The Marketers' Prismatic Palette: A Review of Color Research and Future Directions
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
The Marketers’ Prismatic Palette:
A Review of Color Research and Future
Directions
Lauren I. Labrecque
Loyola University Chicago
Vanessa M. Patrick
University of Houston
George R. Milne
University of Massachusetts
ABSTRACT
Color carries meaning and can influence consumers’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Many
disciplines, such as neuroscience, psychophysics, visual cognition, and biology have used new
technologies to gain insights in understanding the complexities of color perception, yet there exists
relatively little research in the field of marketing. This paper aims to reestablish the importance of
color research in marketing, draw attention to the complex nature of this research, and to fuel
further investigation and the development of new insights about color as it relates to marketing. The
authors offer an integrated conceptual framework centered on the embodied and referential
meanings of color and highlight the complexities and nuances that researchers must consider in
order to develop this area. Insights from and gaps in the extant literature are highlighted to present
a set of questions and propositions for future research in this area of investigation. C 2013 Wiley
Periodicals, Inc.
Color is all. When color is right, form is right. Color is color manufacturing. Consumers can choose products
everything, color is vibration like music; everything in various colors to fit and express their personality,
is vibration. match their home décor, or even just play around with
Marc Chagall, Russian-French artist a new look.
Some of the best evidence of color’s changing and
increasingly important role appears in the modern-
There is an incredible number of people who fight day Oz of shopping malls, where brands such as
against the use of colours—but there are also many Apple, Dell, and GE display a wide array of color
people who fight against common sense. choices for laptops, mobile phones, and even toasters
Verner Panton in Lidt om Farver and refrigerators. Not long ago, these products con-
(Notes on Colour), 1997 formed to color category norms: gray and black. In
this area, among others, marketers are yielding power
In one of the most famous cinematic moments, to consumers, addressing their demands, and allow-
Dorothy opens the cottage door and stands transfixed ing them to customize products to fit their own unique
by the colorful landscape before her. This scene, needs (Deng, Hui, & Hutchinson, 2010; Moreau &
which contrasts the magical and vibrant world of Oz Herd, 2010).
with the drab sepia-toned vision of Kansas, offers a Despite the pivotal role of color in consumers’ daily
fitting metaphor for the modern consumer as Dorothy. lives though, scarce marketing research addresses this
Although once they witnessed only a dull world of topic. Oftentimes practitioners are hesitant to explore
single color choices, one-color logos, and isomorphic using different colors (Rawsthorn, 2010) and many
product colors, consumers now have access to multiple confess that they lack updated theoretical knowledge
colored versions of products and unique color choices, upon which to base their decisions (Gorn, Chattopad-
enabled by technological advances and lowered costs of hyay, Tracey, & Dahl, 1997). Technological advances
Psychology and Marketing, Vol. 30(2): 187–202 (February 2013)
View this article online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/mar
C 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. DOI: 10.1002/mar.20597
187have allowed other disciplines—such as neuroscience, In this sense, color becomes an important component
psychophysics, visual cognition, and biology—to gain of a brand’s visual equity and the value derived from
new insights in understanding the complexities of this “look and feel” contributes to brand recognition
color perception using new populations and/or new and image (Lightfoot & Gerstman, 1998). As does a
methods such as neuroimaging (e.g., fMRI, ERP, carefully chosen brand name, color carries intrinsic
MEG), eye-tracking, or modeling (computational or meaning that becomes central to the brand’s identity
mathematical; Shevell & Kingdom, 2008). In contrast, (Schmitt & Simonson, 1997), which enables consumers
research in the marketing literature pertaining to to use color cues to assess products and make decisions.
color has remained relatively silent, even dormant, on Color is a tool that allows objects to become more nu-
advancements in color research over the last decade. anced and meaningful, through its richness and beauty
As evidence, please see Table 1 for a summary review (Rawsthorn, 2010). Although color is clearly an impor-
of major research in this domain organized by area tant issue across various areas of marketing, the aca-
of study. Furthermore, much of the color research in demic research dealing with color still has many gaps
marketing focuses solely on a color’s hue (e.g., red, and numerous research questions remain unaddressed.
green, blue) and neglects to investigate its other two Arguably, understanding the role that color plays in
dimensions, saturation and value. Saturation refers to marketing becomes more pivotal as technological ad-
the intensity or amount of pigment in a color and value vances in methods to create color increase the variety
refers to its lightness or darkness. of consumer offerings and allow for more innovative
The goal of the current review paper is to reestablish uses of color, including more efficient screens on elec-
the importance of color research in marketing and con- tronic devices (e.g., smart phone, tablets) and new color
sumer behavior and to fuel further investigation and choices for consumer packaged goods (e.g., Vitamin Wa-
the development of new insights about color as it re- ter, Heinz ketchup). The importance and availability of
lates to a consumer perspective. As a starting point, color choices seems to have evolved over time, such that
the extant literature is reviewed to generate a better during the Renaissance, individuals made no distinc-
understanding of how consumers perceive color and its tion between red and purple possibly labeling a range
influence on decision making. Following a brief discus- of similar hues with the same name (Gage, 1993). Con-
sion of the historical role and importance of color in trast this with today’s world in which not only are they
marketing, an integrated conceptual framework that clearly distinct colors, but also exist multiple names
highlights the influence of the embodied and referen- for their seemingly countless variations. Perhaps the
tial meanings of color is presented. The paper concludes most compelling summary is the evolution of Crayola’s
with a review of color research in a variety of market- crayon boxes, from an initial offering of 8 colors choices
ing areas, while highlighting the complexities of color in 1903 to 48 colors in 1949 to 64 colors in 1958 to 72
research, and offering and a set of viable propositions colors in 1972 to 80 colors in 1990 to 96 in 1993 and
and questions for future research. then to the modern assortment of 120 different colors
(Crayola LLC, 2009).
