (SoC) relationship determination, capacity determination and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) (at different SoC: 50% and 100%) at 25 oC. The measurement for the quasi-OCV vs. SoC starts with fully charging the cells up to the end-of-charge voltage (EOCV) (4.1V, as specified by the manufacturer). Then, the cells are discharged to end- of-discharge voltage (EODV) (2.8V, as specified by the manufacturer) at a C/25 C-rate (a sufficiently small current is utilised for the measured voltage to be considered as “quasi-OCV”). After this step the cell is charged up to the EOCV. The average of the obtained OCVs results in the “Quasi-OCV. The test for the capacity consists of charging and discharging steps at 9 A (C/4.22 based on the rated capacity of 38 Ah specified by the manufacturer) at three different temperatures (0, 25 and 45 oC). Maccor Series 4000 bidirectional battery testers - cyclers (Maccor, Tulsa, USA) have been used for the ageing studies (current and voltage accuracy: 0.025% and 0.02% of full scale, respectively). These cyclers also controlled the (12) MTH 4.46 temperature chambers (BiA, Conflanse Saint Honorine, France) with a temperature deviation in the centre of working space of ± 0.5 K and a temperature homogeneity in space relative to the set value of ± 1.5 K (the temperature rate is 2.0 K/min for both heating and cooling). Impedance spectra are measured in galvanostatic mode in a frequency range of 10 kHz to 10 mHz using a Maccor FRA 0355 (Maccor, Tulsa, USA) or 30 kHz to 1 mHz using the ModuLab XM (Solartron Analytical, AMETEK Advanced Measurement Technology, Farnborough, Hampshire, United Kingdom) at the respective temperature and SoC. 2.3. Ageing tests results Table 1 summarises exemplarily discharge capacity, discharge energy and ohmic resistance determined during calendar ageing of aged LMO-NMC/graphite cell at 45 °C and at 100% SoC. Results are compared with nominal performance of a new cell. The charge / discharge capacity at 25 oC directly after the start of the calendar ageing test was 28.76 Ah and 28.78 Ah, respectively. After 135 days, the remaining capacity at discharge (at 25 oC) was reduced to 24.14 Ah (63.5 % of the initial rated capacity of 38 Ah provided by the manufacturer and 83.4% of capacity of 28.95 Ah measured in the reference cycle at the start of the calendar ageing test). The energy content of the cell on discharge was 92.3 Wh after 135 days (and 64.8 % of the initial rated cell energy content of 142.5 Wh specified by the manufacturer and 81.9 % of the reference energy content of 112.77 Wh measured in the reference cycle at the start of the calendar ageing test, respectively). Table 1 shows the ohmic resistance, which was determined as the intercept of the Nyquist plots with the real axis. This ohmic resistance is composed of ohmic resistances of active materials, current collectors and electrolyte resistance, also within the separator and increased with ageing time. Table 1: Retained discharge capacity, discharge energy and ohmic resistance of an aged LMO-NMC/graphite cell over calendar ageing at a temperature 45 °C and at 100% SoC (the measurements of the shown data is performed at 25 °C). Nominal values of a new cell are shown for comparison
A. Pfrang et al. / TRA2018, Vienna, Austria, April 16-19, 2018
New cell 2 days 46 days 90 days 135 days
.Cell status (nominal
after start of calendar ageing
values)
Discharge
100 75.7 71.2 67.5 63.5
capacity / %
Discharge
142.5 109.7 103.3 98.0 92.3
energy / Wh
Ohmic
resistance n.a. 1.10 1.19 1.27 n.a.
from EIS / mΩ
2.4. . Cell disassembly and analysis of cell composition
In most LCA databases used there are no inventories related to specific LIBs cells. Available datasets in the
scientific literature and in the main LCA databases refer to average LIBs without considering a specific
chemistry. Disassembly and analysis of a LIB allows data on the specific composition of that cell [type] to be
derived. This data facilitates more reliable and robust analysis of life cycle and a better assessment of the
relevance of specific materials along the whole life cycle of the battery. Moreover, the adoption of primary data
to be used for modelling the environmental performances of the battery manufacturing (i.e. materials and
processes) reduces the uncertainty of the impact assessment results and eases the identification of the
environmental hotspots of relevant components/materials of LIB in terms of life-cycle impacts.
For this reason, fresh LMO-NMC/graphite cells were disassembled in a glove box under inert argon atmosphere
and a material breakdown analysis was performed. During all the disassembling steps weights of detached
elements and of the leftover material were recorded in order to keep track of evaporated electrolyte and any
materials lost during the dismantling operation.
