UNDERSTANDING THE HUMAN HEALTH AND SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS FROM THE DEEPWATER HORIZON OIL SPILL - Mississippi-Alabama ...
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SYNTHESIS SERIES
UNDERSTANDING THE HUMAN HEALTH The purpose of this publication
is to exclusively reflect findings
AND SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS FROM from synthesis activities
supported by the Gulf of
THE DEEPWATER HORIZON OIL SPILL Mexico Research Initiative
Melissa Partyka, Danielle Bailey, Emily Maung-Douglass, Stephen Sempier, (GoMRI). GoMRI synthesis
Tara Skelton, and Monica Wilson documents are the primary
references for this publication.
The summary may also include
The Deepwater Horizon oil spill was the largest marine oil spill peer-reviewed publications
in the history of the United States. Though the impacts to the and other reports cited in the
environment have been well documented and studied extensively, GoMRI synthesis activities that
widespread consequences to humans also took place. Human help to provide foundation
for the topic.
impacts recorded over the past 10 years include physical and
mental health effects along with socioeconomic and community
resilience challenges. However, in many cases clear cause-and-
effect relationships between the spill and the impacts are absent.
INTRODUCTION the closure of 89 beaches, while as exceeding 100,000 barrels
The Deepwater Horizon (DWH) oiling of surface waters resulted in (420,000 gallons) of oil. Large oil
oil spill began on April 20, 2010, the closure of nearly 89,000 square spills are very rare; however, they
approximately 50 miles off the coast miles of federal waters to fishing. can negatively impact the health
of Louisiana and continued for 87 of those responding to the spill
Large oil spills, like DWH, are
days. Oil from the spill impacted and residents of impacted areas,
defined by the National Oceanic and
1,313 miles of coastline, leading to in addition to affecting the general
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
welfare of coastal communities
(Figure 1a). In the case of DWH,
the explosion of the oil platform
that preceded the spill also led
to the deaths of 11 oil industry
workers. Over the following days,
months, and years, the impacts
of DWH were observed for some
individuals, families, businesses,
and communities. These impacts
A fishing boat serves as a vessel
of opportunity in oil spill response
by pulling an oil boom. (National
Commission on the BP Deepwater
Horizon oil spill)
deepened the negative effects of Impacts to oil spill workers The GuLF (Gulf Long-term Follow Up)
previous disasters in the Gulf, such Two of the largest studies on human STUDY, conducted by the National
as Hurricanes Katrina and Rita in health following DWH are ongoing. Institute of Environmental Health
2005.b These studies examine the impacts Sciences (NIEHS), is a long-term
HEALTH IMPACTS OF THE to oil spill workers. Oil spill workers study that uses data on exposure
SPILL can be described as professional and health outcomes drawn from
Human health studies following the responders (such as U.S. Coast surveys, home visits, and other
DWH spill are the largest of their Guard personnel), trained lay clinical data as well as worker
kind in history, and many are still persons (for example, fishers hired access to mental health services.1
underway. Though much remains to help in response), or community This study includes 32,608 people,
to be understood about long-term volunteers who have received 25,000 of whom actually worked
effects, research studies conducted some or no additional training. on the oil spill, while the more than
in the immediate aftermath of These workers can encounter a 7,000 remaining were non-oil spill
the spill provide scientists with variety of health hazards, including workers (meaning people who were
valuable information about risks to physical exposure to oil, fumes from trained but not hired) for contrast.
