Timely replacemet of a notebook under consid-eration of environmental aspects 45/2012
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TEXTE 45/2012 Timely replacemet of a notebook under consid- eration of environmental aspects
| TEXTE | 45/2012 ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH OF THE FEDERAL MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT, NATURE CONSERVATION AND NUCLEAR SAFETY Project No. (FKZ) 363 01 322 Report No. (UBA-FB) 001666/E Timely replacement of a notebook under consideration of environmental aspects by Siddharth Prakash, Ran Liu Öko-Institut e.V. – Institute for Applied Ecology, Freiburg, Germany Karsten Schischke , Dr. Lutz Stobbe Fraunhofer IZM, Berlin, Germany On behalf of the Federal Environment Agency (Germany) UMWELTBUNDESAMT
This publication is only available online. It can be downloaded from
http://www.uba.de/uba-info-medien-e/4317.html along with a
German-language version.
The contents of this publication do not necessarily
reflect the official opinions.
ISSN 1862-4804
Study performed by: Öko-Institut e.V. – Institute for Applied Ecology
Sustainable Products & Material Flows Division
Merzhauser Strasse 173
79100 Freiburg, Germany
Study completed in: October 2011
Publisher: Federal Environment Agency (Umweltbundesamt)
Wörlitzer Platz 1
06844 Dessau-Roßlau
Germany
Phone: +49-340-2103-0
Fax: +49-340-2103 2285
Email: info@umweltbundesamt.de
Internet: http://www.umweltbundesamt.de
http://fuer-mensch-und-umwelt.de/
Edited by: Section III 1.1 General Aspects of Product-related Environmental Protection,
Sustainable Consumption,Innovation Programme
Heidrun Moser, Maike Janßen, Marina Köhn
Dessau-Roßlau, September 2012Kurzbeschreibung
Die Herstellung von Notebooks ist mit großen Umweltauswirkungen verbunden. Trotzdem
spielen diese bei den Kaufentscheidungen selten eine Rolle. Vor diesem Hintergrund hat das
Umweltbundesamt das Öko-Institut e.V. und das Fraunhofer IZM mit einer Studie beauftragt,
die folgende Fragen klären sollte: (1) Welchen Anteil haben verschiedene Lebenszyklusphasen
an Gesamttreibhausgasemissionen eines Notebooks? (2) Wann amortisieren sich die Umwelt-
auswirkungen von Production, distribution and disposal eines energieeffizienten Neu-geräts?
(3) Wie viel effizienter muss das neue Notebook sein, damit sich der Ersatz des alten und
weniger energieeffizienten Geräts aus ökologischen Gesichtspunkten lohnt? Die Ergebnisse
zeigen, dass die Herstellungsphase mit knapp 56% (214 kg CO2e in 5 Jahren) einen höheren
Beitrag an den Gesamttreibhausgasemissionen eines Notebooks leistet als die Nutzungsphase.
Die Analyse der Amortisationszeiten hat belegt, dass der Umweltaufwand bei der Herstellung
eines Notebooks so hoch ist, dass er sich durch eine erhöhte Energieeffizienz in der Nutzung
nicht in realisierbaren Zeiträumen amortisieren lässt. Bei einer 10%igen Energieeffizienz-
steigerung des neuen Notebooks im Vergleich zum alten liegen die Amortisationszeiten
zwischen 33 und 89 Jahre. Die Studie weist nach, dass der Beitrag der Herstellungsphase an
Gesamttreibhausgasemissionen mit einer Erhöhung der Lebensdauer der Notebooks erheblich
reduziert wird. Deswegen schlägt die Studie vor, den Fokus der verpflichtenden produkt-
politischen Ökodesign-Maßnahmen für IKT-Geräte auf Aspekte wie Möglichkeiten der Auf- und
Nachrüstung, modularer Aufbau, recyclinggerechte Konstruktion, Ersatzteilverfügbarkeit,
Standardisierung von Komponenten und Mindestgarantie auszuweiten.
Abstract
The production of notebooks induces significant environmental impacts. However, these
impacts are seldom considered by consumers in their purchasing decisions. Against this
background, the Federal Agency of Environment in Germany commissioned the Öko-Institut
e.V. and the Fraunhofer IZM with a study to address following questions: (1) What is the share
of different life cycle phases in the total greenhouse gas emissions of a notebook, (2) When are
the environmental impacts, which are associated with the production, distribution and disposal
of a new notebook, compensated as a result of energy efficiency gains in the use-phase of the
new notebook, (3) Which energy efficiency gains should be possessed by a new notebook, if the
replacement of the older and less energy efficient notebook can be justified under the
consideration of environmental concerns. The results show that production phase, with about
56% (214 kg CO2e in 5 years) of the total greenhouse gas emissions of a notebook, casts a
significantly higher impact than the use phase. Moreover, the environmental impacts of the
production phase of a notebook are so high, that they cannot be compensated in realistic time-
periods by energy efficiency gains in the use phase. In case of a 10% increase in the energy
efficiency of a new notebook as compared to the older one, replacement of the older notebook
can only be justified after 33 to 89 years, if environmental concerns are considered. The study
concludes that the share of the production phase in the total greenhouse gas emissions of a
notebook can be significantly reduced by taking measures to extend the useful life-time of a
notebook. Therefore, the study recommends that the focus of mandatory product policy for ICT
should be expanded to measures related to possibilities of hardware upgrading, modular
construction, recycling-friendly design, availability of spare parts, standardisation of
components and minimum warranty periods.Timely replacement of a notebook under consideration of environmental aspects
Contents
Figures
Tables
Abbreviations and acronyms
1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1
2 Purpose and scope of the study ....................................................................................... 2
2.1 Goal and task ............................................................................................................... 2
2.2 Scope and scenario formulation ............................................................................... 2
2.2.1 Characterisation of the scenarios analysed ........................................................ 3
2.2.2 Function and functional unit................................................................................ 6
2.2.3 Definition of system boundaries .......................................................................... 8
2.2.4 Impact categories considered ............................................................................... 8
3 Data sources........................................................................................................................ 9
3.1 Production phase ........................................................................................................ 9
3.2 Distribution of finished products to wholesalers and retailers........................... 18
3.3 Shopping trip ............................................................................................................. 19