Figure 1: Left - Components of a fresh LMO-NMC/graphite cell after opening and removal of the cell casing in a glove box. Right -
Unfolding of one of the two prismatic jelly rolls.
First, two holes are drilled into the steel metal case to collect the free electrolyte. Then the metal case is detached
from the cell as well as the current collector revealing two packages connected in parallel. Each of the two
packages is made of a three layers (cathode, anode and separator) rolled in a prismatic shape (together
representing the jelly roll) and wrapped with a soft plastic cover. One package was then opened and unrolled to
separate the three layers.
The dismantling process and the subsequent analysis are performed reaching a material break-down to the
following level: steel (external case, connectors), aluminum and copper (current collectors, and electrode foils),
polymer (wrapping, separator, and tapes), cathode and anode active material, binder (for the anode and the
cathode), carbon black (in the cathode) and finally electrolyte. Based on the measured weights and on the
available information from the manufacturer and estimated from literature (ANL; Li, Daniel, & Wood, 2011; Liu
et al., 2014), the average weight of all those elements is estimated (% in weight) including an error estimationA. Pfrang et al. / TRA2018, Vienna, Austria, April 16-19, 2018 (+/- g). This error estimation for carbon black and binder is calculated as the standard deviation of the fractions (% in weight) of the active material slurry given in literature. The final results are shown in Table 2: Table 2: Material breakdown of a fresh LMO-NMC/graphite cell as determined by cell opening and further analysis. Cell #394 (total weight before opening: 1396.2 g) % in weight Accuracy / g Steel: external case, connectors 21.47% +/- 2 Al: current collectors, electrode foils 3.74% +/- 2 Cu: current collectors, electrode foils 10.03% +/- 6 Polymer: wrapping, tapes, separator 5.99% +/- 2 Anode active material: graphite 10.17% +/- 12 Binder 2.68% +/- 6 Cathode active material: LMO-NMC 27.47% +/- 20 Carbon black in the cathode 3.38% +/- 32 Electrolyte 13.75% +/- 20 Uncounted materials lost in cutting/drilling/handling (steel, polymer, 1.32% +/- 5 Cu, Al, active materials) 3. Environmental assessment 3.1. Flows and stocks of batteries and materials – Material Flow Analysis The first step of the sustainability assessment performed in the SASLAB project evaluates the magnitude of the increase of the waste LIBs flow in Europe through a Material Flow Analysis (MFA). Based on the knowledge of the supply chain of a product, the MFA aims at quantifying the product flows (input, output, stocks) within the assessed system (i.e. Europe) and evaluating their variation over time. Interviews with stakeholders and literature information were used for defining the MFA model and for the calculation of the amount of LIB entering the European market over the next decades. Stakeholders from the whole value chain of xEVs batteries were interviewed, namely car manufacturers (FCA, Hyundai, Mitsubishi, Peugeot), waste batteries collectors (ARN, NL; Van Peperzeel, NL), repurposing companies (Vattenfall; Autobedrijf Peter Ursem, Zwaag, NL), actors using repurposed batteries (Pampus Island, NL) and experts (from VU Brussels, Eurobat, Batteries2020 project). The MFA model permits the estimation of the waste LIB stream after their first use in vehicles and the assessment of different scenarios through the use of different parameters, e.g. LIB and xEV lifetime, increase/decrease of remanufacturing in the near future. Moreover, considering that each battery has a residual capacity ranging between 60% and 80% after the first use in xEV, the same model can estimate the total residual capacity still available in the waste LIB stream for possible second use applications. Bearing in mind the current rapid development of and the lack of specific data on this technology, the robustness of the MFA results is highly dependent on input data and on hypotheses of the model. Considering the lifetime of both batteries and vehicles, we calculated that the amount of batteries at the end of their first use in the automotive sector is expected to grow to ca. 0.3-0.4 million units of batteries in 2025 and ca 2.2-2.3 million units in 2035, incl. PHEV and BEV.
A. Pfrang et al. / TRA2018, Vienna, Austria, April 16-19, 2018
3.2. Critical Raw Materials
According to the projections about the increase of xEVs in Europe, the demand of specific raw materials (e.g.
lithium) will increase significantly. Depending on the chemistry, LIBs contain some Critical Raw Materials
(CRMs)3. These materials, which are economically and societally important for the EU having a high risk
associated with their supply (Mancini, Benini, & Sala, 2016), include cobalt and natural graphite. CRMs are also
very important in the EU Circular Economy Action Plan (COM/2015/0614)4 and material efficiency and analysis
of CRMs (or nearly critical materials) therefore form part of the environmental performance assessment in
SASLAB. However, due to the novelty of the topic, only few studies are already available in the literature
(Ahmadi, Yip, Fowler, Young, & Fraser, 2014; Faria et al., 2014; Richa, 2016; Ruiz, Boon-Brett, Steen, &
Berghe, 2016; Sathre, Scown, Kavvada, & Hendrickson, 2015) and LCA assumptions are different from this
study.
