Automotive Lithium ion Battery Recycling in the UK
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Automotive Lithium ion Battery Recycling in the UK Based on a feasibility study by Anwar Sattar, David Greenwood, Martin Dowson and Puja Unadkat at WMG, University of Warwick REPORT SUMMARY: SEPTEMBER 2020 Produced by WMG, supported by the Advanced Propulsion Centre Electrical Energy Storage Spoke and the High Value Manufacturing Catapult.
Key Findings “Electric vehicles offer huge
potential for decarbonising
transport and improving air
quality, but as we accelerate their
early market we must equally be
thinking about what happens
► T HE ELECTRIC ► T he
average value in at the end of their useful life.
REVOLUTION end of life automotive Batteries in particular contain
IS WELL packs is £3.3/kg for BEVs significant quantities of materials
UNDERWAY and £2.2/kg for PHEVs. which are costly to extract and
refine and which could be
AND THE
hazardous to the environment if
UK IS AMONGST ► A huge opportunity exists for
lithium ion battery recycling
improperly disposed of.
THE BIGGEST in the UK. Investment is needed to create
ELECTRIC VEHICLE suitable recycling facilities in the
UK within the next few years, and
► B y
2040, the UK will require
MARKETS IN 140GWh worth of cell production
beyond that, research is needed
to allow economic recovery of
EUROPE capability, representing 567,000 much greater proportions of the
tonnes of cell production, requiring battery material. In doing so we will
131,000 tonnes of cathodic metals. protect the environment, secure
► By 2035, most passenger
valuable raw materials, and
cars will contain a lithium Recycling can supply 22% of this
reduce the cost of transport.”
ion chemistry traction battery. demand (assuming a 60% recycling
David Greenwood
Lithium ion batteries contain rate and 40% reuse or remanufacture).
Professor of Advanced Propulsion
rare and valuable metals Systems, WMG, University of
such as lithium, nickel, cobalt ► T he
break-even point for an Warwick
and copper, many of which automotive lithium ion battery
are not found in the UK. recycling plant is 2,500 – 3,000
tonnes per year if the chemistry
► UK-based OEMs pay between contains nickel and cobalt.
“WMG has been at the forefront
£3 and £8 per kg to recycle of the development of battery
end of life lithium ion ► T he
three greatest costs for recycling technology for the future of
batteries that are exported plants are transport (29%), purchase electric mobility in the UK. Internal
abroad for material recovery. (29%) and hourly labour (23%). combustion engines and systems
will be replaced by electric
The material must later be motors, power electronics and
repurchased. battery packs.
Ni Co A key part of that future is how we
339kT
responsibly recycle the materials
Li Cu
METALS
contained in the batteries and
► thus create a commercially
ARE THE MOST RECYCLABLE valuable circular economy. This
BY 2040, 339,000 TONNES
COMPONENTS WITHIN report is one of the best that I’ve
► seen to present the challenges
LITHIUM ION BATTERIES
OF BATTERIES ARE EXPECTED TO and the opportunities in such a
REACH END OF LIFE clear way. It’s an excellent piece
of thought leadership, from the
leaders in their field”.
Dick Elsy
Abbreviations used in this Report CEO, High Value Manufacturing
Catapult
NEDC: New European Driving Cycle NMC: Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide
LMO: Lithium Manganese Oxide NCA: Nickel Cobalt Aluminium Oxide
LNO: Lithium Nickel Oxide
2
EV’S SOLD (M
200
END OF LIFE BATTERI
EV’S SOLD (
350
350
1 2 1
150
END OF LIFE BATTERIES (000 TONNES)
2
END OF LIFE BATTERIES (000 TONNES)
300
End of Life Batteries Where is the Value?
300
100
EV’S SOLD (MILLIONS)
250
EV’S SOLD (MILLIONS)
0.5 1.5 0.5 250
1.5
From 2035 it is proposed that every new passenger car sold in the In 2018, the average values for end of life battery packs The value content in an end of life battery differs
50
UK will be non-polluting - in practice, this means that new vehicles were around £1200 for BEV packs and £260 for PHEV significantly from the cost breakdown for a new 200
packs. In BEVs the average value per pack for non-cell battery. The cost of cells in a new battery represents 200
sold after 2035 will have a traction battery.
components was estimated at an average of £128 around 64% of the total cost whereas in an end of life
0 1 0 0
1 (source: WMG; International Dismantlers Information pack the cells account for almost 90% of the value in 150
Electric vehicle traction batteries can range in mass If all the vehicles
2010sold in the2015
UK are to contain2020
a 2025 2030 System2035
(IDIS), vehicle manufacturer’s
2040 websites).