3.4 Use phase ................................................................................................................... 20
3.5 End-of-life ................................................................................................................... 21
3.5.1 Business-as-usual ................................................................................................... 21
3.5.2 Best practice .......................................................................................................... 23
4 Presentation and interpretation of outcomes .............................................................. 23
4.1 Presentation of the outcomes of the individual scenarios .................................. 24
4.1.1 Scenario 1: EuP Lot 3 ........................................................................................... 24
4.1.2 Scenario 2: EcoInvent 2.2 .................................................................................... 25
4.1.3 Scenario 3: UBA R&D project (UFOPLAN 2009) + EcoInvent 2.2 (end-
of-life business-as-usual) ...................................................................................... 25
4.1.4 Scenario 4: UBA R&D project (UFOPLAN 2009) + EcoInvent 2.2 (end-
of-life best practice) ............................................................................................. 27
4.2 Overview of all scenarios studied............................................................................ 28
4.3 Amortisation calculation .......................................................................................... 30
5 Sensitivity analysis ........................................................................................................... 34
5.1 Sensitivity analysis 1: Adjustment of electricity consumption values in
the use phase according to the limits set under Energy Star® Version 5.0
for computers ............................................................................................................ 35
ITimely replacement of a notebook under consideration of environmental aspects
5.2 Sensitivity analysis 2: Adjustment of electricity consumption values and
of operational modes according to EuP Lot 3 ....................................................... 36
5.3 Sensitivity analysis 3: Adjustment of the weighting of the operational
modes in the use phase ............................................................................................ 37
5.4 Sensitivity analysis 4: Consideration of the Radiative Forcing Index (RFI)
in air transport .......................................................................................................... 40
5.5 Sensitivity analysis 5: Consideration of the emissions of fluorinated
compounds (FCs) from display production ............................................................ 41
5.6 Sensitivity analysis 6: Adjustment of useful lifetime to 2.9 years ....................... 42
5.7 Synoptic overview of all sensitivity analyses examined ....................................... 43
5.7.1 Amortisation calculation on the basis of the sensitivity analyses ................. 45
6 Discussion.......................................................................................................................... 46
7 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 49
8 References ......................................................................................................................... 50
9 Annex ................................................................................................................................ 53
IITimely replacement of a notebook under consideration of environmental aspects
Figures
Figure 1: System boundary of the scenarios examined ............................................. 8
Figure 2: Principal material flows (silicon flows) associated with IC
fabrication ..................................................................................................... 12
Figure 3: Schematic of distribution chain ................................................................. 18
Figure 4: Absolute GWP values and percentage proportions of life cycle
phases in Scenario 1: EuP Lot 3 .................................................................. 24
Figure 5: Absolute GWP values and percentage proportions of life cycle
phases in Scenario 2: EcoInvent 2.2 .......................................................... 25
Figure 6: Absolute GWP values and percentage proportions of life cycle
phases in Scenario 3: UBA R&D project (UFOPLAN 2009) +
EcoInvent and end-of-life as business-as-usual ......................................... 26
Figure 7: Percentage contributions to overall GWP outcome of memory IC
fabrication ..................................................................................................... 27
Figure 8: Absolute GWP values and percentage proportions of life cycle
phases in Scenario 4: UBA R&D project (UFOPLAN 2009) +
EcoInvent and end-of-life as best practice ................................................ 28
Figure 9: Absolute GWP emissions outcome for all scenarios studied,
differentiated according to life cycle phase (kg CO2e/notebook) ......... 29
Figure 10: GWP emissions of a notebook (kg CO2e/notebook). Lifetime 4
years (O’Connell&Stutz 2010)...................................................................... 30
Figure 11: Overview of amortisation period as a function of energy
efficiency improvement in the use phase, for all scenarios ................... 33
Figure 12: Absolute GWP outcomes of the base and sensitivity analyses for
the four scenarios examined ...................................................................... 44
Figure 13: Percentage deviations of the sensitivity analysis from the base
analysis for the four scenarios examined ................................................. 44
Figure 14: Amortisation period of base and sensitivity analyses for Scenario
4 UBA R&D project (UFOPLAN 2009) + EcoInvent 2.2 (end-of-life
best practice) ................................................................................................. 45
IIITimely replacement of a notebook under consideration of environmental aspects
Tables
Table 1: Overview of data sources and assumptions for the scenarios
studied ............................................................................................................. 6
Table 2: Notebook specifications in EuP Lot 3, EcoInvent 2.2 and UBA
R&D project (UFOPLAN 2009) ....................................................................... 7
Table 3: Data sources used for production phases ................................................... 9
Table 4: Material composition for notebooks (2007 EuP study) ............................. 9
Table 5: Overview of the IC datasets published in ProBas (Prakash et al.