oil response workers and coastal burning oil, oil spill chemicals such Another large study on oil spill
residents. These health impacts as dispersants and cleaning agents, workers is the U.S. Coast Guard
may be from not only from physical as well as other work stressors (USCG) Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill
exposure to chemicals but also like high heat and humidity, long study.2 This study includes 53,519
come from the social and economic working hours, and physical and USCG personnel, 8,696 of whom
disturbances caused by the spill. psychological strain. responded to the spill and 44,823
FIGURE 1. Studies of nine large oil spills showed a myriad of impacts on humans, with the following populations showing the
most vulnerability: people dependent on natural resources; response and cleanup workers; people living in close proximity to
the spill; children, pregnant women, and the elderly; and people with chronic health issues. (Adapted from Sandifer et al., 2020)
2
who did not, to provide comparison. every chemical in oil and symptoms
The teams from both studies have were generally self-reported, these
collaborated and are attempting impacts cannot be directly linked to
to determine long-term effects the oil spill or any specific chemical
of exposure to oil and oil cleanup in the crude oil.b
chemicals through primary pathways In contrast to the GuLF Study, the A child chases waves
like inhalation and skin contact.b researchers of the USCG study on a Gulf beach years
after oil from the
The goal of the GuLF STUDY is to gained access to baseline health data Deepwater Horizon oil
quantify exposure of oil spill workers for its participants, since medical spill washed ashore.
to two potentially toxic components data are available for all active-du- (M. Partyka)
of oil: total hydrocarbons (THC), ty USCG members from before the
a group of volatile oil-based spill through the present.2 Access
chemicals, and another group of to baseline data allows researchers
ing DWH.5 However, no reported
chemicals associated with cancer to study changes in the health of
increases in cases of miscarriage or
risks called BTEX-H (benzene, workers after they were involved
infertility in women from southeast-
toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene, in cleanup work. Results from this
ern Louisiana, a population that lived
hexane). Scientists measured study indicate that exposure to
closest to the spill, emerged after
both THC and BTEX-H levels by crude oil and oil spill chemicals cor-
DWH.6 This is not to say there were
air sampling and used the results related to multiple symptoms includ-
no reports of negative health effects
to estimate the potential toxic ing respiratory distress, headaches,
following the spill. Women physically
effects to oil spill workers over blurred vision, skin irritation, and
exposed to the spill or who experi-
time. Results of air sampling were even heart disease in some workers.b
enced economic impacts, such as
mixed. Based on available data, it These impacts were identified even
job loss or reduced wages, reported
appears that exposure of workers though health protection protocols,
other symptoms like wheezing or
to concentrations of oil-based including using personal protective
irritated eyes and noses.7
chemicals were low compared to equipment (PPE), were in place. This
current occupational exposure finding indicates that more work is Children, if exposed to oil, are also
standards.3 However, another study needed to both improve PPE and its more vulnerable because of their
conducted from May 1, 2010 to proper use to protect oil spill work- higher breathing and metabolic
September 30, 2010, measured ers in the future.b rates, their developing immune
coastal air quality for benzene (the Health impacts to non-oil spill and hormonal systems, as well as
B in BTEX-H) and fine particulate workers and children their behavior during inquisitive
matter (also called PM2.5 ).4 According play.8 Coastal residents and visitors
to this second study, onshore Oil spill impacts to humans are less were particularly concerned about
concentrations were generally higher studied than environmental impacts, young children encountering oil
following the spill, with benzene and physical health effects are more chemicals while playing at Gulf
concentrations 2 to 19 times researched among spill workers than beaches. Children’s play habits on
higher and PM2.5 concentrations in other groups of people.b In fact, the beach involve close contact
10 to 45 times higher than pre- partly because large oil spills are so with sand, including the potential
spill samples. Both measurements rare in the United States, much of for ingesting sand and water as
were high enough to exceed public what researchers know about im- they dig, bury themselves, and sit in
health criteria in places near oil spill pacts to non-oil spill workers comes shallow water.9 These behaviors had
cleanup activities. Initial results of from studies in other countries.b not been quantified prior to DWH.