2045 the pack.
2010 2015 2020 2025 150 2030
from 50kg to >600kg. Each of these batteries contain traction battery, the market penetration for such
a significant amount of rare and strategic metals, that vehicles will follow a similar trajectory to that shown 100YEAR
YEAR
must be imported as the UK has no economically in Figure 1. 100
0.5 FIG 2 Cost of New Pack Value in EoL Packs
viable deposits. 0.5
2% 2% 50
4% 4% 0.40% 4% 4% 50
FIG 1 End of Life Batteries 1% 1%
0 7% 0
0 0
2010 15%
2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 2040 2045
EV’s Sold EoL Batteries 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035 Cells 2040 2045
Cells
Cells
Wiring Wiring
Purchased items YEAR
2.5 Electronic
Manufacturing
YEAR Electronic
components 400 components
Busbars Pack integration Busbars
Casing 14% 2%
Thermal Casing
4% 4%
management2% 0.40%
350
89% 4% 64% 0.40% 89%
4%
1%
2 1% 7%
END OF LIFE BATTERIES (000 TONNES)
300
Source: BatPaC Model Software, 7%
Argonne National Laboratory1.
Purchased items refers to 15%
connectors, busars, etc. 15%
EV’S SOLD (MILLIONS)
Cells
250 Cells
1.5 WiringCells Cells items
Wiring Purchased
Electronic Purchased items
Electronic
components Manufacturing
components Manufacturing
Pack integration
200 Busbars Pack integration
There is also a difference
Casing Busbars
in the values between new cells as only14% Thermal
dedicated hydromatellurgical recovery
Casing 14% Thermal
management
cells and end of5% life cells. In new cells,89%
the cathode processes are able to recover metals such as64%
management lithium
1 11% 89% 11%which only recover the64%
150 material and the anode current collector make up and manganese. Recyclers
51% 14%
of the costs, but comprise 93% of the value black mass and sell it onto a metal refiner will claim a
in end of life cells. It must be noted that not every much lower value.
13% Positive active material
100 13% Positive active material
2% recycler will be able toactive
Cathode realise the total value in the 2%
Graphite material Graphite
0.5
Negative current collector Negative Negative current collector
Carbon + binders 50 current collector Carbon + binders
Postive current collector FIG 3 Cost of New Cells
Graphite Value in End of
Postive Lifecollector
current Cells
8% 8%
Separator Positive current Separator
Electrolyte 43% collector 79% Electrolyte 43%
0 0
5%
2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035
3% 2040 2045 11% 3% 5%
11%
3% 3%
14%
19% 19%
YEAR 14%
13% Positive active material
Positive active material
13% Graphite 2% Cathode active
2% Cathode active
material
Assuming that the average lifespan Graphite
2% of a battery is Negative current collector material
Negative
11 years, the volume4% 4%
of batteries coming to ‘end 0.40% CarbonNegative
+ binderscurrent collector Negative
current collector
Carbon current collector
of life’ is projected to be around 1.4 million packs Postive current+ collector
binders Graphite
1% 8% Postive current collector Graphite
per year by 2040. This translates to around 339,000 7% 8% Separator Positive current
Separator
Electrolyte 43% Positive current79%
collector
tonnes of batteries per year (based on the average Electrolyte 43% collector 79%
pack mass of 238kg) and assuming 60% are recycled; 15%
Cells
203,000 tonnes per year that will require recycling. Cells 3%
Wiring 3%
3%
Purchased items 3% 19%
Electronic
components Manufacturing 19% Source: BatPaC Model Software
Busbars Pack integration
Casing 14% Thermal
management
89% 64%
4
NMC111/LMO
NMC111
LMO/LNO
0 the quantity
The value in the packs is affected by 1 of2the material
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Lithium ion batteries are used in a multitude of Figure 5 shows the material value per kg in
within the pack and the chemistry of the cells. Figure 4 shows the applications and therefore, a number of different different cells. Note that lithium iron phosphate
value in three different vehicle packs. VALUE IN CELLS (£/KG) chemistries have been developed to match the cells have been omitted as there is currently an
performance with the requirement. uncertainty in their end of life value arising from
A recycler will want to process a number of a lack of European recycling facilities for such
FIG 4 Cell Value of Packs different chemistries to maximise value. cell chemistries.