OVERVIEW: IMPORTANCE OF COLOR
CONCEPTUAL MODEL: THE ROLE
IN MARKETING
OF COLOR IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Historically, color has been thought to serve a primarily Referential and Embodied Meaning
functional role; its use as an aesthetic tool is relatively
recent (Birren, 1988; Gage, 1993). Nearly every race, Aesthetic stimuli can convey two types of meaning
religion, and culture has definite ideas about the im- that stimulate and shape consumer preferences. Aes-
portance and application of color and has used it to dif- thetic theorists assert that these two coexisting, yet dis-
ferentiate and attach meaning to objects. For example, tinct meanings can alter perceptions by communicating
religious and governmental bodies use color to denote meaningful messages and associations (Zeltner, 1975,
power and social roles. Rare and expensive blue and pp. 41–42). While research in this area has predomi-
indigo pigments were reserved for royalty and for the nantly focused on music (Zhu & Meyers-Levy, 2005),
depiction of important religious figures, such as the Vir- recent work provides evidence that these two types of
gin Mary. Likewise, catholic cardinals and senators in meanings are not confined to auditory stimuli, but also
ancient Rome were characterized by their scarlet garb. exist within visual stimuli; operating through similar
Marketers tend to use color similarly for adver- principles and sharing similar consequences for con-
tisements (Gorn et al., 1997; Lohse & Rosen, 2001; sumers (Meyers-Levy & Zhu, 2010).
Meyers-Levy & Peracchio, 1995), package design (Gar- One, referred to as embodied meaning, results from
ber, Burke, & Jones, 2000), product customization and attributes embodied in the aesthetic stimulus, inde-
design (Deng, Hui, & Hutchinson, 2010; Moreau & pendent of context and the semantic content it may
Herd, 2010), logos (Bottomley & Doyle, 2006), and evoke (Zhu & Meyers-Levy, 2005; Zeltner, 1975, pp.
store atmospherics (Kotler, 1973) to grab consumers’ 41–42). This meaning is driven by stimulation arising
attention (Schindler, 1986), offer cues about product from properties within the stimulus and evokes hedo-
attributes, and differentiate brands from competitors. nic or valenced feelings (Meyers-Levy & Zhu, 2010).
188 LABRECQUE, PATRICK, AND MILNE
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/marTable 1. Summary Review of Major Color Research in the Marketing Literature Organized by Area.
Authors (Year), Independent
Journal Area Variables Dependent Variables Methodology Major Findings
Gorn, Chattopadhyay, Advertising Hue (red vs. blue), Attitude toward ad, Experiment; print ads Ads with higher saturation induced
Yi, and Dahl (1997), chroma (saturation), attitude toward using Munsell color feelings of excitement and in turn
Mgt. Science and value brand, excitement, system increased likability. High value also
and relaxation produced greater liking for the
brand, which was mediated by
feelings of relaxation. Findings for
hue failed to reach statistical
significance.
Lohse and Rosen Advertising Color (full color vs. Quality, credibility, Experiment; print ads Color can attract reader attention and
THE MARKETERS’ PRISMATIC PALETTE
(2001), JA black), graphics attitude toward ad, signal quality. Differences occurred
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
(photograph or line and attitude toward across product categories.
art), ad size, and advertiser
order
Mehta and Zhu Advertising Hue (red vs. blue) Reaction time, Experiment; computer Red activated an avoidance
(2009), Science preference, recall, displays with HSL motivation, which increased
creativity score, color space attention, memory, and favorable
motivation evaluations of prevention-focused
(accuracy vs. speed) ads. Alternatively, because it
activated an approach motivation,
blue led to favorable evaluations of
ads that highlighted positive
product benefits.
Meyers-Levy and Advertising Ad color (full color, Attitude toward Experiment; print ads Color can be a persuasive heuristic
Peracchio (1995), relevant claims product, processing cue for less-motivated
JCR highlighted, black positive/negative consumers; effectiveness for highly
and white), resource thoughts, and recall motivated consumers depends on
demands (high vs. demand and availability of
low), and type of processing resources.
claim (functional vs.
image)
Babin, Hardesty, and Atmospherics Wall color (orange vs. Affective evaluation, Scenario-based Interaction of color (orange/blue) and
Suter (2003), JBR blue) lighting excitement, experiment; light (soft/bright) affected purchase
(bright vs. soft), and fairness, store description of store intentions and price fairness.
item price patronage, and wall color Findings suggest that effects of
purchase intentions color, lights, and price on behavioral
intentions are mediated by the
cognitive and affective reactions
they create.
Bellizzi and Hite Atmospherics Hue (red vs. blue) Purchase rates, Experiment; color Importance of affective component of
(1992), P&M shopping time, and slides projected on a color. Blue (vs. red) resulted in more
feelings (pleasure, wall simulated purchases, fewer
dominance, arousal) purchase postponements, and a
stronger inclination to shop and
189
browse.190
Table 1. Continued
Authors (Year), Independent
Journal Area Variables Dependent Variables Methodology Major Findings
Bellizzi, Crowley, and Atmospherics Hue (red, yellow, Approach orientation, Experiment; Cool colors created a more relaxed
Hasty (1983), JR green, blue, white) physical attraction, fabric-covered wall shopping environment and
and perceptions of panels increased purchases. Warm colors
store environment increased physical attraction.
and products
Chebat and Morrin Atmospherics Hue (cool vs. warm) Mood (pleasure and Field study; Visual Color affected perceptions of quality,
(2007), JBR and culture (French, arousal), mall décor elements but not mood. The effects of
Anglo) environmental atmospheric décor may go through
quality, product cognitive, rather than or in addition
quality, and hedonic to affective, routes.
shopping value
Crowley (1993), ML Atmospherics Hue (red, yellow, Environment and Experiment; color Results point to a two-dimensional
green, blue) merchandise quality slides projected on a response to color. Overall, longer
wall wavelengths (closer to red) are more
arousing (activation dimension) and
shorter wavelengths (closer to blue)
are viewed as more pleasant
(evaluation dimension).
Bottomley and Doyle Branding—logo design Hue and product type Color appropriateness Experiment; printed In a classification of “functional” and
(2006), Mktg Theory (functional vs. and functional vs. stimuli “social-sensory,” affect increased
sensory-social) social-sensory when color type matched the
benefits product type.
Labrecque and Milne Branding—logo design Hue, saturation, and Brand personality, Experiment; All three color components influenced
(2012), JAMS value purchase intent, Web-based stimuli brand personality. Logo color and
likability, with HSB color shape influenced brand likability.
familiarity space, and Matching of package color and brand
calibrated monitors personality profile increased
purchase intent.
Labrecque and Milne Branding—logo design Logo color (main and Brand equity, product Calculated Provides evidence of existence of visual
(forthcoming), ML accent colors) category color homogeneity scores product category norms. Adhering to
norms with 281 real brand color norms may be beneficial for
logos product categories containing a
dominant leader, especially
high-involvement categories.