2011) .............................................................................................................. 11
Table 6: Distribution of silicon wafer production among countries (own
estimates) ....................................................................................................... 13
Table 7: Secondary data used for the upstream chain of silicon wafer
production ..................................................................................................... 13
Table 8: Distribution of front-end processes among countries (own
estimates) ....................................................................................................... 14
Table 9: Secondary data used for IC front-end processes ...................................... 14
Table 10: Distribution of back-end processes among countries (own
estimates) ....................................................................................................... 16
Table 11: Secondary datasets used for IC back-end processes................................. 16
Table 12: Proportions of BT-Core + Cu + Au + Ni assumed for modelling
purposes (own estimates) ............................................................................ 17
Table 13: Dataset used for freight transport by air .................................................. 18
Table 14: Datasets for modelling distribution to wholesalers and retailers.......... 19
Table 15: Emission factors of truck and air transport (EcoInvent 2.2) ................... 19
Table 16: Datasets for modelling the shopping trip ................................................. 20
Table 17: Weighting of the operational states of a notebook (Energy Star®
Version 5.0) ................................................................................................... 20
Table 18: TEC values (kWh/a) of the notebooks, as of August 2010 (Energy
Star® Version 5.0) ......................................................................................... 21
Table 19: Metal fractions acquired after shredding, in relation to 1 kg
notebook (Hischier 2007) ............................................................................ 22
Table 20: Estimated Ag, Au and Pd proportions in the notebook .......................... 22
Table 21: Recycling rates for business-as-usual scenario.......................................... 23
Table 22: Recycling rates for best practice ................................................................ 23
Table 23: Specific outcomes for the display module and memory ICs from
the UBA R&D project (UFOPLAN 2009) (kg CO2e/notebook)................... 27
IVTimely replacement of a notebook under consideration of environmental aspects
Table 24: Amortisation calculation with energy efficiency improvement in
the use phase in Scenario 1: EuP Lot 3 ..................................................... 31
Table 25: Amortisation calculation with energy efficiency improvement in
the use phase in Scenario 2: EcoInvent 2.2 .............................................. 32
Table 26: Amortisation calculation with energy efficiency improvement in
the use phase in Scenario 3: UBA R&D project (UFOPLAN 2009) +
EcoInvent (end-of-life business-as-usual) .................................................... 32
Table 27: Amortisation calculation with energy efficiency improvement in
the use phase in Scenario 4: UBA R&D project (UFOPLAN 2009)
+EcoInvent (end-of-life best practice) ......................................................... 33
Table 28: Compilation of electricity consumption in the use phase in the
base analysis and sensitivity analysis according to Energy Star®
TEC 2009 Version 5.0 ................................................................................... 35
Table 29: Results of sensitivity analysis 1 compared to the base analyses of
all scenarios examined ................................................................................ 35
Table 30: Electricity consumption according to EuP Lot 3 ...................................... 36
Table 31: Compilation of electricity consumption in the use phase of the
base analysis and sensitivity analysis, according to different data
sources ........................................................................................................... 37
Table 32: Results of sensitivity analysis 2 compared to the base analyses of
all scenarios examined ................................................................................ 37
Table 33: Compilation for parameter: Weighting of operational modes in
base and sensitivity analysis ....................................................................... 38
Table 34: Compilation of electricity consumption levels in the use phase in
the base and sensitivity analysis, according to the different
weighting of operational modes ................................................................ 38
Table 35: Outcomes of sensitivity analysis 3 compared to the base analyses
of all scenarios examined............................................................................ 39
Table 36: Compilation of the relevant trips for the purposes of the base
and sensitivity analysis, with and without consideration of RFI ........... 40
Table 37: Results of sensitivity analysis 4 compared to the base analyses of
Scenarios 3 and 4 ......................................................................................... 40
Table 38: Compilation of the GWP values of display production of the base
and sensitivity analyses, with consideration of FC emissions as
compared to the base analyses of Scenarios 3 and 4 .............................. 41
Table 39: Results of sensitivity analysis 5 compared to the base analyses of
Scenarios 3 and 4 ......................................................................................... 41
Table 40: Compilation of electricity consumption in the use phase of the
base and sensitivity analysis, for different lifetimes ................................ 42
VTimely replacement of a notebook under consideration of environmental aspects
Table 41: Results of sensitivity analysis 6 compared to the base analyses of
all scenarios examined ................................................................................ 43
Table 42: Country-specific emission factors of electricity supply (electricity
mix) ................................................................................................................ 53
Table 43: Input and output data for the silicon wafer production dataset
(Prakash et al. 2011) ..................................................................................... 53
Table 44: Input and output data for the IC fabrication front-end
process/Wafer Out dataset (Prakash et al. 2011) ..................................... 53
Table 45: Input and output data for the IC fabrication front-end
process”good die out” dataset (Prakash et al. 2011)................................ 54
Table 46: Input and output for the IC fabrication back-end process dataset
(Prakash et al. 2011) ..................................................................................... 55
Table 47: Factors for high-purity chemicals to normal chemicals (Higgs et
al. 2010) ......................................................................................................... 55
Table 48: Emission factors for primary and secondary metal production
(EcoInvent 2.1) .............................................................................................. 55
Table 49: Metal fractions inventoried in kg in relation to the notebook
examined ....................................................................................................... 55
Table 50: Absolute GWP outcomes and percentage shares of memory IC
fabrication ..................................................................................................... 56
VITimely replacement of a notebook under consideration of environmental aspects
Abbreviations and acronyms
ACPI Advanced Configuration and Power Interface
AUO AU Optronics Corporation
CMO Chi Mei Optoelectronics
DDR3 Double Data Rate 3
DRAM Dynamic Random Access Memory
ECN Energy Centre of the Netherlands
EPD Environmental Product Declaration
ETH Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (Eidgenössische
Technische Hochschule)
FBGA Fine Pitch Ball Grid Array
FC Fluorinated Compounds
GHG Greenhouse Gas
GHz Gigahertz
GWP Global Warming Potential
HDD High Definition Device
HFCs Hydrofluorocarbons
IC Integrated Circuits
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IERC International Electronics Recycling Congress
ICT Information and Communication Technology
IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ISO International Organization for Standardization
ISSST International Symposium on Sustainable Systems and
Technology
KBA German Federal Motor Transport Authority (Kraftfahrt-
Bundesamt)
LCA Life Cycle Assessment
LCD Liquid Crystal Display
LED Light Emitting Diode
MEEuP Methodology for the Ecodesign of Energy-using Products
MHz Megahertz
OEMs Original Equipment Manufacturers
VIITimely replacement of a notebook under consideration of environmental aspects
PCF Product Carbon Footprint
PFCs Perfluorocarbons
ProBas Process-specific data repository for environmental management
tools, maintained by UBA (Prozessorientierte Basisdaten)
PWB Printed Wiring Board
RAM Random Access Memory
RFI Radiative Forcing Index
SMD Surface-Mounted Device
TEC Typical Energy Consumption
TFT Thin-Film Transistor
UBA German Federal Environment Agency (Umweltbundesamt)
WEEE Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive
VIIITimely replacement of a notebook under consideration of environmental aspects
1 Introduction
The German federal government has set itself the target of reducing ICT-related energy
consumption in federal administrations by 40 percent by the year 2013 from the 2009
baseline. 1 This is to be achieved by reducing the electricity consumption caused by the
operation of IT systems in federal administrations, and by producing guidance for the public-
sector procurement of environmentally sound ICT products. As a part of the second approach,
replacement of the present stock of end-user computers by new, more efficient notebooks is
now being discussed.