NEDC Range:
328 miles
90kWh pack
392kg cells
2000
FIG 5 Value per kg of Cells (£)
1800
LCO
1600
NEDC Range: NMC 8:1:1
1400 118 miles NMC622/LMO
24.2kWh pack
NMC622
VALUE (£)
1200 192kg cells
NEDC Range: NCA
1000 124 miles
NMC111/LMO
24kWh pack
800 152kg cells NMC111
LMO/LNO
600
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
400
VALUE IN CELLS (£/KG)
200
0
Nissan Leaf (LMO/LNO) VW eGolf (NMC111/LMO) Tesla Model S (NCA)
Li Ni Mn Co Al Cu Graphite
“Recent times have seen the automotive sector focus on developing
TABLE 1 electric vehicles to drive a reduction in tailpipe greenhouse gas emissions.
Value of the Recoverable Components However, to deliver a truly decarbonised sector a whole lifecycle approach
is required to ensure that emissions from one part of the vehicle lifecycle
Prices taken from London Metals Exchange (LME)
are not shifted to another. To achieve this the UK has an opportunity to
in Q2 2019.
think holistically; so that whilst it is investigating how to grow its battery
manufacturing capacity to support the electrification agenda, it can in
Metal/material Value/kg (£)
parallel build its recycling capability.
Li 46
Ni 10.4 Successful delivery of this involves us going back to the start of the process
by considering design for manufacturing, assembly, disassembly, reuse,
Mn 1.44 remanufacturing and recycling. This will enable the development of a
Co 25.6 strategy for the UK to develop a sustainable and competitive supply chain
that supports the delivery of an end-to-end process, which includes a viable
Al 1.44
and sustainable battery recycling industry, that retains the earth’s valuable
Cu 4.8 resources within the system.”
Graphite 1* Philippa Oldham
*Price for recycled graphite. Virgin battery grade
Head of National Network Programmes, Advanced Propulsion Centre
graphite costs around £11/kg
6
4.0%
MARK
3.0%
2.0%
Why the UK?
1.0% The Faraday Institution estimates the UK The average Gigafactory has around 20GWh of
requires around 140GWh worth of cell capacity and produces 81,000 tonnes of cells
0.0% production capabilities by 2040. per year, a total of 567,000 tonnes of cells per
year (using Tesla 2170 cell format).
2017 2018 2019 2020
The UK is the second largest vehicle marketYEARin Europe with annual sales exceeding
140
2.3 million units in 2019. It is also amongst the top electric vehicle (BEV+PHEV) FIG 8 Projected Demand for UK-produced Batteries
markets in Europe 1, with 32,000 EVs registered in the first quarter of 2020.
120
140
FIG 6 EV Registrations
100
120
120000
France Germany UK
GWH PER ANNUM
80
100000 100
EV REGISTRATIONS
GWH PER ANNUM
80000
60
80
60000
40
60
40000
20
20000 40
00
20
2017 2018 2019 Q1 2020
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030
2031
2032
2033
2034
2035
2036
2037
2038
2039
2040
YEAR
YEAR 0
Market penetration of EVs is accelerating, reaching 6% in Q1 of 2020. But, it will need to grow
at an annual rate of 25% to enable all passenger cars to be ultra-low emission by 2035.
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030
2031
2032
2033
2034
2035
2036
2037
2038
2039
2040
FIG 7 Market
10.0% Penetration YEAR
Modified from a Faraday Institution report5
9.0% France Germany UK
8.0% To10.0%
satisfy 2040 demand, the UK will need 133,000t of cathode metals per year.
Much of this material can be supplied by recycling end of life batteries.
7.0%
MARKET PENETRATION
9.0% France Germany UK
TABLE 2
6.0% 8.0%
Metal Demand (tonnes per year) Supply from Recycling (tonnes per year)
5.0%
7.0%
Lithium 14,000 3,000
MARKET PENETRATION
4.0% Nickel 96,000 20,600
6.0%
* 2020 data is for Q1, 2020
3.0% Manganese 11,000 2,400
5.0%
2.0%
Cobalt 12,000 2,600
4.0%
Based on 8:1:1 chemistry assuming 60% of end of life batteries are recycled in 2040.