Garber, Burke, and Branding—package Color similarity of Brand consideration, Experiment; computer Package color novelty increased
Jones (2000), MSI design brand’s packaging likelihood of simulated shopping purchase consideration. Differences
Working Paper to redesigned purchase, time environment were found by product category and
package, and spent examining for shoppers who were not brand
consistency of brand, and time loyal.
package color’s spent shopping
meaning with
original
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
LABRECQUE, PATRICK, AND MILNETable 1. Continued
Authors (Year), Independent
Journal Area Variables Dependent Variables Methodology Major Findings
Miller and Kahn Branding—product Color name (typicality Satisfaction, Experiment; printed When consumers encountered an
(2005), JCR color naming and specificity), and trustworthiness of color swatches atypical name (e.g., Cookie Monster
order (color picture manufacturer, and Blue vs. Bright Blue) they engaged
presented likelihood to in additional elaboration, which
before/after color purchase increased satisfaction with the
name) product.
Skorinko, Kemmer, Branding—product Fancy vs. Generic Preference, purchase Experiment; computer Labeling a color with a fancy name
Hebl, and Lane color naming Color Name intent, and displays (e.g. mocha) vs. a generic name (e.g.,
THE MARKETERS’ PRISMATIC PALETTE
(2006), P&M willingness to pay brown) increased liking, purchase
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
intention, and willingness to a pay
for a product.
Garber, Hyatt, and Food marketing Color (characteristic, Taste perception Experiment; sampling Color affected identification and flavor
Starr (2000), JMTP uncharacteristic, (refreshing, tart, fruit-flavored perceptions of both congruently and
clear) and labeling sweet), flavor, beverages incongruently colored beverages.
(correct, incorrect, expensive, and
ambiguous) overall preference
Hoegg and Alba Food marketing Color (natural vs. Taste of stimuli Experiment; sampling Color cues dominated taste cues.
(2007), JCR darker), taste (different vs. same) orange juice Participants perceived a
(sweetness level), and preference significantly greater difference in
price, region the taste of two identical samples
(Florida vs. with different color than two
California), and different samples with the same
brand label labels. color.
Gorn, Chattopadhyay, Internet Hue (red, yellow, Relaxation, perceived Experiment; Background color of a Web site affected
Sengupta, and blue), chroma download speed, Web-based stimuli perceived loading time. For each
Tripathi (2004), (saturation), value, attitude toward Web with HSB color dimension, color affected relaxation,
JMR and number of site, and likelihood space which led to a change in perceived
exposures (1 vs. 2) to recommend. quickness. Perceived quickness
affected user evaluations and
likelihood to recommend to others.
Kaltcheva and Weitz Internet Arousal (warm vs. cool Pleasantness and Experiment; computer Color is not the main focus, however
(2006), JM color, saturation, purchase intention displays both hue and saturation are a
and complexity), central component of the arousal
and motivation manipulation. Arousal and
(goal oriented or motivational orientation had an
recreational) interactive effect on shopping
behavior, which was mediated by
pleasantness.
Note: This table and related discussion in the text summarizes research in which color is a considered the focal variable. This table and discussion are not meant to be exhaustive of all research that
may include color as a minor variable of interest. JA = Journal of Advertising, JAMS = Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, JBR = Journal of Business Research, JCR = Journal of Consumer
Research, JM = Journal of Marketing, JMR = Journal of Marketing Research, JMTP = Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, JR = Journal of Retailing, Mgt. Science = Management Science, Mktg
Theory = Marketing Theory, ML = Marketing Letters, MSI = Marketing Science Institute, P&M = Psychology & Marketing.
191For example, the embodied meaning conveyed through ers bloom in different colors to attract specific pollina-
a long wavelength color (e.g., red) can activate arousal tors sensitive to that color. Likewise, color contributes
through high stimulation. to the protection and preservation of plants and ani-
While coexisting with embodied meaning, referen- mals; for example, color markings can indicate poison,
tial meaning emerges from the network of semantic as- designate gender, aid in camouflage, and display readi-
sociations or real-world concepts that are drawn out by ness for mating.
exposure to aesthetic stimuli. Unlike embodied mean- On a physiological level, color affects the production
ing, referential meaning is learned and dependent on and release of hormones. Color perception stimulates
contextual cues (Meyers-Levy & Zhu, 2010; Zeltner, the neural portion of the optical pathway to the hy-
1975, pp. 41–42). For example, the referential mean- pothalamic brain region and into the pineal and pitu-
ing conveyed by package design containing highly sat- itary glands, which control the entire endocrine sys-
urated colors can evoke playful feelings that are derived tem (Mahnke, 1996). Empirical work demonstrates the
from the association of typical bright colors commonly physiological effects of color in both animals and hu-
linked with children’s toys. mans (see Bellizzi, Crowley, & Hasty, 1983 for a re-
In examining reactions to color, marketing research view), with varying effects on heart rate, respiration
has identified two dimensions that influence consumer rate, blood pressure, muscle activation, blinking, pal-
perceptions based on the type of activation they elicit: mar conductance, and brain waves. The physiological
arousal and evaluative (Crowley, 1993). In terms of properties of certain wavelengths are used in medical
stimulation, longer wavelengths (e.g., red) are consis- treatments, such as in the case of infant jaundice where
tently found to be more arousing than shorter wave- the skin is exposed to a specific wavelength of light,
lengths (e.g., blue), and have been noted to produce which alters the shape and structure of molecules in
automatic physiological responses, such as increased the blood (Mayo Clinic, 2011).
brain activity and heart rate (Crowley, 1993). Evalu- The phenomenon of synesthesia also supports the
ative reactions were found to be unrelated to arousal notion that colors have strong biological links to emo-
effects, yet able to induce attitude change (Crowley, tions and physical reactions. Synesthesia is a neurolog-
1993; Middlestadt, 1990). This research supports the ically based experience in which the stimulation of one
notion that like other aesthetic stimuli, color influ- sense leads to the activation of an automatic and invol-
ences through two distinct pathways; the arousal di- untary experience in another. For example, hearing a
mension is akin to embodied meaning, while the evalu- certain sound or pitch might induce the visualization of
ative meaning is akin to referential meaning. a specific color. Color–emotion synesthesia occurs when
The conceptual model suggests a framework for how people see visual colors in response to affective stimuli
people’s perceptions and experiences are influenced by (Cytowic, 1989; Ward, 2004).
these two types of meanings and affect subsequent be- Neuroscientists speculate that synesthesia is a
haviors, such as preference and choice (see Figure 1). conscious awareness of normal perception processes
The model also considers that influencers of color ex- that occur subconsciously in everyone (Cytowic, 1989;
perience do not act in isolation; such interactions are Marks, 1987), which implies all humans are influenced
depicted using arrows, which represent areas of inter- by these multisensory experiences, but only a small
dependence. For instance, some learned color associ- percentage of the population is consciously aware of
ations may represent a cognitive reinforcing or alter- them. Empirical evidence supports the notion that such
ation of biologically based phenomena (Elliot, Maier, color connections are universally embedded. In stud-
Moller, Friedman, & Meinhardt, 2007; Elliot et al., ies dealing with color–emotion associations (Collier,
2010). Likewise, color associations may vary by culture 1996; Levy, 1984), participants often choose consistent
and learned color associations may also influence some pairings (e.g., yellow for cheerful) even across cultures
cultural aspects. (D’Andrade & Egan, 1974).