the GuLF STUDY found an increase Some previous studies in other To help understand the potential
of cases of heart disease and countries showed reproductive health risks to children, researchers
reduced lung function in some oil health effects for people exposed conducted a series of experiments
spill workers compared to non-oil to chemicals in crude oil. This led to at multiple beaches in Texas and
spill workers. However, because concerns about potential impacts to Florida not impacted by DWH. These
air quality samples did not test for pregnant women in the Gulf follow- experiments included watching
3
play behavior and measuring the health effects from any incidental problems (respiratory symptoms,
amount of sand stuck to children exposure.b eye and/or vision issues, skin
after playing for a set time. Though However, children were still impacted problems, headaches, or unusual
research is ongoing, initial results by DWH. Based on health status bleeding) were worse in children
indicate that children who played reports for children four, six, and from households that experienced
at beaches that were cleaned of oil eight years after the spill, overall physical exposure to the spill or
are unlikely to experience negative health and recent physical health economic losses related to the spill.8
WHAT DOES RISK MEAN? entered the body; and gauge how the body responds
to that dose.b The result is an estimate of risk typically
Thousands of chemicals can be found in crude oils,
provided in units of probability (Figure 2). Risk prob-
and some of them are potentially toxic to humans
ability is the likelihood of an individual or groups of
when inhaled, ingested, or absorbed through human
individuals becoming ill given the concentration, ex-
skin. Following DWH many people expressed concern
posure time, and dose of a chemical people encounter.
about the risk or likelihood of illness to themselves
Probabilities do not guarantee illness nor protection
and their families while working outside, eating sea-
from illness.
food, or playing at the beach. To address these con-
cerns scientists conducted air, seafood, water, and It is not possible for scientists to sample everywhere,
beach sand sampling for chemicals in oil and disper- so they use models to estimate concentrations of
sants that could be toxic to humans.9 But the question chemicals in multiple locations. Scientists must also
of risk to individuals is difficult to answer; here is why. consider the variety of ways that different groups of
people can come in contact with these chemicals.
Individual risk can be estimated through a risk assess-
For example, oil spill workers cleaning up oil on the
ment. Risk assessments are developed by scientists
beach have different chemical exposure rates than
that assign a number to risk factors and outcomes.
recreational beach goers. The next step is to deter-
Researchers identify hazardous chemicals and their
mine the dose of the chemical and whether the body’s
concentrations in the environment; evaluate how
response is either likely to be acute or chronic. Acute
someone may have been exposed by ingesting, inhal-
responses, such as a cough or skin reaction, might
ing, or touching a chemical; determine the dose that
be noticed rapidly, but chronic
responses, like some cancers,
might take years to develop.
These responses can vary in se-
verity and are different for each
individual depending on many
factors such as overall health,
access to care, and underlying
conditions.
FIGURE 2. This visualization
shows some of the steps involved
in identifying and modeling human
risk following an oil spill: 1) source
of oil chemicals, 2) reduction in
the concentration of chemicals
during transport or movement of
the chemical through the envi-
ronment, 3) potential exposure to
chemical during various activities,
and 4) the probability of impact
from chemicals based on the dose
and underlying health conditions.
(Anna Hinkeldey)
4
Impacts were more common in
African American children and those IF THEY CATCH IT, WILL YOU EAT IT?
from low-income households.b After over 22,000 samples and months of testing, federal and state
authorities determined that Gulf seafood was safe for human consump-
Mental health impacts
tion.12-13 Though researchers have pointed out the need for improvements
Human health impacts from an in the current seafood testing program, including testing for additional hy-
oil spill are not limited to physical drocarbons and their potential toxic effects on consumers,14 independent
illnesses. Multiple studies have studies supported the results from federal response. None of the studies
found that mental and physical found an increased risk from consuming Gulf seafood in the months and
health are closely related during years after the oil spill.b However, consumers continued to worry about
disasters, in part because seafood safety, even years later. While debate between researchers con-
environmental contamination tinues about why this was the case, most agree that risk communication
can cause significant stress.a about eating seafood from the Gulf was the main cause.13 In the future,
However, the mental health health experts recommend that any assessment of seafood safety should
impacts experienced by individuals be followed by plain language notices about risks to consumers. These
following major disasters have been notices should target people from many different backgrounds, cultures,
understudied compared to other ages, and ethnicities followed by regular updates.b To learn more about
health aspects, and the evidence of the seafood testing programs put in place after the oil spill, read The
mental health distress associated Deepwater Horizon oil spill’s impact on Gulf seafood.