1.0%
3.0%
Each Gigafactory produces approximately 6% transport costs and rapidly reintroduce the
0.0%
defective
2.0% cells and modules plus thousands of material into the supply chain. Established
2017 2018 2019 2020 tonnes of ‘dry’ anode and cathode scrap, all of recycling facilities will be a requirement for
YEAR 1.0%
which requires recycling. It is vital that recycling attracting battery manufacturers to the UK.
plants are located near Gigafactories to reduce
Road transport accounts for a fifth of the UK’s The UK exports its end of life lithium ion batteries 0.0%
greenhouse gas emissions2. Electric vehicles offer to Europe and other parts of the world for recycling
2017 2018 2019 2020
a 72% reduction in fuel-generated CO2 emissions and material recovery. This is not an economically 1
ore electric vehicles have been sold in Norway to date but Norway
M YEAR has an EV market penetration of 75% and its total vehicle market is around
(based on the current UK electricity mix) and a sustainable position for the UK. Establishing 6% of the UK’s vehicle market.
50% reduction in embedded carbon3. Battery material recovery processes in the UK would 2
Office for national statistics; https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/environmentalaccounts/articles/roadtransportandairemissions/2019-09-16#toc
recycling will help this further, as 1kg of recycled provide a supply of ethically sourced material.
3
Nikolas Hill. Determining the environmental impacts of conventional and alternatively fuelled vehicles through Life Cycle Assessment. Ricardo
120000 Energy and Environment; https://www.upei.org/images/Vehicle_LCA_Project_FinalMeeting_All_FinalDistributed.pdf
material saves the equivalent of 1kg CO2 versus
France Germany UK 4
Rebecca E. Ciez & J. F. Whitacre; Examining Different recycling Processes for Lithium ion Batteries. Nature Sustainability, 2, 148156 (2019).
manufacturing from virgin material4. 5
The Faraday Institution. UK electric vehicle and battery production potential to 2040. Faraday Report – March 2020. Annual Gigafactory Study
100000
TRATIONS
80000 120000
8 France Germany UK
11
Battery Recycling Process REDUX – Commercial process
10
► 10,000t per year. Cells deactivated in a thermal
treatment step prior to shredding and material
separation
This map details the major lithium ion battery recycling ► Process recovers anode and cathode as black
centres in Europe and their capacities. mass which can be treated pyrometallurgically
Please note that this is not an exhaustive list. and hydrometallurgically to recycle the metals
1 Duesenfeld – Pilot scale 2 Accurec Recycling GmbH 11 Akkuser – Commercial process
(commercial operation) – Pilot scale (commercial operation) ► 4,000t per year (estimate). Cells shredded
► 3,000t batteries per year ► 2,500t batteries per year in a two-stage process assumed to occur in
► Recycling efficiency of 85% - includes an ► Cells placed in pyrolysis chamber and heated to an inert atmosphere. Material separation is
followed by acid leaching 9
electrolyte recovery step 250oC evaporating electrolyte before shredding
► Cells shred in an inert atmosphere, created ► Process treats recovered black mass ► Process is able to recover anode and
using N2. Patent also has the provision of pyrometallurgically to produce an alloy and a slag cathode as black mass which is treated
shredding in a vacuum which contains the lithium. The alloy can be treated hydrometallurgically to recover the metals
hydrometallurgically to recycle the metals as metal salts
► Process has hydrometallurgical capabilities and
recovers the cathode metals as metal salts to go
back into the supply chain
4 Euro Dieuze Industrie
(EDI) – Pilot scale process
3 Umicore – Commercial process (commercial operation)
► 7,000t batteries per year ► 1,800t batteries per year
► High temperature (pyrometallurgical) process. ► Cells shredded in a closed system -
Batteries mixed with coke and slag forming vapours and gases coming off cells
agents and dropped into a giant furnace where are captured and treated
preheated air is fed through sides and the volatile
► Process has hydrometallurgical 10
material within the batteries is used to produce
capabilities and recovers the
some of the energy required for the process.