P1: Color’s embodied meanings are automatic,
enduring, and evoke biological color reac-
Biological Responses tions.
As previously discussed, the embodied meaning of an
aesthetic stimulus is characterized as intrinsic and con- Learned Associations
text independent. Embodied meaning is not learned,
but driven by stimulation evoked from attributes em- While embodied meaning drives biological responses to
bodied in the aesthetic stimulus (Zhu & Meyers-Levy, color, referential meaning activates learned color as-
2005). Likewise, biological responses to color are not sociations. As previously discussed, referential mean-
learned, but are present at birth. Explanations of these ings emerge from an individual’s network of semantic
biological color reactions are grounded in the fact that associations. These networks of color associations are
color perception is a product of evolution and central to constructed as individuals encounter pairings of col-
survival (Mollon, 1989). These cues have evolved from ors with particularly meaningful messages, concepts,
nature to provide information essential for survival and objects, and experiences. These produce links between
understanding phenomena. For example, certain flow- color and paired concepts throughout our lives.
192 LABRECQUE, PATRICK, AND MILNE
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/marFigure 1. Conceptual model: consumer color perception and evaluations. According to connectionist memory models, people attributable to weaknesses in the research design such store semantic information in a complex network as lack of control for value and saturation, blindness to comprised of conceptual nodes and links; the nodes the experiment, and contextual effects, among others represent concepts, which take on activation values (Elliot et al., 2007). based on a weighted sum of their inputs from the en- While consumers may have some awareness of color vironment and other linked nodes (McClelland, 1988). associations, oftentimes activation occurs without a The links represent the pathways between the nodes person’s conscious awareness or intention (Elliot et al., and are the medium by which units interact. Links 2007; Horcajo, Briñol, & Petty, 2010). Just as other are weighted and may be both positive and negative environmental cues can unconsciously affect attitudes so that a node can either excite or inhibit related and behaviors (Dijksterhuis, Smith, Van Baaren, & nodes based on the strength and valence of their Wigboldus, 2005; Meyers-Levy & Zhu, 2007), color connections. As nodes become excited, the activation likely operates as a nonconscious prime and thus has an spreads to additional nodes through links; the resulting automatic influence (Elliot et al., 2007) with the ability outcome is determined by the pattern of activation. to activate different motivations (Mehta & Zhu, 2009) The link weights are thought to represent knowledge and concepts (Rubin, 2010). and learning is conceptualized as the adjustment of In many cases though, marketing efforts can shape weights (McClelland, 1988) as individuals use feedback consumer’s color associations. For example, marketers to update associations (Janiszewski & Van Osselaer, use colors to shape taste expectations in food, such 2000). Such learned associations and connectionist as adding brown to color cola-flavored beverages and models have been used for understanding a wide range adding green to mint-flavored foods. Marketers also of phenomena, including emotion (Bower, 1981), brand use colors to distinguish gender specifications (pink for associations (Janiszewski & Van Osselaer, 2000), girls and blue for boys). Product categories that become memory for advertisements (Forehand & Keller, 1996), associated with certain colors in turn can affect prod- and language (McClelland & Rumelhart, 1981), among uct evaluations. For instance, the color green has been others. adopted as a marketing tool for environmentally con- Color associations have been the topic of significant scious consumption; light pink has taken on a special study in the psychology literature (Bellizzi, Crowley, & meaning due to its ubiquitous use as the symbolic color Hasty, 1983). Although these studies are restricted in of the Susan G. Komen for the Cure breast cancer re- the number of colors and types of emotions and associa- search foundation. tions they test, the effects of color remain relatively con- Color can provide a central aspect of a brand’s sistent across studies, which provides some empirical visual identity and increase brand recognition (Sko- evidence of systematic relationships (Elliot et al., 2007; rinko, Kemmer, Hebl, & Lane, 2006) and likability Levy, 1984). Inconsistencies with findings can likely be (Labrecque & Milne, 2012), but marketers must take THE MARKETERS’ PRISMATIC PALETTE 193 Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
into account people’s learned color meanings before of contextual effects in letter perception (McClelland &
they design product packages, especially if they plan to Rumelhart, 1981).
break with color product category norms (Labrecque & According to connectionist models, nodes have mul-
Milne, forthcoming). Poor color choices that challenge tiple links within memory networks, each with vary-
consumers’ learned associations may even contribute ing weights. The pattern of activation is dependent
to a brand’s failure, as in the case of Crystal Pepsi on competing cues and the weights of association be-
(Garber & Hyatt, 2003). tween nodes (Janiszewski & Van Osselaer, 2000); con-
sequently, context plays a significant role in determin-
P2a: Color’s referential meaning drives the acti-
ing the pattern of activation and outcome. Accordingly,
vation of learned associations. feelings of attraction and excitement are more likely to
P2b: Learned color associations may represent a result from seeing a woman wearing a red cocktail dress
cognitive reinforcing or alteration of biolog-
at a dinner party, whereas the sight of a red street sign
should trigger outcomes of avoidance and danger. In
ically based phenomena.
this example, red is the key color in both situations, but
contextual inputs, such as the object (dress vs. sign), lo-
Cultural Influences. Since many color associations cation (party vs. road), and activity (socializing vs. driv-
are learned, cultural aesthetic differences can alter ing) determine the pattern of activation. Likewise, blue
product evaluations (Hoegg & Alba, 2008). However, is associated with both serenity and coldness (Mahnke,
while evidence suggests that cultural differences ex- 1996), so using blue as a logo’s primary color can elicit
ist for many color associations (Block & Kramer, 2009; associations related to both cold (which is ideal for a
Madden, Hewett, & Roth, 2000), the magnitude of these frozen product) and serenity (which is ideal for a day
differences is not well known, and evidence also sup- spa). Similarly, black may communicate both luxury
ports the notion of intrinsic color meanings shared and sorrow (Mahnke, 1996); however, a black kitchen
across cultures (D’Andrade & Egan, 1974; Fraser & appliance seems unlikely to trigger a mourning-related
Banks, 2004). association, since dishwashers have no natural connec-
Yet through updating connection weights between tion to funerary rituals.