The production of ICT devices – such as notebooks – is highly energy-intensive and generates
major environmental impacts. Depending upon how long and how intensively a notebook is
utilised in the use phase, the production phase can even account for the bulk of environmental
impacts. The available statements on the apportionment of energy consumption between
notebook production and use vary widely. A study performed in the context of the EcoTopTen
project found that if a computer is used for four hours each day over a period of four years in
private homes, about 40% of the associated environmental impact is attributable to the
production phase and around 60% to the use phase (www.ecotopten.de). Other studies even
estimate that the contribution of manufacturing to the overall greenhouse gas emissions of a
notebook amount to 57–93% (Prakash et al. 2010, Andrae and Anderson 2010). Such
statements, however, are still subject to a certain degree of imprecision, as very little data is
available on resource consumption in upstream chains. For instance, it has not yet been
determined sufficiently what impact sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) and nitrogen trifluoride (NF3),
which are used to produce semiconductor components and liquid crystal displays, have upon
the overall greenhouse gas balance of a notebook. Over a period of 100 years 1 kg SF6 gas has
the same global warming impact as 22,800 kg CO2; the radiative forcing of NF3 is 17,200 times
that of CO2 (IPCC 2007).
A further key aspect is that the extremely short product life cycles of notebooks, in combination
with the high rate of innovation in the sector and the falling prices for new units, is causing
the actual lifetime of notebooks to become ever shorter. There is, for instance, empirical
evidence that notebooks often have a useful lifetime of less than 3 years (Deng et al. 2011,
Williams and Hatanka 2005). This very short lifetime of notebooks is often not caused by any
physical fault, but rather by a lack of practicable options to expand performance, such as by
upgrading the main memory or bulk storage device. As a result, more and more consumers
decide to buy a new device although the old and still functioning one could in principle be
upgraded.
The new generations of notebooks are indeed becoming increasingly efficient in terms of their
energy consumption in the use phase, and the level of electricity consumption is taken with a
certain regularity as an indicator for new purchase. Unfortunately, however, purchasing
decisions do not take account of the environmental impacts arising in the production phase. To
1
ICT Strategy of the German Federal Government: Digital Germany 2015,
www.bmwi.de
1Timely replacement of a notebook under consideration of environmental aspects
gain a full picture of the environmental impacts attributable to notebooks, it would be essential
to include the material consumption and appropriation of environmental carrying capacity
arising in both the upstream and downstream phases. Such a perspective would give policy-
makers, public procurers and private final consumers greater certainty when taking decisions
on the extension of lifetime or new purchase of notebooks. Furthermore, such a life cycle
analysis makes it possible to determine with greater accuracy and predictive certainty when
and under which conditions it makes environmental sense to replace an old device with a new
one.
To achieve those goals, the German Federal Environment Agency (UBA) has commissioned the
Öko-Institut e.V. and the Fraunhofer IZM to perform a study to identify the optimal
replacement period for notebooks in terms of environmental outcomes.
2 Purpose and scope of the study
2.1 Goal and task
In the context of this study, the following questions were to be addressed:
• Which contributions do the different life cycle phases make to the overall greenhouse
gas emissions attributable to a notebook?
• When is the optimum time to replace an old notebook by a new model in
environmental terms? 2
Two further questions were addressed by the study concerning the calculation of the point in
time for optimum replacement of an old notebook by a new model:
• When are the environmental impacts generated by the production, distribution
(incl. shopping trip) and disposal of the new device compensated by the savings
delivered by energy-efficient devices in the use phase?
• How much more efficient must the new notebook be in order that replacement
of the old and less energy-efficient device is worthwhile in environmental terms?
2.2 Scope and scenario formulation
It would not have been expedient in the context of this study to separately collect and analyse
life cycle data for an old and a new notebook. While notebooks are subject to major market
dynamics and constantly changing technological innovations (which would speak in principle
for separate data collection), on the other hand primary collection of life cycle data for an old
and a new notebook would be very costly and time-consuming, and would go well beyond the
resources available to this project. Moreover, Prakash et al. (2011) have shown that the data
uncertainties are larger than the differences between production processes for different
2
This study did not examine the question of the replacement of a stationary workplace
computer by a notebook.
2Timely replacement of a notebook under consideration of environmental aspects
notebook generations. Not least, the decisions relevant to the replacement of a notebook
generally must be taken relatively quickly and cannot always be supported by a comprehensive
life cycle analysis. For the above reasons this study delivers results that are based on
methodological considerations which, while less complex, are tailored to the purpose of the
study. To that end, the study takes recourse to various existing data sources to determine the
material and energy inputs needed to produce a notebook and identifies in that way the best
replacement period in environmental terms. In addition, sensitivity analyses are carried out
that verify the outcome from various perspectives and indicate points of leverage to shift life
cycle outcomes.
2.2.1 Characterisation of the scenarios analysed
As set out in Section 2.1, the question of the optimum replacement time for a notebook is
examined comparatively using three different data sources. These are the following:
1. EuP Lot 3 – PCs (desktops and laptops) and Computer Monitors 3 (Scenario 1)
2. EcoInvent 2.2 (Scenario 2)
3. UBA UFOPLAN 2009 project (Scenario 3)
UBA UFOPLAN 2009 project data for ICT components were generated within the UFOPLAN
2009 environmental research programme of the German Federal Environment Agency
(Umweltbundesamt, UBA). The overall project was titled “Resource conservation in the field of
information and communication technologies (ICT)” (Ressourcenschonung im Aktionsfeld
Informations- und Kommunikationstechnik (IKT)), under which sub-project C, titled
“Establishing a data base for the evaluation of ecological effects of ICT products” (Schaffung
einer Datenbasis zur Ermittlung ökologischer Wirkungen der Produkte der IKT) generated the
dataset in question. 4 These data are publicly accessible in the ProBas database 5 at
www.probas.uba.de.