cathode metals as metal salts to 1
► Process has hydrometallurgical capabilities and go back into the supply chain
also produces new cathode powders from the 2
recycled metal salts
3
6 Batrec Industries AG – Pilot scale process
5 Valdi (Eramet Group) – (in commercial operation)
Commercial process ► 200t batteries per year
► 20,000t batteries per year but, Li ion only small ► Shreds lithium ion batteries in a CO2 atmosphere
portion of this to neutralise the lithium and avoid ignition of 4
flammable electrolyte
► Pyrometallurgical
►P
rocess recovers anode and cathode material
► Process produces a metal alloy that can be
as black mass which is sold to refiners
recovered hydrometallurgically
7 SNAM – Pilot scale process 8 Recupyl – Pilot scale process 5
6
► 110t batteries per year
► 300t batteries per year, looking to expand to
10,000t per year ►S
hreds cells in a controlled atmosphere
using a mixed CO2 and Ar atmosphere
► Pyrolysis followed by shredding process
►P
rocess recovers anode and cathode material as
► Black mass is sold to refiners. Installation of
black mass which is sold to refiners 7
hydrometallurgical plant is planned 8
9 uRecycle – Pilot scale process
► 100t batteries per year
► Shreds lithium ion batteries in a CO2 atmosphere to neutralise
the lithium and avoid ignition of flammable electrolyte
►P
rocess recovers anode and cathode material as black mass
which is sold to refiners
10
Commercial Processes for Battery Recycling
Portable End of life Discharge Dismantle
FIG 9
batteries pack
Coke
Thermal Pyrolysis Shred in Aqueous Wet Shred in
+ slag
oxidiser CO2 Solution shredding nitrogen
formers
Shred
Li +
Gas Li
electrolyte
scrubbing neutralisation
neutralisation
Electrolyte
recovery Smelting Gas
furnace scrubbing
Electrolyte Electrolyte
treatment treatment
Slag Metal alloy
Material Material Material Material
Separation separation separation separation
Metals Graphite Cathode Metals Graphite Plastics Cathode Metals Graphite Plastics Cathode Metals Graphite Plastics Cathode Electrolyte
powder powder powder powder recovery
Al, Cu, Fe Smelters Hydrometallurgical Recovery
12
Pros and Cons of Different
Recycling Methods
(includes processes that are still in development)
TABLE 3 Pre-process Methods Process Methods (continued)
Method Advantages Disadvantages Method Advantages Disadvantages
Discharge Takes electrical energy out of cells making Only applicable for large modules and packs Shredding in an Easier to scale up than dry inert shredding Hydrogen is generated if aluminium is present
them safe Difficult to discharge portable cells without using salt water alkaline solution methods Addition of alkali reagent to water increases costs
Process is mature and scalable solution, which generates toxic and flammable gases Allows harmful chemicals to be neutralised Alkali ions can be corrosive to process equipment
Electricity can be fed back into the grid Rebound can occur if discharged too rapidly Some alkali solutions treat electrolyte No electrolyte recovery possible
Negates the need for post lithium Rapid discharge of high capacity cells can lead to making it easier to process downstream
neutralisation overheating and thermal runaway
Shredding in Cheaper to operate than using inert gas Only suitable for batch processing, making it difficult
Non-standardised parts make it difficult to connect to
a vacuum Can be coupled with a vacuum extraction to scale up
load bank
unit to evaporate and condense electrolyte Other parts of shredder may need to be placed under
Thermal treatment Allows charged cells/modules to be Inert atmosphere required - increasing process operating carbonates vacuum to avoid fires post shredding
processed costs and reducing throughput Relatively mature technology used in other Safety not as high as shredding in an inert atmosphere
Energy expended in a safe environment Large quantities of toxic gases produced increasing recycling operations Not suitable for shredding charged cells
Burns off electrolyte taking away biggest processing costs
hazard Lower recovery efficiency Shredding in a Relatively mature technology used in More expensive than vacuum shredding
nitrogen atmosphere recycling of other flammable material May need inert conveyance line post shredding to avoid
Process is mature and scalable Large input of energy required for process
Continuous shredding possible with right fires/explosions
Negates the need for post process Produces CO2 through combustion process
feeding mechanism Not suitable for shredding charged cells and modules
neutralisation Temperature gradients can exist in larger modules, which
Low temperature vacuum thermal treatment may lead to incomplete reactions
allows for recovery of some electrolyte Shredding in a CO2 Allows for shredding of charged cells Lithium beneath the surface of the particle is not reacted
Aluminium components within cell can melt at high
carbonates atmosphere Mature technology in operation for over Reaction takes a long time to complete
temperatures causing agglomeration within the reactor
M
akes easier to process hydrometallurgically 15 years Unreacted lithium needs to be neutralised post shredding
Expensive to operate
Freezing Allows charged cells and modules to be Only suitable for batch processing, making it difficult
processed as immersion in a cryogenic to scale up
liquid, typically liquid nitrogen, freezes the Expensive reagents used
electrolyte, reducing cell reactivity to zero TABLE 5 Electrolyte Recovery Methods
Only gives a short time for processing before cells become
live again
Method Advantages Disadvantages