nodes, cultural meanings can shift over time. For ex- Recent empirical research in psychology supports
ample, an experiment of color associations performed this notion (Elliot et al., 2007; Elliot & Niesta, 2008).
in 1941 with participants living in Jerusalem revealed Red can activate different psychological associations
that 86% of the sample had a strong negative associa- in different contexts, such that in the context of in-
tion with the color yellow—the color was used by the tellectual achievement, red’s connection to failure ac-
German Nazis as a mandatory identifier for the Jew- tivates an avoidance motivation, which can impair a
ish people. A replication of the same experiment just subsequent cognitive task (Elliot et al., 2007). In a so-
20 years later, with a new generation of Jewish par- cial context though, red’s connection to passion, love,
ticipants, indicated that the negative association was and arousal activates an approach motivation and in-
reduced, occurring for only 41% of the sample (Kreitler creases the attractiveness of a dating candidate (Elliot
& Kreitler, 1972). & Niesta, 2008). This research suggests that colors can
Furthermore, globalization and the increasing influ- trigger diametrically opposite associations, depending
ence of Western culture, as spread by the global reach on the context of their use.
of U.S. television and the Internet, has had a key in- P4: Contextual cues determine the activation
fluence on cultural color meanings. An example of this
of color associations through referential
is evidenced in fashion choices of Chinese brides, who
meaning.
traditionally would have worn red, but are now opting
for white gowns akin to their American counterparts
Being cognizant of these multiple associations can
(Baker, 2009). It seems cultural lines are blurring in
enable marketers to carefully incorporate contextual
relation to color, as supported by recent work that in-
cues in their messages and thereby prime desired as-
dicates that cultural norms influence color preferences
sociations. Of course, this effort demands a full un-
only when they are salient (Chattopadhyay, Gorn, &
derstanding of color associations and contextual differ-
Darke, 2010).
ences, which reinforces the complex nature of the color
P3: Culture influences learned color associa- experience and the need for more empirical research.
tions.
REVIEW OF COLOR RESEARCH
Importance of Context. Since colors have many as-
sociations, context plays a critical role in determining IN MARKETING: UNDERSTANDING ITS
the pattern of activation within the semantic network COMPLEXITIES AND DIRECTIONS
and subsequent results. Many connectionist models as- FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
sume an interactive process where multiple cues com-
pete to predict outcomes, such as in the interactive ac- Aesthetics influence both affect and perceptions of qual-
tivation model, which is used to explain the importance ity (Page & Herr, 2002), and color is an important
194 LABRECQUE, PATRICK, AND MILNE
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/marcomponent of aesthetic design, as well as an area in a source, such as a computer monitor, while others
which marketing managers have very limited theo- used subtractive models, which use pigments and dyes
retical guidance (Gorn et al., 1997). Companies spend to produce color printing. Additionally, there exists a
substantial time and resources developing their color multitude of color spaces that can be used to precisely
strategies, though most of this research remains se- measure and produce color (e.g., HSL, HSV, Munsell),
cret due to competitive concerns (Bellizzi, Crowley, & yet many studies do not follow a specific system or
Hasty, 1983). Despite its major role in decision mak- report specific values essential for replication. Still
ing, a thorough understanding of the many cognitive others used verbal color cues, fabric-covered walls,
and noncognitive reactions evoked through aesthetic colored projector slides, or had participants read
design is absent from the literature (Hoegg & Alba, written scenarios for color stimuli.
2008). As work continues in this area, it is imperative
Intriguing academic work with marketing implica- that researchers take these complexities into con-
tions began during the early part of the twentieth cen- sideration. This review reveals that there are many
tury, examining topics such as how color affects per- opportunities for new work in this area and also for
ceived package weight (Gunlach & Macoubrey, 1931; reinvestigations of past topics, which take into account
Payne, 1958) and taste perceptions (Pangborn, 1960). color’s complexities. Therefore, past color research in
Most of this work appeared in psychology journals; the marketing literature is next considered by topic
studies in marketing journals came relatively later. (atmospherics, advertising, branding, food marketing,
Early marketing scholars mainly focused on advertis- and the Internet; see Table 1) in order to identify
ing and retail store atmospherics (e.g., Babin, Hard- research gaps, and offer directions for further research.
esty, & Suter, 2003; Bellizzi & Hite, 1992; Bellizzi, This discussion summarizes marketing research in
Crowley, & Hasty, 1983; Gorn et al., 1997; Meyers- which color is a considered the focal variable and is
Levy & Peracchio, 1995), though later work shifted not meant to be exhaustive of all research that may
to include topics such as color affects related to food include color as a minor variable of interest. A full
and online consumer behavior (e.g., Garber, Burke, & discussion of color research across myriad disciplines
Jones, 2000; Gorn, Chattopadhyay, Sengupta, & Tri- is beyond the aim and scope of this paper.
pathi, 2004; Hoegg & Alba, 2007).
Advertising
Complexity of Color Research Color research in this area has had two major foci: (1)
Due to the complexity of this area, much of the previous the importance of color versus black-and-white adver-
color research leaves many unanswered questions, tising and (2) the way that specific colors influence con-
warranting further investigation. For example, early sumers’ moods and evaluations. In terms of color versus
research often fails to recognize the dual nature of noncolor advertising, researchers have identified mo-
visual stimuli, treating them purely as sensory phe- tivation as a key variable that influences advertising
nomena, without recognizing their cognitive influence effectiveness and found that less-motivated consumers
(Garber & Hyatt, 2003; Scott, 1994). In addition, much tend to use color as a persuasive heuristic processing
of this research splits colors into two broad categories: cue; while among more motivated consumers, the effect
warm (e.g., red, yellow) and cool (e.g., blue, green). of color is contingent on their ability to match avail-
When colors get lumped together into these broad able and required resources (Meyers-Levy & Peracchio,
categories, additional hues tend to be neglected, which 1995). Research on Yellow Pages advertising found that
ignores the multitudinous subtleties of individual in addition to attracting reader attention, color can sig-
colors. Furthermore, many studies examined hue nal the quality of products and services; however, this
without considering the two other dimensions of color, effect varied by product category, implying that the im-
saturation (intensity) and value (lightness). Yet, both portance of color is variable in this context (Lohse &
of these dimensions are just as important, if not Rosen, 2001). Still, many questions remain such as
more so, than hue (Gorn et al., 1997; Labrecque & RQ1: How stable and persistent are these effects
Milne, 2012; Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994). Moreover, of color on memory?