3
European Commission DG TREN, Preparatory studies for Eco-design Requirements of
EuPs (Contract TREN/D1/40-2005/LOT3/S07.56313): Lot 3 Personal Computers (desktops
and laptops) and Computer Monitors Final Report (Task 1-8)
4
Prakash, S.; Liu, R.; Schischke, K.; Stobbe, L.: Establishing a data base for the
evaluation of ecological effects of ICT products, in cooperation with Gensch, C.-O.
within the UBA Ufoplan 2009 project “Resource conservation in the field of information
and communication technologies (ICT)” – FKZ 3709 95 308, Öko-Institut e.V. in
cooperation with the Fraunhofer Institute for Reliability and Microintegration (IZM,
Berlin) (2011)
5
The UBA database “ProBas – Prozessorientierte Basisdaten für Umweltmanagement-
Instrumente” [Process-specific data repository for environmental management tools]
www.probas.umweltbundesamt.de contains several thousand datasets with
environmentally relevant material flow data for material extraction, manufacturing,
transport and service processes. The data come from a diverse array of sources; the
3Timely replacement of a notebook under consideration of environmental aspects
Production phase
The production phase of a notebook is modelled in the present study in three scenarios, each
based on one of the above data sources. The production-related data generated by the UBA-
funded UFOPLAN 2009 project were only compiled for two notebook components, namely the
display module and integrated circuits (ICs). No further datasets for other notebook
components are as yet available in ProBas. The datasets lacking for an inventory analysis of the
overall notebook were therefore taken from EcoInvent 2.2 in Scenario 3.
Transport (distribution)
For Scenarios 2 (EcoInvent 2.2) and 3 (UBA UFOPLAN 2009 project), the same assumptions were
made for the transport of notebooks from production sites to wholesalers and further fine
distribution from wholesalers to retainers. For Scenario 1 (EuP Lot 3) the data were taken from
the EuP Lot 3 preparatory study.
Shopping trip
A shopping trip by final consumers for the new purchase of a notebook was assumed equally in
all scenarios.
Use phase
Calculation of the use phase was based on the TEC approach of Energy Star Version 5.0 for
computers. TEC stands for “Typical Energy Consumption”, and is a value used to check and
compare the energy efficiency of computers, reflecting the typical energy consumption of a
product in normal operation over a representative period. For notebooks, the key criterion used
in the TEC approach is the typical annual electricity consumption of a computer measured in
kilowatt-hours (kWh/a), using measurements of the average levels of power consumption in
various operational modes, adjusted to an assumed typical pattern of utilisation (operating
time).
The Energy Star Version 5.0 database for computers is the data source for energy consumption
in the use phase. 6 The same pattern of utilisation in the use phase was assumed in all scenarios.
End-of-life
For Scenario 1 (EuP Lot 3) the dataset for notebook disposal was taken from the EuP Lot 3
preparatory study. Scenarios 2 and 3 were based on the corresponding dataset from EcoInvent
2.2: This characterises manual pretreatment followed by mechanical aftertreatment (shredding)
of a notebook plus refining the metal fractions in metallurgical facilities. This combination of
process steps recovers base metals such aluminium (Al), copper (Cu) and iron (Fe), and also
recovers around 40% of the precious metals gold (Au), silver (Ag) and palladium (Pd).
ProBas database is not a citable source, but is rather designed to provide a library
giving interested users the simplest possible access to the datasets via the Internet.
6
http://www.energystar.gov/index.cfm?fuseaction=find_a_product.showProductGroup&pgw_code=CO; accessed
August 2010
4Timely replacement of a notebook under consideration of environmental aspects
A fourth scenario was defined for the disposal phase in addition to the other three scenarios.
The only difference from Scenario 3 is in the recovery rate of the three precious metals (gold,
silver and palladium). 7 It is assumed here that the precious metals can be recovered with
substantially greater efficiency by optimising recycling technology and infrastructure. The
reason for defining a fourth scenario is that primary extraction of precious metals is associated
with far greater environmental impacts than their secondary extraction (Prakash and Manhart
2010, Hagelüken and Buchert 2008). The rising demand for resources – driven partly by the
ever shorter lifetimes of consumer goods – increases the pressure on primary extraction and
leads to many adverse environmental effects. If it were possible to recover the bulk of the
precious metals by optimising recycling technology and infrastructure, the pressure on primary
extraction could be reduced to a certain extent. This prevention of environmental impacts
arising from primary extraction is assigned a credit in the inventory analysis. The purpose of
the fourth scenario is to determine what influence optimised recovery rates have upon the
optimal notebook replacement period.
The fourth scenario is based on the same data for production, transport, shopping trip and use
as Scenario 3. End-of-life management in the fourth scenario is termed “Best practice” in the
present study, and that in the second and third scenario is termed “Business-as-usual”. 8
Section 3 describes the detailed modelling of the individual life cycle phases for all scenarios.
7
See Section 3.5.2
8
It should be noted that the term “Best practice”, which is used here to refer to highly
efficient recovery of the three precious metals gold, silver and palladium, is used in a
very specific sense for the purposes of this study and only has orientative character. In
reality, high-tech facilities are capable of recovering up to 17 different precious and
rare metals from electroscrap. The study is restricted to gold, silver and palladium
recovery solely for reasons of data availability. It can therefore be assumed that the
potential to reduce global warming impact by means of secondary extraction of
notebook metals in high-tech facilities is in fact significantly greater than the figures
calculated in this study. Moreover, a comprehensive analysis would need to also take
account of further environmental effects such as acidification, eutrophication,
biodiversity loss etc., as well as social impacts.