Li and electrolyte must be neutralised post processing
Liquid extraction Allows all electrolyte components to be Volatile low boiling point solvents required
extracted Energy intensive process
TABLE 4 Process Methods Very mature technology Difficult to find right solvent for each chemical
Method Advantages Disadvantages More than one solvent may be required to recover all
electrolyte components
Pyrometallurgical Allows for selective targeting of metals Difficult to feed continuously as high temperatures Solvent loss likely to occur
Extracts most valuable components vaporise electrolyte, forming explosive mixtures
Solvent likely to dissolve plastics creating problems
Volatile components within the cells are Metals such as aluminium, manganese and lithium not in extraction
combusted, reducing external energy recovered (although could be recovered from slag)
demand Various additives required to make process work Supercritical CO2 Recovery of electrolyte relatively simple Additives may be needed to recover all electrolyte
Extensive scrubbing required to treat off-gases extraction compared to liquid solvents components
Makes easier to process hydrometalurgically
Components such as electrolyte, graphite and plastics Can be used to neutralise the lithium if Cannot recover lithium hexafluorophosphate
combusted so not recovered charged cells are shredded Very difficult to scale up the process as high pressures
are involved
Shredding in Easier to scale-up than dry inert shredding If shredding is done submerged, complex feeding and
saturated lithium methods equipment operation required Vacuum extraction Recovery of electrolyte is simple Cannot recover lithium hexafluorophosphate
chloride solution Allows charged cells to be processed Large quantities of expensive lithium chloride is required Relatively mature technology May not be suitable to recover all carbonates
Contamination of products with lithium chloride Only suitable for batch processing, making it difficult
Lithium to be neutralised post-process which can cause to scale up
exothermic reaction Final product could require further processing
Chloride ions can cause corrosion to process equipment
Acid not dealt with
Electrolyte recovery and removal very challenging
14
Recyclability of Materials Component
Cathode
Material
Lithium
Current Recyclability
There are two options for cathode recycling:
Future Recyclability
More in-house hydrometallurgical processes will
active Commercial refiners use elevated temperatures be developed or large-scale centralised refining
material specifically designed for cathode material will
Lithium ion batteries are made up of At the end of a battery’s life, some of these materials alongside additives to selectively discard
allow for the recovery of all cathode metals.
retain their value but others do not, and some even certain metals (such as Li, Al, Mn) to leave the
a variety of materials that can cost a more valuable and abundant metals such as
have a negative value. The table below shows the
significant amount when new. recyclability of the materials, given current recycling
Ni, Co and Cu which are then recycled using Next-generation cathode recycling processes
hydrometallurgical processes. will recycle the entire cathode rather than break
processes and possibility of future recycling. it down to its base metals. Standardisation of
In-house processes are more tailored so can
cell chemistry is required for this to become
recover more of the metals including lithium.
commonplace.
The main issue for lithium recycling is the low
concentration of lithium per cell, at around 2%
by mass.
Manganese Similar to lithium, manganese is not recycled by As above
commercial recyclers owing mainly to its low price.
In-house hydrometallurgical processes are able to
recycle the manganese.
Nickel Nickel is a high-value metal that can be completely As above
recycled back into cells.
Cobalt Cobalt is a high-value metal that can be completely As above
recycled. Some LIB recyclers have the capability to
recycle the cobalt back into cathode material.
Oxygen Oxygen accounts for around 33% of the cathode Next-generation cathode recycling processes will
or ~11% of cell mass. The Battery Directive has a recycle the entire cathode (including the oxygen).
provision for the recycling of oxygen if it can be Standardisation of cell chemistry is required for
proven that it is involved in the chemical conversion this to become commonplace.
of the metals. This gives pyrometallurgical recyclers
an advantage.
Direct hydrometallurgical recycling of the cathode
leads to the production of oxygen gas, which,
unless utilised, cannot be accounted for.
Other Lithium iron Alternative processes such as direct recycling or Direct recycling methods will be further
cathodes phosphate chemical processes that strip the lithium from the developed, which will allow for the recycling of the
(LFP) LFP have been demonstrated at small scale. LFP powder to go back into new cells.
TABLE 6
Separators Polymers Limited recyclability. Commercial plastic recyclers Plastic separators will continue to be challenging
Component Material Current Recyclability Future Recyclability prefer chunky plastics as the high temperature to recycle, particularly back into new cells. They
melting and extrusion process is not suitable for could potentially be down-cycled and used in
Casing Steel Steel is highly recyclable. Steel is most likely to Steel will continue to be recycled plastic films. Many recyclers choose to combust other applications in the future.
be down-cycled into an alloy. the plastics.