because many studies lacked experimental controls
for saturation and value, uncertainty exists about RQ2: Can color on advertisements (vs. black-and-
whether the results were driven by hue alone. white) affect price perception and percep-
Color research is rife with complications that tions of other product attributes?
can make it nearly impossible to accurately make
comparisons and produce replication if not properly RQ3: Does color interact with other advertising
controlled and reported (Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994). variables such as music, ad layout, maga-
For example, many researchers have neglected to
zine environment, and so forth?
control for lighting conditions or did not follow and
report standardized color models; some used additive Color offers information that influences both
models, which involve light being directly emitted from mood and product evaluations. Using Apter’s (1976)
THE MARKETERS’ PRISMATIC PALETTE 195
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/martwo-dimensional arousal framework, researchers have and time spent during the transaction. If so, a store
found that ads using high-value colors induced greater such as Target, with its almost overwhelming satu-
feelings of relaxation; while ads with high saturation rated red atmosphere at the checkout area, may need
prompted feelings of excitement, both of which favor- to reconsider aspects of its interior color choices. The
ably influenced attitude toward the ad (Gorn et al., servicescape matches its trademark brand color, but
1997). High value also produced greater liking for the the arousal effects may reduce customer satisfaction if
brand. Others have found that the background color the checkout time seems too long. However, arousing
of advertisements can affect product evaluations and colors may also be beneficial here, as long as the check-
memory; red activated an avoidance motivation, which out process is expedited since arousal has been linked
increased attention, memory, and favorable evalua- to decreased self-control and increased impulsivity (Fe-
tions of prevention-focused ads, while blue led to favor- dorikhin & Patrick, 2010) and indeed, the red color has
able evaluations of ads that highlighted positive prod- been posited to increase impulse purchases (Crowley,
uct benefits through an approach activation (Mehta & 1993). Therefore:
Zhu, 2009). Changes in ads’ background hues have also
been shown to alter product perceptions, such as ele- P6: Using arousing colors, such as red hue and
gance and uniqueness (Middlestadt, 1990). Therefore: high saturation, in a retail store checkout
environment can decrease relaxation and
P5: In addition to hue, differences in satura-
increase arousal. This can produce (a) a
tion and value are likely to affect attention,
negative effect on perceived length of check
memory, and product evaluations. Specifi-
out time and satisfaction for consumers in
cally, since saturation has a positive rela-
a task-oriented mindset or (b) increase im-
tionship with arousal, high saturation may
pulse purchasing for those in a browsing
increase memory for an advertisement.
mindset.
Atmospherics Research has also examined the joint effects of color
(warm vs. cool) and store lighting (soft vs. bright) on
Color is a key component of atmospherics; a great deal behavioral intentions and found these effects to be me-
of color research therefore has focused on this area. diated by both the cognitive and affective reactions they
Atmospherics, or “the effort to design buying environ- induce (Babin, Hardesty, & Suter, 2003). Yet other re-
ments to produce specific emotional effects in the buyer searchers found that reactions to atmospheric décor
that enhance his purchase probability” (Kotler, 1973, p. color was driven largely by cognitive, rather than or
50), provide an important marketing tool that can exert in addition to affective routes (Chebat & Morrin, 2007)
a monumental influence on consumer behavior through as perceived environmental quality provided cognitive
visual, aural, olfactory, and tactile elements. Color is a cues that enabled shoppers to infer the quality of the
highly salient visual element; from the interior to the products sold, while mood measures had no effect. Such
exterior, display cases and signs, and even the uniforms inconsistencies in the literature may be due to differ-
of the store personnel, color considerations are manifest ences in experimental stimuli such as the use of written
throughout the store. Atmospherics can influence pur- scenarios containing descriptions of atmospheric color
chase behavior in at least three ways: as an attention- conditions (Babin, Hardesty, & Suter, 2003) versus field
getting medium, a message-creating medium, and an experiments (Chebat & Morrin, 2007). Drawing on the
affect-creating medium (Kotler, 1973). fact that referential color meaning is subject to context:
Experimental research generally suggests that cool-
colored store environments are preferable to warm- P7: Contextual differences exist for effective
colored environments (Babin, Hardesty, & Suter, 2003; color use in atmospherics. For example,
Bellizzi, Crowley, & Hasty, 1983; Crowley, 1993). Warm color fit may likely vary between store type
colors (e.g., red) increase arousal, whereas cool colors (e.g., trendy clothing store vs. home appli-
(e.g., blue) tend to induce feelings of relaxation and per- ance store).
ceptions of pleasantness (Bellizzi, Crowley, & Hasty,
1983; Bellizzi & Hite, 1992). Bellizzi and Hite (1992) Color theorists recognize that different colors also
also provide evidence that hue-induced relaxation can relate to size perceptions. Light colors (high value) re-
increase simulated purchases, reduce purchase post- cede and increase the perceived size of a room, whereas
ponements, and create a stronger inclination to browse. dark (low value) and highly saturated colors decrease
Color choices can be strategically used throughout these size perceptions (Mahnke, 1996). Retailers that
different parts of the retail environment. If warm col- are limited by space can use high-value colors to
ors increase arousal and excitement (Crowley, 1993), increase the perception of space, whereas those that
perhaps using these colors at the checkout area may in- want to create a more intimate environment could use
crease agitation and negatively affect consumers’ eval- low value or highly saturated colors. While research
uations of the checkout time, similar to Web page load- demonstrates how atmospheric elements, such as
ing times (Gorn et al., 2004). Even the uniforms of ceiling height, can influence consumer motivations and
the service providers might influence perceived ease information processing (Meyers-Levy & Zhu, 2007),
196 LABRECQUE, PATRICK, AND MILNE
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/marno marketing literature has examined these effects in oped from long-standing consumption experiences. As
terms of color. Furthermore, psychology research has noted previously, consumers of Crystal Pepsi may have
linked perceptions of temperature to color (Mahnke, been expecting a different taste because of the clear
1996; Porter & Mikellides, 1976), which can also be look of the beverage, which provoked disappointment
considered in future research. Therefore: when they realized the product tasted nearly identical
P8: In addition to lighting, color may interact to regular Pepsi. Many questions remain unaddressed,
with other sensory cues including scent, such as
music, ambient temperature, store size and RQ7: How can a brand become more distinct, yet
shape, and ceiling height, which alter con- remain consistent enough to be identifiable
sumers’ moods, motivations and informa- within a consideration set?
tion processing.