5Timely replacement of a notebook under consideration of environmental aspects
The following Table 1 summarises the four scenarios:
Table 1: Overview of data sources and assumptions for the scenarios studied 9
Transport (distribution
Scena- to wholesalers + to
rio No. Production retailers) Shopping trip Use End-of-life
Calculated
Calculated following Calculated following
1 following EuP
EuP Lot 3 EuP Lot 3
Lot 3
Calculated in accordance with data from In Business-as-
2
EcoInvent 2.2 accordance usual
Assumptions:
Calculated in accordance with data from Assumptions: with the
1) Production sites ->
UBA R&D project (UFOPLAN 2009) (for 10 km round utilisation Business-as-
3 airport: truck: 500 km
display module and ICs) + EcoInvent 2.2 trip by car profile of usual
2) Flight: Shanghai -> Energy Star
(other components) 10
Warsaw: 8000 km Version 5.0
Calculated in accordance with data from
3) Distribution to retailers:
UBA R&D project (UFOPLAN 2009) (for truck: 1000 km
4 Best practice
display module and ICs) + EcoInvent 2.2
(other components)8
2.2.2 Function and functional unit
The functions of the system studied reflect the functional properties expected of a product. The
functions were to be equivalent for all variants studied. 11 The data sources used in the present
study (EuP Lot 3, EcoInvent 2.2 and UBA R&D project (UFOPLAN 2009)) to determine the
optimal replacement period for a notebook refer to different notebook configurations and
technical specifications (see Table 2). However, the function of different notebook variants is
considered to be equivalent.
9
A uniform use phase was taken for all scenarios, in order to gain a clearer picture of
differences in the assessment of the production phase.
10
Including consumption in production processes
11
Deviations must be explained and compensated where appropriate. According to
ISO 14040 2006, a functional unit provides a quantified reference to which the inputs
and outputs in an LCA can be related and on the basis of which different variants can
be compared.
6Timely replacement of a notebook under consideration of environmental aspects
Table 2: Notebook specifications in EuP Lot 3, EcoInvent 2.2 and UBA R&D project (UFOPLAN 2009)
EcoInvent 2.2 EuP Lot 3 UBA R&D project (UFOPLAN 2009)
CPU Pentium 3, 600 MHz 1.7 GHz Pentium 3, 600MHz 12
HDD 10 GB HDD 60 GB HDD 10 GB HDD9
Memory IC 128 MB RAM 512 MB RAM 8 GB
Display size 12.1″ 15″ 15.4″
Weight 3.15 kg (with packaging) 3.7 kg (with packaging) 3.3 (with packaging)
2.17kg (without packaging) 2.8 kg (without packaging) 2.4 (without packaging) 13
Reference year 2005 2005 2000-2010
It should be stressed that the goal of the study is not to produce a comparative LCA of different
notebooks, but rather to determine, on the basis of a range of data sources, the best point in
time in environmental terms to replace a notebook. The configuration of the notebook in
Scenarios 3 and 4 is therefore a fictitious assumption – it does, however, correspond to the
configuration of a typical notebook. The procedure adopted for this LCA study follows ISO
14040/44 (2006), but only examines one impact category, namely Global Warming Potential
(GWP). This is purposeful because GWP correlates directly with energy consumption in both the
use and production phases. Due to poor data availability, it was not possible in the context of
the present study to consider further impact categories such as acidification and eutrophication
potential, photochemical oxidant formation and ecotoxicity. A previous LCA study of the
recycling of Ni-MH batteries has shown that recycling makes only a modest contribution to
reducing climate impact (Öko-Institut 2010). That study found that recycling, on the other
hand, makes a very major contribution to reducing acidification and eutrophication. Toxic
emissions of mining and ore upgrading are also prevented. These effects can also be expected
for the Li-ion rechargeable batteries used in mobile ICT devices such as notebooks.
The functional unit is defined as 1 notebook over its entire useful lifetime. The lifetime of all
notebooks studied was taken to be 5 years. It was assumed that during this period the
notebooks operate without malfunction and without replacement of spare parts, and that no
repairs are necessary.
12
Taken from EcoInvent 2.2
13
The weight of the display and memory ICs (from UBA R&D project UFOPLAN 2009)
and the weight of other components (from EcoInvent 2.2) were added.
7Timely replacement of a notebook under consideration of environmental aspects
2.2.3 Definition of system boundaries
The system boundary of the four scenarios examined in this study is characterised as follows
(Figure 1):
System boundary: Cradle to grave
Scenario 1 Scenario 2 Scenario 3 Scenario 4 Life cycle phase
UBA R&D UBA R&D
EuP Lot3 EcoInvent2.2 project + project + Notebook production
EcoInvent 2.2 EcoInvent 2.2
EuP Lot3 Truck+flight Truck+flight Truck+flight Distribution
10 km round 10 km round 10 km round 10 km round
trip by car trip by car trip by car trip by car Shopping trip
Energy Star® Energy Star® Energy Star® Energy Star®
Version 5.0 Version 5.0 Version 5.0 Version 5.0 Use
Business-as- Business-as-
EuP Lot3 Best practice End of life
usual usual
Figure 1: System boundary of the scenarios examined
Aspects not taken into account are described in the following:
• Different specifications and functions of the new notebook are beyond the scope
of the study.
• The production and disposal of capital equipment is generally not covered (e.g.
energy and material required to produce facilities or trucks).
• Furthermore, the secondary data taken from EcoInvent 2.2 (2010) and EuP Lot 3
(2005) as well as the UBA R&D project (UFOPLAN 2009) (Prakash et al. 2011) are
not documented in detail in the present study. The detailed documentation of
these data can be found in the corresponding original sources.
• For the end-of-life phase, only disposal and metal recycling are considered. Reuse
is beyond the system boundary of this study.
• This study does not consider other environmental effects such as acidification,
eutrophication, other resource consumption, biodiversity loss and social impacts.
2.2.4 Impact categories considered
In accordance with the purpose and scope of this study, the impact assessment only considers
Global Warming Potential (GWP).
8Timely replacement of a notebook under consideration of environmental aspects
3 Data sources
3.1 Production phase
The production phases of the four scenarios characterised are modelled on the basis of three
different data sources (Table 3).
Table 3: Data sources used for production phases
Scenario Data sources for notebook production
1 EuP Lot 3
2 EcoInvent 2.2
3 UBA R&D project (UFOPLAN 2009) (for production of display module and ICs) + EcoInvent 2.2 (other
components+ production inputs of a notebook)
4 UBA R&D project (UFOPLAN 2009) (for production of display module and ICs) + EcoInvent 2.2 (other
components + production inputs of a notebook)
EuP Lot 3
In the context of the Energy-using Products (EuP) Directive 2009/125/EC process, the European
Commission generally contracts a preparatory study for each product group stipulated in the
Working Plan. 14 The purpose of the studies is to create a basis (statutory setting, technical data,
sales figures, environmental performance etc.) for designing suitable implementing measures.