Aluminium Aluminium is highly recyclable, but recyclers The aluminium recycling industry is considering Electrolyte Organic Recyclers are able to recover at least some of the Recyclers will be more inclined to recover
prefer ‘chunky’ pieces to thin foil, such as from recycling high grades of aluminium rather than- carbonates organic carbonates fraction of the electrolyte. This and recycle the electrolyte if the cells used a
pouch cell casings. down cycling, but this is likely to be for high- may be sold into the chemicals industry if the purity standardised electrolyte composition. It is difficult
volume scrap and not thin foils. is high enough. Some recyclers claim to able to to design a process that can recover the variety
Aluminium is down-cycled into an alloy recover the electrolyte from the aqueous solution in of different carbonates that go into the various
wet shredding processes. lithium ion batteries.
Most recyclers either combust the electrolyte or
Positive Aluminium As above As above treat it with chemicals to destroy it.
current
collector
Litihum Limited recyclability. The LiPF6 composition within Limited recyclability in the future, as the conditions
Negative Copper Highly recyclable, but may need to be baled or Copper will continue to be recycled
hexafluorop- the cell changes as the cell ages. Difficulty recycling required for its recycling are likely to be too
current briquetted beforehand. The high value of copper
hosphate LiPF6 is due to a number of factors: It decomposes stringent for most recyclers.
collector allows for complete recycling.
(LiPF6) at temperatures above 80oC, it hydrolyses in the
presence of moisture and, finally, it requires a
Anode active Graphite or Limited recyclability. Graphite’s structure and Graphite will continue to be difficult to recycle into solvent extraction process to enable its recovery.
material graphite- morphology changes with cell use, making it cell-grade graphite, but it may be converted into Currently either destroyed thermally or hydrolysed
silicon difficult to recycle back into cells. other materials such as graphene. using water and neutralised.
16
Economic Analysis
Currently the UK lacks industrial capacity for lithium ion battery recycling, Pack discharging and dismantling is one of the most challenging parts of automotive battery recycling.
therefore batteries are shipped to mainland Europe for material recovery. Lack of standardised connectors Some packs use epoxy resins Module removal can be difficult
This can be a very expensive process, dependent on state of health of the makes it difficult to connect pack to seal the lid, making it hard to if the screws and connectors are
pack, chemistry of the pack and size of the pack. to the load bank access the cells and modules located in obscure locations
The cells and modules are sent to mainland Europe for recycling. The process is as follows;
End of life electric vehicles are The packaged modules are Up to 75% of the total cost of
returned to the dealership where shipped to Europe to a recycling recycling can be attributed to
the battery is removed from facility which levies a processing the transportation costs if the
the vehicle using high voltage charge to recycle the batteries pack is damaged or its state of
technicians and gives a rebate based on health is unknown
the LME price of nickel, cobalt
The vehicle is sold to a metal Only cells and modules which are
and copper
recycler whilst the battery is given in a good state of health can be
to a battery disposal company Costs can range from £3/kg transported to Europe, damaged
to £8/kg depending on the cells and modules cannot be
The battery is discharged,
state of health and chemistry of taken to Europe
dismantled into modules which
the battery
are packaged in containers
alongside fire-proof material
Estimated
cost:
Estimated cost: £0.05-
FIG 10
End of Life Transport of
Storage container: Electricity: £0.10/kg
Electric Vehicle good packs:
£0.25-£0.5/kg ~£60k for 20ft £0.11/kWh
Bad packs: container with fire Gas: £0.03/kWh
£6/kg suppression, blast Labour: £8-£12/h
protection and gas Wear and tear:
Intermediate
detection. Running Variable
Company
costs: electrical and Material Transport
Transport labour (material
Company conveyance)
Authorised
Battery
Treatment Facility
Vehicle
Discharge, Module Processing and
Battery Recycler Battery Storage Metal Refiner
Dismantle Material Separation
Metal Recycler
Waste Treatment
>£20/h or Disposal
Battery
purchased for HV Estimated
Last owner at 20% of technician Rebate:
of vehicle material and co- Ni = 30-40% LME
worker If disposed Co = 20-30% LME
paid around value of: £100/t Cu = 70% LME
£100/t
for non-
hazardous
waste
18PROCESSING
£3,000
PROCESSING COST PER TONNE (£)
£1,000
£2,500
Battery Recycling Plant Economics £500 £2,000
The cost of processing decreases as throughput increases since plant capacity is utilised
more efficiently. The break-even point for such a plant is between 2,500 and 3,000
£1,500
£0 tonnes per year if the chemistry contains Co and Ni.