In addition to brand identification and novelty as-
Furthermore, additional research questions in the pects, color can nonverbally communicate product con-
area of atmospherics arise such as cepts (e.g., country of origin, intended audience, ben-
efits). Red, green, and white on a canister of olive oil
RQ4: Do color effects differ by shopper motiva-
signals Italian production (or at least evokes an Ital-
tion?
ian feel); red, white, and blue signals U.S. origins;
RQ5: What is the longevity of these effects? Can
likewise yellow dishwashing liquids suggest a lemon
scent, green indicates a gentle or unscented formula,
they cross over from other environments as
orange implies antibacterial properties, and blue con-
consumers move from store to store?
veys grease-cutting benefits (Garber & Hyatt, 2003).
In a controversial move, tobacco companies recently
RQ6: How does color on retail signage (such as
lightened their package colors to connote the concepts
those displaying price discounts) affect con-
of “light” and “mild” in anticipation of a governmental
sumer purchase decisions? ban against using such words on their packages (Rubin,
2010). These companies are thus relying on the fact that
Branding consumers will be able to infer the product concepts of
“light” and “mild” from these colors and differentiate
Product Category Membership, Differentiation, them from the regular packages of cigarettes.
and Novelty. Research has examined how packag- These examples illustrate color meanings intention-
ing can make a product stand out visually against its ally created by marketers, but color can influence con-
competitors. Novel packaging grabs consumers’ atten- sumers’ perceptions regardless of marketer intent. Re-
tion and increases the probability of an involuntary search provides evidence that color can trigger cultur-
attention response. Garber, Burke, and Jones (2000) ally instilled beliefs that affect perceptions of the prod-
proposed four roles for product color in this context: uct such that Chinese consumers prefer red colored
(1) identifying the product category (e.g., white bags products to other colors (Block & Kramer, 2009). Ad-
for flour), (2) identifying the brand (e.g., Selsun Blue ditional research shows that color can alter pharma-
shampoo in a bright blue bottle), (3) reinforcing exist- ceutical drug expectations (Roullet & Droulers, 2005).
ing meanings and associations (e.g., all Reese’s brand Likewise, the color of a package or product might con-
products feature orange packages), and (4) providing tribute to perceptions of quality. Brightly or overly
contrast to make the brand more distinctive or eye- colorful packages (i.e., high saturation) can imply low
catching than competitors (e.g., Pepsi’s use of blue in quality through learned associations with inexpensive
contrast to Coca-Cola’s red). At times, these roles may children’s products, whereas packages with a muted
conflict, such as the need to identify the product cate- palate (i.e., low saturation) suggest higher quality, due
gory but also contrast with competitors. to learned associations related to classiness (Scott &
Package color can influence purchase consideration Vargas, 2007). The influence of color components on
as colors can be altered to create a novel stimulus and perceptions of quality, price, and performance has not
attract attention. Research has found that packages been explored systematically in existing literature, but
that are altered to be moderately to very dissimilar from some research suggests these effects (Scott & Vargas,
their original color increased attention, shopping time, 2007). Thus, the following proposition is put forth:
and purchase intent (Garber, Hyatt, & Starr, 2003); P9: Color can provide referential meanings
however, purchase intentions varied across product cat- that consumers use to assess product
egories. Some products become strongly associated with
quality, price, and performance. Due to
certain colors, often due to learned associations estab-
learned associations, brightness and sat-
lished by pioneering products. A novel color in such
situations may create an initial attraction and curios- uration can affect perceived quality; thus
ity, and even might evoke a purchase, but products of vibrant (highly saturated) colors signal low
varying colors may confront danger when the novelty quality, while muted (low saturation, high
wears off and they revert to preconceived notions devel- value) colors signal high quality.
THE MARKETERS’ PRISMATIC PALETTE 197
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/marFurthermore, since marketing researchers have con- mentioned studies solely examined single color logos
firmed the influence of shape on perceived volume (with the exception of Labrecque & Milne, forthcoming),
(Raghubir & Krishna, 1999) and area (Krider, Raghu- yet in reality many logos contain two or more colors.
bir, & Krishna, 2001) of a package, color also should Therefore, the following research question is offered:
influence these perceptions. Therefore:
RQ9: How do colors (two or more) jointly affect
RQ8: Can package color affect perceived weight consumer perceptions?
and size? Does this interact with shape?
Furthermore, since color is related to brand person-
ality:
To investigate this question, researchers should
build on early psychology research that finds people RQ10: Do consumers purchase products in col-
tend to consider dark colors heavier, whereas light col- ors to match their personalities? Does this
ors (high value) seem lighter (Gunlach & Macoubrey,
lead to favorable outcomes such as brand
1931; Payne, 1958).
loyalty?
Product Color Naming. Strategic naming of colors is
another way of manipulating color’s psychological im-
pact and is a common tactic of paint manufacturers who Food Perception
attest that the name of their swatches affect sales as Most modern foods are not their natural colors but in-
much as, if not more than, the pigments themselves stead are enhanced or modified to provide cues such
(Fraser & Banks, 2004). Academic research supports as freshness and taste. Many artificial color cues thus
this notion as changes in color name labeling has led to have become a standard way that consumers distin-
differences in liking, purchase intention, and willing- guish and anticipate flavor, such as green with mint or
ness to pay (Skorinko et al., 2006). Additional research lime and brown with cola or chocolate. Changes to these
in this area found that when consumers encounter an food category associations can alter flavor perceptions;
atypical name (e.g., Cookie Monster Blue vs. Bright yet successes with the use of atypical product colors
Blue) they engaged in additional elaboration in order to include Heinz’s colored ketchup and Vitamin Water’s
understand the connection between the name and the brightly colored beverages. It appears that the role and
product, which led to increased satisfaction with the acceptance of color differentiation in food has changed
product (Miller & Kahn, 2005). dramatically, even during the past decade. Although
research on color and food is prevalent in food sciences,
Logos. A logo is central to a brand’s identity, and scant marketing attention has been paid.
choosing an appropriate design should be a well- Color can alter taste perceptions, dominating other
thought-out process. The color of a logo often becomes flavor information sources, including labeling and taste
a key component of a brand’s identity and extends to (Garber, Hyatt, & Starr, 2000; Hoegg & Alba, 2007). Re-
other marketing contexts such as package design and search found that color cues can even dominate taste
advertising, even to the point that the brand may be- cues such that color matches exaggerated homogeniza-
come intrinsically linked to a color (e.g., John Deere tion, and therefore caused greater perceived differences
with green and yellow, Coca-Cola with red), that some for same-taste pairs of different colors than for mixed-
brands attempt to trademark specific colors (Abril, taste pairs of the same color (Hoegg & Alba, 2007).