The materials content in LIB as reported in Section 2.4, was used as input for the MFA model developed in the
SASLAB project to evaluate the materials in inputs, outputs and stocks, as well as their availability in terms of
secondary raw materials over a considered time range. In particular cobalt (a CRM) and lithium (a near CRM)
flows were assessed based on their content in different LIB chemistries and the efficiency of current recycling
processes. The second use of LIB translates into a decrease of the availability of secondary raw materials (e.g.
cobalt) in the short term since the LIB recycling and thereby material recovery is postponed; on the other hand,
second use of LIB would allow a more efficient use of materials and an increase of materials productivity due to
their longer lifetime. Environmental consequences of these aspects are evaluated and complemented by the Life
Cycle Assessment of the system.
3.3. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of re-use scenarios
Among the existing environmental assessment methodologies, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is widely
recognized by the international scientific community as a suitable tool for the assessment of the environmental
performances of products and systems from a life cycle perspective. LCA is a standardized methodology (ISO
14040/44) to quantify the environmental burdens/benefits of specific system/products along the different life
cycle steps of its value chain (e.g. extraction of raw materials, manufacturing, use phase, end of life). This
methodology consists of four steps: goal and scope definition, Life Cycle Inventory (LCI), Life Cycle Impact
Assessment (LCIA) and interpretation. Through these steps, the assessed system, the objective of the study and
the assessment methodology are clearly defined; all the inputs and outputs of the system are identified; the
environmental burdens/credits are quantified and the uncertainty of data is assessed. As results, the main
environmental hotspots along the life-cycle are identified. Various EU policies, including the EU Waste
Framework Directive (2008/98/EC)5, encourage the use of LCA to define best options.
In the automotive sector in general, and also in electro-mobility, some LCA studies are already available, e.g.
(Ahmadi, et al., 2014; Faria, et al., 2014; Richa, 2016; Sathre, et al., 2015). However, very few studies have
focused on the environmental performances of the reuse of LIB and their adoption for second use applications.
Despite the existing efforts for the LCA development for this topic, unified guidelines or harmonized approaches
do not exist yet (Ruiz, et al., 2016).
The SASLAB project brings about new insights in the area of LCA of second use of LIB. The life-cycle steps
assessed in the present investigation include the production of the battery, the spent EV battery collection,
battery repurposing, reuse in a specific second use application and the recycling of the battery (according with
literature, pyro-metallurgical recycling process is considered). One of the novelties of the SASLAB project is to
use both primary data and literature data as inputs for LCA modelling (Figure 2).
3
EC (2014). Report on critical raw materials for the EU. Available at http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/raw-
materials/files/docs/crm-report-on-critical-raw-materials_en.pdf
4
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:52015DC0614
5
http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32008L0098A. Pfrang et al. / TRA2018, Vienna, Austria, April 16-19, 2018
Figure 2: System boundaries for the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and the main sources of data
3.4. Case-Study LCA
Using data obtained during SASLAB tests an LCA was performed for different scenarios and case-studies
(compare section 2.1). The case-study is an office building located in Ispra (IT) in which it is assumed that
reused LIBs are used for decreasing the peak power demand during the working hours, allowing a decrease of
contracted power (peak shaving). Primary data about the energy consumption of the building for four
representative months (January, April, July, October) were used to define its seasonal energy consumption
profile. The data resolution is 5 minutes, and for each month the worst day in terms of energy requirement has
been adopted for system sizing. Batteries are charged during the night and discharged during peak electricity
consumption. The number of batteries for the simulation is defined based on technical data of the LMO/NMC
battery tested as described in section 2. It was found that 8 batteries are needed for covering the peak in the
office building. Assuming battery performance due to both calendar ageing and cycling ageing, it is calculated
that their lifetime is 5 years. During the 6th year, reused EVs batteries are no longer able to satisfy the energy
demand of the peak hours and therefore they must be recycled and replaced.