Process economics for a 1.5t/h automotive lithium ion battery recycling
plant were modelled on Microsoft Excel. 0 £1,000
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Assumptions were as follows; average packs weigh 238kg with gross values varying from £550 £500 THROUGHPUT (T/Y)
(LMO) to £733 (average) per pack. Process is limited to separation of black mass, which is sold to FIG 12 Cost Breakdown for Recycling Plant
refiners, allowing the recycler to attain 40% of the value for packs containing Ni and Co and only
20% for LMO packs. Transport costs were assumed to be £50 per pack. Other costs are shown in £0
Figure 10. Cost of capital and depreciation were not included in the model.
2%
£4,000,000
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
THROUGHPUT The
(T/Y)biggest costs for an automotive battery
£3,000,000 6% recycling plant are hourly labour, purchase costs
FIG 11 Break-even Point 5% 23% and transport costs. Currently, pack transport
2%
£2,000,000 costs are covered by the vehicle manufacturers,
but they must come down significantly to make
6%
PROFIT/LOSS (£)
£4,000,000 recycling economically viable.
£1,000,000 5% 23%
£3,000,000 Purchase
£0
6% Transport costs
29% 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
£2,000,000 Labour hourly
Purchase
-£1,000,000 6%
29%
Labour
Transport costssalary
Labour hourly
PROFIT/LOSS (£)
£1,000,000 Overheads
Labour salary
-£2,000,000
Energy costs
Overheads
£0 29%29% Waste
Energy costs removal
-£3,000,000 Waste removal
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
-£1,000,000
-£4,000,000
-£2,000,000 THROUGHPUT (T/Y)
NMC/LMO NCA LMO AVERAGE PACK (’15-’18)
-£3,000,000
FIG 13 Processing Cost Vs Throughput
-£4,000,000
THROUGHPUT (T/Y) £3,500
NMC/LMO NCA LMO AVERAGE PACK (’15-’18)
£3,000
PROCESSING COST PER TONNE (£)
Note that average pack chemistry includes many NMC 1:1:1 packs which have a higher value
£2,500
£3,500
£2,000
£3,000
PROCESSING COST PER TONNE (£)
£1,500
£2,500
£1,000
£2,000
£500
£1,500
£0
£1,000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
THROUGHPUT (T/Y)
£500
Based on average packs sold in the UK between 2015 and 2018
2%
£0
6%
20 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
5% 23%
THROUGHPUT (T/Y)Recommendations RECYCLING
EFFICIENCIES
The UK needs to establish commercial scale
recycling for automotive lithium ion batteries.
COULD REACH
70% BY 2025
AND 80% BY 2035
This will ensure sustainable disposal and capture valuable raw
materials to sustain UK battery manufacturing. Today’s volumes
of end of life batteries are insufficient to sustain a commercially
viable plant, but plants are needed nonetheless to ensure
sustainable disposal.
Volumes will become sustainable in around 5-8 years when
tens of thousands of tonnes of material will require processing.
Processing of trade waste from UK battery factories will provide
early revenue streams in the meantime.
The UK does not have legacy processes and could challenge
for highest recycling efficiencies – enabling revision of Battery
Directive towards >80% recovery by mass (from 50% today).
The following points are recommended to ensure a viable
and sustainable battery recycling industry in the UK:
1 Support the installation of recycling 2 Link recycling plants to planned 3 Work with battery recyclers and transport 4 Streamline permitting
facilities until volumes reach sufficient Gigafactories in UK. companies to develop and update the process for battery
levels to make battery recycling battery transport regulations. recycling.
sustainable.
5 Vehicle manufacturer must provide battery 6 Greater clarity around the transfer 7 Develop and standardise discharging 8 Update Battery Directive to reflect
passporting data to vehicle/battery of liability at end of life. and dismantling training for end of life the increased material recycling
recyclers allowing for accurate triaging. battery technicians. capabilities of new processes.
9 Begin to standardise parts of the battery 10 Create a distinction between automotive 11 Only processes with high recycling 12 R&D into the following areas;
packs such as high voltage connection traction batteries and other batteries rates for critical metals should be Design of ‘easy to recycle’ battery packs
ports to allow for easier discharging to allow for ambitious targets to be set, permitted – for example 98.5% for
Recycling of cathode metals using,
and dismantling. such as 70% by 2025 rising to 80% by cobalt to stop inefficient processes
green solvents, that reduce the CO2
2035 for battery packs. from being installed.
footprint of the process
Recycling of non-cathode components
Direct recycling of production scrap
Research into the life cycle analysis of
lithium ion battery recycling processes
in the UK.
22WMG
International Manufacturing Centre
University of Warwick
Coventry
CV4 7AL
+44 (0)24 765 24871
wmg@warwick.ac.uk
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