Olazábal, & Cava, 2009). Yet surprisingly, little re- Despite evidence from studies and real-world exam-
search informs logo design (Keller & Lehmann, 2006) ples, marketers know little about the boundary con-
as a whole, not only in terms of color. ditions of the effects of altered food colors. Beginning
Color logo studies provide evidence that the color of in 2001, Heinz began introducing a variety of colored
a brand logo can offer inherent and immediate brand ketchup offerings including green, blue, and purple,
value. Past research has found increased positive af- and claims to have benefited with the introduction of
fective response when a logo’s hue is congruent with each new hue (Srakocic, 2003); yet sales eventually
product type (functional vs. sensory-social; Bottomley began to drop, and these irregular ketchup shades no
& Doyle, 2006). Likewise, research on product cate- longer exist.
gory color norms found that differentiation is helpful for Marketers need to consider when showcasing food
some product categories; it can also be harmful for oth- color is important. The color of products, especially
ers (Labrecque & Milne, forthcoming). Specifically, this those that are novel and unique to consumers, such
research reveals that adhering to color norms may be as quinoa, daikon, fava leaves, may need to be made
beneficial for product categories containing a dominant visible to consumers to facilitate purchase. Coca-Cola’s
market leader, especially high-involvement categories. research identified one of the factors to have affected
Additionally, hue, saturation, and value of brand logos the demise of a new product, Coke Blāk, described to
and product packages have also been shown to drive consumers as a “coffee-flavored cola,” was the opaque
brand personality perceptions and affect purchase in- package that did not allow consumers to visually
tent (Labrecque & Milne, 2012). However, the afore- inspect the product prior to purchase (Clark Jones,
198 LABRECQUE, PATRICK, AND MILNE
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/marpersonal communication, April 24, 2009). Therefore, while simultaneously they may also send negative sig-
the following proposition is put forth for this area: nals such as a lack of competence or untrustworthiness
which would be devastating to high-risk sites, such as
P10: In order to adopt a new/novel food prod- banking. Thus:
uct, consumers should be able to obtain a
sensory feel of the product through visual P11: Site type difference (e.g., high vs. low fi-
inspection of the color of the product prior nancial or information risks; experiential
to or at the time of purchase. vs. informational sites) moderates arousal
effects online. Arousal and pleasantness in-
Moreover, additional questions remain unanswered duced by online color cues may alter con-
in the area of food marketing, such as sumer trust and behaviors, such willing-
ness to divulge personal information.
RQ11: When can using an unexpected food color
produce novelty? In addition to site design, these matters should be ex-
plored in relation to online advertising such as whether
RQ12: Does the exposure order of a product’s sen- certain colors (including levels of saturation and value)
sory attributes impact perceptions? affect click-through rates, engagement, willingness to
share personal information, and purchase intent. As
RQ13: When and how do learned food product as- consumers increasingly use the Internet to conduct
sociations (green ketchup or blue tortilla transactions and business online, these matters become
chips) override a consumer’s biological re- ever more important.
sponses to food products of that color (food Being relatively new, this area is rife with research
that is blue or green is encoded as spoiled opportunities including
by the biological system)?
RQ15: Do color choices matter more for certain
types of Web sites?
RQ14: Do consumers make inferences about the
caloric value, nutritional value, or temper-
RQ16: Can color affect attention to online ads and
ature of food based on color cues?
click-through rates?
Internet Marketing
Considering the increasingly important role that the In- GENERAL DISCUSSION
ternet plays in consumers’ lives and the ease with which
color can be altered in a digital environment, it seems Marketers have long used color to catch consumers’
surprising that so little work pertains to this area. In attention and as a visual mnemonic device to support
one major study, Gorn et al. (2004) found that the back- recognition. To connect with consumers and effec-
ground color of a Web site can influence perceptions tively communicate a brand’s meaning, marketers
of loading time, affect, and willingness to recommend continually need new and compelling means to reach
the site to a friend—and these effects were mediated consumers. Visual identity assets, including color, can
by feelings of relaxation. For example, blue increased encourage connections with consumers and should
relaxation, which in turn decreased users’ perceptions be embedded in a brand’s DNA. Unfortunately for
of waiting time; while red and yellow decreased re- marketers though, the literature offers them few guide-
laxation. In addition, saturation decreased perceived lines, even as color becomes increasingly important and
quickness and relaxation, while value increased per- the need for such investigations grows more imperative.
ceived quickness and relaxation. This paper reviewed the extant literature and high-
In studying online retail atmospherics, studies have lighted the complex nature of color research. Addition-
included color (warmth and saturation) as part of a ally, this paper presented a set of viable propositions
mix of environmental cues, including complexity and and research questions to advance color research in
music tempo, to explore the effect of arousal on shop- marketing. Although this review illustrates that re-
ping behavior (Kaltcheva & Weitz, 2006). They found searchers have focused considerable attention to cer-
that task orientation determined the valence of color- tain areas of marketing, a great deal of research is pos-
induced arousal; in this e-commerce context, arousal sible. New research can add an increased depth of un-
produced a beneficial effect only when consumers en- derstanding to these areas by examining interactions
gaged in recreational shopping and were not search between the different variables, the underlying process
oriented (Kaltcheva & Weitz, 2006). mechanisms and moderating variables, and also by in-
Indeed, other studies found that warm hues and high vestigating previous findings at different levels of anal-
saturation induced arousal (Gorn et al., 2004; Valdez ysis by using new tools (e.g., eye-tracking, fMRI) and
& Mehrabian, 1994). Therefore these attention-getting considering new variables (e.g., saturation and value,
properties may be beneficial for “attracting eyeballs,” in addition to hue).
THE MARKETERS’ PRISMATIC PALETTE 199
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/marYou can also read