One of these preparatory studies (Lot 3) was concerned with desktop and notebook PCs and
monitors, and was published in 2007. 15 Table 4 lists the material composition examined in the
EuP Lot 3 preparatory study. The list applies to the notebooks sold most in 2005, with 15 ″ LCD
displays and a weight of 2.8 kg (without packaging) (EuP 2007). The reference unit of this
dataset is 1 produced notebook with a weight of 3.8 kg (including packaging).
Table 4: Material composition for notebooks (2007 EuP study)
Materials (incl. packaging) Weight [g]
LDPE 43
PP 4
PS 3
EPS 50
14
In preparation for a Working Plan, the contractors of the study contracted by the
European Commission draft a list of product groups which, in their view, should be
treated next within the EuP Directive process. The Commission published the Working
Plan for 2009–2011 in October 2008. The study for the new post-2011 Working Plan
commenced in November 2010 (www.eup-network.de).
15
European Commission DG TREN, Preparatory studies for Eco-design Requirements of
EuPs (Contract TREN/D1/40-2005/LOT3/S07.56313): Lot 3 Personal Computers (desktops
and laptops) and Computer Monitors Final Report (Task 1-8)
9Timely replacement of a notebook under consideration of environmental aspects
Materials (incl. packaging) Weight [g]
PVC 23
ABS 142
PA 6 281
PC 267
PMMA 36
Epoxy 3
Steel sheet galvanised 489
Al sheet /extrusion 38
Cu wire 60
Cu tube /sheet 15
MgZn5 cast 122
LCD screen m2 (viewable screen size) 63
Big caps & coils* 501
Slots / ext. Ports 133
Integrated circuits, 5% silicon, Au 47
Integrated circuits, 1% silicon 31
SMD & LEDs avg. 50
PWB 1/2 lay 3.75 kg/m2 5
PWB 6 lay 4.5kg/m2 77
Solder SnAg4Cu0.5 7
Glass for lamps 1
Cardboard 921
Glass for LCD 362
Total 3774
* “Big Caps & Coils” were modelled in the EuP Lot 3 preparatory study as a simplified reference for the production of the rechargeable lithium-
ion battery. The weight thus refers to the weight of the lithium-ion battery.
EcoInvent 2.2
The EcoInvent database characterises an Omnibook 500 notebook from Hewlett Packard (HP)
for the period from 2001 to 2006 (Lehmann and Hischier 2007). The datasets of the associated
lithium-ion battery and the LCD display module were updated in 2010 (EcoInvent 2.2 Report
No.16 2010). The production of the notebook considered here comprises the entire production
chain, i.e. the production of the individual components, the upstream material production and
processing chains, assembly, the associated transportation and the packaging. This production
dataset includes the disposal of a notebook and of its packaging. Therefore, to determine
production input for the purposes of the present study, the share of disposal and transportation
of the final product was deducted in order to arrive at the purely production-related GWP
value (Section 4.1.2). The reference unit of this dataset is 1 produced notebook. As EcoInvent is
a commercial database whose use incurs a charge, the detailed input and output data cannot
be presented in publicly accessible publications.
UBA R&D project (UFOPLAN 2009)
A project (funding code: FKZ 3709 95 308) conducted within the UFOPLAN 2009 research
programme of the German Federal Environment Agency (Umweltbundesamt, UBA)4 generated
10Timely replacement of a notebook under consideration of environmental aspects
datasets for two components – a display module and integrated circuits (memory ICs) of a
notebook – with the aim of publishing these in the ProBas database (Prakash et al. 2011).
The dataset for the display module is based on an Environmental Product Declaration (EPD) of
the Taiwanese company CMO. 16 The copper production data reported in that EPD were
corrected by Prakash et al. 2011.
The system boundary of the dataset of this display module is cradle to gate. This means that it
comprises resource extraction, production of materials and intermediate products, fabrication
processes and the transport of goods to the CMO factory. Along this life cycle chain, the display
module generates 35.11 kg CO2e emissions per display with a size of 15.4 ″ an d a w eig h t of
530
g.
To calculate the transportation associated with a display module ex works to the final assembly
of a notebook, 6,250 km by air is assumed. This distance is the average between Asia-Asia
transport (approx. 2,500 km) and USA-Asia transport (10,000 km).
The dataset for integrated circuits (ICs) is limited to their direct production phases. The direct
production input of energy and materials was determined in Prakash et al. (2011) without the
related upstream chains. Furthermore, presentation of the IC datasets in ProBas differentiates
between front-end and back-end processes. The IC datasets are therefore presented in ProBas
with different reference units (Table 5).
Table 5: Overview of the IC datasets published in ProBas (Prakash et al. 2011)
No. Dataset name in ProBas Reference unit Notes
1. Silizium Wafer Herstellung 1 cm polished
2
Partly with upstream chains. The upstream chains of
(Silicon wafer production) silicon wafer hydrogen chloride, graphite and electrical energy are not
included.
2. IC-Fertigung Front-End- 1 cm2 finished Without upstream chain. However, the additional input
Prozess\”Wafer Out” wafer out factors for the production of high-purity process chemicals
(IC fabrication front-end are characterised.
process \ “wafer out”)
3. IC-Fertigung Front-End- 1 cm2 defect-free Without upstream chain. However, the additional input
Prozess\”Good Die Out” die out factors for the production of high-purity process chemicals
(IC fabrication front-end are characterised.
process \ “good die out”)
16
Chi Mei Optoelectronics (CMO) is a part of the Chi Mei Corporation. CMO achieved a
turnover of 9.9 billion US dollars in 2007. In March 2010, several companies – Innolux
Display Corp., Chi Mei Optoelectronics and TPO Displays Corp. – merged to form the
new company named Chimei Innolux Corporation. Its key products are liquid crystal
displays (LCD) and panels for televisions and desktop and notebook PCs, which are
assembled by OEMs worldwide in their products. Alongside AU Optronics Corporation
(AUO), LG Display and Samsung, Chimei Innolux numbers among the largest
manufacturers of liquid crystal displays using thin film transistor (TFT) technology.