3.5. LCA Results
Inputs obtained by the elaboration of primary data are used for creating a parametrized LCA model using the
SimaPro software. For this LCA, the inventory of the LMO-NMC/graphite cell was created based on the cell
disassembly discussed in section 2.4. and data shown in Table 2. Moreover, the second use phase was modelled
based on field data in order to perform a realistic case-study. The impact categories used for the assessment are
those recommended by the ILCD handbook (EC-JRC, 2011). Figure 3 shows an example of LCIA information
obtained for this case study. For each impact category assessed in the study, the most relevant process (e.g.
manufacturing, repurposing, electricity consumption, EoL) in terms of impact contribution can be identified. For
instance, the electricity mix has the highest contribution for all impact categories. The manufacturing process
and the recycling phases contribute most for the impact categories that are more affected by materials depletion,
i.e. abiotic depletion (ADP).
The LCIA allows also a more in-depth contribution analysis for the identification of the most relevant
materials/processes in terms of environmental impact along the life-cycle. For instance, the relevance of the
manufacturing phase for the ADP impact category is mainly related to electronic components and copper in the
LIB. A more in depth analysis of the LCIA allows identifying the relevance of recovering copper, steel and also
cobalt in terms of environmental impacts.A. Pfrang et al. / TRA2018, Vienna, Austria, April 16-19, 2018
Figure 3: Life Cycle Impact Assessment results of the peak shaving configuration - contribution of the processes along the whole life-cycle
(battery’s manufacturing, use phase and EoL)
The LCA model offers the possibility of exploring other options/scenarios for automotive battery second use and
to identify the most favourable configuration of the system. For instance, an ongoing sensitivity analysis is
assessing the relevance of the electricity mix and the differences between the type of energy used during
day/night (base and peak loads). Results are not yet available but will be reported elsewhere.
4. Summary
In the near future, a quick increase of xEVs, traction LIB and waste LIB flows are expected. In this framework,
the JRC exploratory research project aims at assessing the sustainability of the potential reuse of traction LIB in
different second use applications. In the analysis, both technical and environmental aspects are included.
Obtained results and scientific literature confirm that ageing and degradation depend strongly on operating
conditions. Therefore operating conditions during first use will strongly influence the suitability of a battery for
second use. Thus, one of the main challenges for facilitating re-use of LIBs in second use applications is to
design a BMS able to quantify and record the evolution of electrical performance and to use this information for
predicting accurately their remaining application-dependent useful life – in both automotive (first) use and
stationary second use application.
As far as the environmental assessment is concerned, the integration between 1) the identification of the
magnitude of stocks and flows of batteries in a given geographical scale (i.e. the EU) and at various points in
time; 2) the same analysis looking in particular at specific materials with relevant functional value for society
(as CRMs); 3) the environmental assessment results of a specific configuration (LCA), offers a detailed and
multicriteria sustainability assessment of such a complex system.
In the assessed case study, Material Flow Analysis (MFA) and LCA offered an overview of the magnitude of
possible environmental benefits of LIB reuse and postponed recovery of CRMs. Meanwhile the Life Cycle
Assessment (LCA) analyses the environmental performances of systems in which repurposed LIB can be
adopted, identifying the most relevant hotspots along the whole life-cycle. Therefore, this multi-criteria approach
facilitates an a-priori analysis of the environmental impact of different approaches for battery use.A. Pfrang et al. / TRA2018, Vienna, Austria, April 16-19, 2018 5. References A. Podias, A. Pfrang, F. Di Persio, A. Kriston, S. Bobba, F. Mathieux, . . . Boon-Brett, L. (2017, 9-11 October 2017). Sustainability Assessment of Second Use Application of Automotive Batteries: Ageing of Li-Ion Battery Cells in Automotive and Grid-scale Applications. Paper presented at the EVS30 Symposium, Stuttgart, Germany. Ahmadi, L., Yip, A., Fowler, M., Young, S. B., & Fraser, R. A. (2014). Environmental feasibility of re-use of electric vehicle batteries. Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, 6, 64-74. doi: 10.1016/j.seta.2014.01.006 ANL. BatPaC: A Lithium-Ion Battery Performance and Cost Model for Electric-Drive Vehicles. ANL (Argonne National Laboratory). Chmura, A. (2016, 2016). Driving Towards Decarbonisation of Transport: Safety, Performance, Second life and Recycling of Automotive Batteries for e-Vehicles - 2nd life applications. Paper presented at the Putting Science into Standards (PSIS) Workshop, Petten (The Netherlands). Conover, D. R., Crawford, A. J., Fuller, J., Gourisetti, S. N., Viswanathan, V., Ferreira, S. R., . . . Rosewater, D. M. (2016). Protocol for Uniformly Measuring and Expressing the Performance of Energy Storage Systems. PNNL-22010 Rev 2 / SAND2016-3078, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, and Sandia National Laboratories, Richland, Washington, and Albuquerque. New Mexico (USA). EC-JRC. (2011). ILCD Handbook: Recommendations for Life Cycle Impact Assessment in the European context, from http://eplca.jrc.ec.europa.eu/?page_id=86 EC. (2014). Frequently Asked Questions on Directive 2006/66/EU on Batteries and Accumulators and Waste Batteries and Accumulators: European Commission. Eurobat. (2014). A review of battery technologies for automotive applications. Association of European Automotive and Industrial Battery Manufacturers (EUROBAT). Faria, R., Marques, P., Garcia, R., Moura, P., Freire, F., Delgado, J., & De Almeida, A. T. (2014). Primary and secondary use of electric mobility batteries from a life cycle perspective. Journal of Power Sources, 262, 169- 177. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2014.03.092 Gasparin, N. (2015). Automotive Battery Market Outlook - Update 2015. A report of the EUROBAT Automotive Battery Committee. Kahl, M. (2013). Power cut: EV makers focus on post-crash performance, from https://automotivemegatrends.com/power-cut-ev-makers-focus-post-crash-performance/ Lebedeva, N., Di Persio, F., & Boon-Brett, L. (2016). Lithium ion battery value chain and related opportunities for Europe. European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), JRC Science for Policy Report. Li, J., Daniel, C., & Wood, D. (2011). Materials processing for lithium-ion batteries. Journal of Power Sources, 196(5), 2452-2460. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpowsour.2010.11.001 Liu, D., Chen, L.-C., Liu, T.-J., Fan, T., Tsou, E.-Y., & Tiu, C. (2014). An Effective Mixing for Lithium Ion Battery Slurries. Advances in Chemical Engineering and Science, Vol.04No.04, 14. doi: 10.4236/aces.2014.44053 Mancini, L., Benini, L., & Sala, S. (2016). Characterization of raw materials based on supply risk indicators for Europe. [journal article]. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. doi: 10.1007/s11367-016-1137-2 Navigant, R. (2016). Navigant Research Leaderboard Report: Lithium Ion Batteries for Transportation Assessment of Strategy and Execution for Eight Li-Ion Battery Manufacturers, from https://www.navigantresearch.com/research/navigant-research-leaderboard-report-lithium-ion-batteries-for- transportation Pillot, C. (2017). The Rechargeable Battery Market and Main Trends 2014-2025 or Lithium ion battery raw material supply & demand 2016-2025. Paper presented at the Advanced Automotive Batteries Conference (AABC) Europe, Mainz, Germany. Podias, A., Pfrang, A., Persio, F. D., Kriston, A., Bobba, S., Mathieux, F., . . . Boon-Brett, L. (2017). Sustainability assessment of second use application of automotive batteries: ageing of Li-ion battery cells in automotive and grid-scale applications. Paper presented at the Electric Vehicle Symposium & Exhibition (EVS) 30, Stuttgart, Germany. Richa, K. (2016). Sustainable management of lithium-ion batteries after use in electric vehicles: Rochester Institute of Technology. Richa, K., Babbitt, C. W., Gaustad, G., & Wang, X. (2014). A future perspective on lithium-ion battery waste flows from electric vehicles. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 83, 63-76. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2013.11.008
A. Pfrang et al. / TRA2018, Vienna, Austria, April 16-19, 2018 Ruiz, V., Boon-Brett, L., Steen, M., & Berghe, L. V. d. (2016). Putting Science into Standards: Workshop - Summary & Outcomes. Driving Towards Decarbonisation of Transport: Safety, Performance, Second life and Recycling of Automotive Batteries for e-Vehicles Retrieved 21/07/2017, from https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/sites/jrcsh/files/jrc104285_jrc104285_final_report_psis_2016_pubsy_revision.pdf Sathre, R., Scown, C. D., Kavvada, O., & Hendrickson, T. P. (2015). Energy and climate effects of second-life use of electric vehicle batteries in California through 2050. Journal of Power Sources, 288, 82-91. doi: 10.1016/j.jpowsour.2015.04.097 Schoenwald, D., & Ellison, J. (2016). Determination of Duty Cycle for Energy Storage Systems in a PV Smoothing Application, SAND2016-3474: Sandia National Laboratories. Schoenwald, D., & Ellison, J. (2016). Determination of Duty Cycle for Energy Storage Systems in a Renewables (Solar) Firming Application, SAND2016-3636: Sandia National Laboratories. UNFCCC. (2015). Paris Declaration on Electro-Mobility and Climate Change & Call to Action. UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change). Retrieved from http://newsroom.unfccc.int/media/521376/paris-electro-mobility-declaration.pdf
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