11Timely replacement of a notebook under consideration of environmental aspects
4. IC-Fertigung Back-End- 1 memory IC Without upstream chain
Prozess
(IC fabrication back-end
process)
The IC dataset generated by the UBA R&D projects (UFOPLAN 2009) and imported into ProBas
relates to a specific IC from the Samsung company with 1 GB (gigabyte) DDR3 (Double Data
Rate 3) Dynamic Random Access Memory (DRAM) with a FBGA (Fine Pitch Ball Grid Array)
packaging type. The unencapsulated area is 43 mm2 and the encapsulated finished product
weighs 0.162 g (Prakash et al. 2011). In order to link the front-end processes and silicon wafer
production, the principal material flows (silicon flows) are required. Figure 2 illustrates the
principal processes and flows.
In consequence, the upstream chain used for IC datasets in the present study is documented
and explained in the following sequence:
1. Silicon wafer production
2. Front-end processes for IC fabrication
3. Back-end processes for IC fabrication
4. Transport of IC between silicon wafer production and front-end process; between
front-end process and back-end process; between back-end process and notebook
assembly.
Silicon wafer
production
59.3 mm² silicon wafer
IC fabrication: front-
end process
43mm² unencapsulated chip (“good die out”)
IC fabrication:
back-end process
1 memory IC (1GB) with 43 mm² area
Figure 2: Principal material flows (silicon flows) associated with IC fabrication
12Timely replacement of a notebook under consideration of environmental aspects
Silicon wafer production
As Table 5 shows, the silicon wafer production dataset contains the upstream chains associated
with the supply of the respective intermediate products, with the exception of electricity supply
and graphite and hydrogen chloride production. Because energy consumption is the critical
factor for the purposes of the present study, the average electricity mix is determined on the
basis of the worldwide distribution of silicon wafer production. According to our own
estimates, production is distributed among countries as shown in Table 6. The country-specific
emission factors are attached as an annex (Table 42) to this report. The input and output data
for silicon wafer production are listed in Table 43. The sources of these data are documented in
Prakash et al. (2011).
Table 6: Distribution of silicon wafer production among countries (own estimates)
Distribution of silicon wafer production among countries Proportion
Japan 66%
Germany 12.5%
USA 8.5%
Korea 8.5%
Singapore 4%
Total 100%
Table 7: Secondary data used for the upstream chain of silicon wafer production
Spatial Temporal
Description of inputs Processes Database Datasets reference reference
Upstream chain: Xtra mining\silica DE-
Silicon dioxide extraction from silica GEMIS 4.6 2010 Germany 2010
Upstream chain: 2000–
Electrode material production ProBas 17 Graphite Europe 2004
Hydrogen chloride from
Hydrogen chloride Upstream chain: the reaction of chlorine
(HCl) production EcoInvent 2.2 with hydrogen, ex works Europe 1997–2000
Front-end processes for IC fabrication
The dataset generated by the UBA R&D projects (UFOPLAN 2009)and imported into ProBas for
the front-end process exclusively comprises direct production processes, i.e. starting from the
silicon wafer as source and extending to the final production of a defect-free unencapsulated IC
(“good die out”). The electricity mix is determined and modelled using a worldwide average
17
Öko-Institut 2005,
http://www.probas.umweltbundesamt.de/php/volltextsuche.php?&prozessid={5F5B8E83
-F37B-4B7E-A4C5-A33A19A64F0B}&id=1&step=1&search=Graphit&b=1
13Timely replacement of a notebook under consideration of environmental aspects
according to the distribution of front-end processes among countries (Table 8). The country-
specific emission factors are listed in an annex (Table 42) to this report.
Table 8: Distribution of front-end processes among countries (own estimates)
Proportio
Distribution of front-end processes among countries n
USA 15%
Europe 8%
Japan 23%
Korea 14%
Taiwan 23%
China 8%
Singapore 9%
Total 100%
Many high-purity chemicals are used in IC fabrication. Higgs et al. (2010) have examined the
additional energy consumption attributable to the purification processes. The factors thus
determined are compiled in Prakash et al. (2011) and are listed in the annex to this report
(Table 47). The following Table 9 documents the secondary data used in the present study to
model the front-end processes.
Table 9: Secondary data used for IC front-end processes
Spatial Temporal
Processes Database Datasets + source reference reference
Silicon wafer ProBas Silicon wafer production World mix 2000–2002
Elementary gases and chemicals
Xtra-generic\N2 (gaseous) + factor for
N2 (high-purity) GEMIS 4.6 high-purity (Higgs et al. 2010) Germany 2000
Xtra-generic\O2 (gaseous) + factor for
O2 (high-purity) GEMIS 4.6 high-purity (Higgs et al. 2010) Germany 2000
Xtra-generic\Argon-DE-2005 + factor
Ar (argon) (high-purity) GEMIS 4.6 for high-purity (Higgs et al. 2010) Germany 2005
Chem-inorg\H2 chemical + factor for
H2 (high-purity) GEMIS 4.6 high-purity (Higgs et al. 2010) Germany 2000
Sulphuric acid, liquid, ex works + factor
Sulphuric acid (high-purity) EcoInvent 2.2 for high-purity (Higgs et al. 2010) Europe 2001
Phosphoric acid (high- Chem-inorg\phosphoric acid + factor
purity) GEMIS 4.6 for high-purity (Higgs et al. 2010) Germany 2000
Chem-inorg\hydrogen peroxide +
Hydrogen peroxide (high- factor for high-purity (Higgs et al.
purity) GEMIS 4.6 2010) Germany 2000
2-propanol
(C 3 H 8 O)/isopropyl alcohol Chem-org\2-propanol + factor for high-
(IPA) (high-purity) GEMIS 4.6 purity (Higgs et al. 2010) Germany 2005
Ammonium hydroxide (high- Chem-inorg\ammonia-DE-2010 + factor
purity) GEMIS 4.6 for high-purity (Higgs et al. 2010) Germany 2010
Hydrofluoric acid (high- Hydrofluoric acid, ex works + factor for
purity) EcoInvent 2.2 high-purity (Higgs et al. 2010) Germany 1979–2006
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