with the DWH oil spill is mixed.b
The results of two large research
surveys in the Gulf Coast region fishing, tourism, and transportation chances of contaminated seafood
suggest few changes in mental or sectors, among others. Though entering markets and restaurants,
behavioral health overall followed studies have been conducted on the seafood sector, and the associ-
DWH.10 However, results across these impacts, researchers have ated tourism trade, was negatively
a range of other, smaller studies found that closer study of additional impacted for years after the spill.b
targeting specific communities socioeconomic variables could help
Scientists estimated large economic
indicate increased reports from assess the value of other resources
losses in the fisheries sector, which
individuals of symptoms consistent for impacted communities, including
includes commercial and recreation-
with depression, anxiety, and post- cultural identity, attitudes, and
al fishing as well as marine aquacul-
traumatic stress.b This may indicate social ties.b
ture. Initial estimates of losses to the
that members of some communities Fisheries and tourism sector commercial and recreational fishing
are more vulnerable to negative impacts industries were $4.9 billion and $3.5
mental health impacts following billion, respectively.15 The commer-
At the time of the spill, Gulf fisher-
oil spills. For example, community cial shrimping impacts accounted
ies accounted for around 16% of all
members with ties to the fishing for almost 85% of the projected
the fish caught in the U.S.,11 fuel-
industry were more likely than impacts. One set of analyses found
ing concerns of Gulf residents and
non-fishers to report a decline in that consumers were likely to transi-
non-residents about the safety of
mental health. To learn more about tion to farmed shrimp to satisfy de-
the nation’s seafood supply. In antic-
how oil spills and other disasters mand, which would further harm the
ipation of potential contamination,
can impact the mental health of wild-caught shrimping industry.16
the federal government announced
communities, read The Deepwater However, 10 years after the spill
emergency fishery closures in
Horizon’s impact on people’s health: research is still ongoing to fully un-
combination with a rigorous testing
Increases in stress and anxiety. derstand the true economic impacts
program. By the height of the spill in
early June, nearly 37% of federal wa- across the diverse fishing sector.b
THE SOCIOECONOMIC
IMPACTS TO INDUSTRIES ters in the Gulf of Mexico Exclusive Misperception of the actual damage
AND COMMUNITIES Economic Zone were closed to fish- following the spill along with
The DWH spill resulted in numerous ing.12 Though widespread fisheries confusion about potential risks to
socioeconomic impacts, affecting closures following DWH reduced the the public contributed to negative
5financial impacts to multiple opment, social relationships, access are poorly studied for oil spill work-
industries, including tourism. One to information, and communication ers, their families, and others who
report demonstrated that the with those in authority.10 These may be exposed to or affected by
public was unaware of locations studies found that, though the spill them.b Additionally, special attention
and extent of damage from the oil. resulted in differing economic im- should be paid to vulnerable people,
For example, of the non-residents pacts across fisheries, tourism, and including individuals with chronic
surveyed, 44% believed the oil spill oil and gas sectors, the impacts were illness or who suffer from healthcare
caused damages similar to those primarily short-term. However, at the and economic disparities.b
seen following Hurricane Katrina, household level, and particularly in Clear human health findings have
and 29% of tourists canceled or poorer households, financial impacts been limited by a lack of baseline
postponed planned trips to Louisiana were still being felt years later. Fur- health data from before the oil
due to the spill.17 The tourism and ther, community well-being showed spill.a Additionally, long delays in
recreation industries received about signs of distress related to the spill implementing major health research
$147 million in paid claims spanning across multiple studies. Much of activities following the spill, heavy
23 different types of businesses, the reported distress appeared to reliance on self-reported data,
such as airlines, aquaria, water be related to economic uncertainty limited collection of clinical health
sports, and more. Restaurants, and mistrust in the compensation information, and a small number
lodging, and retail operations processes put in place to specifically of long-term studies make it
claimed a further 3.5 billion dollars alleviate economic distress.b To learn difficult for researchers to establish
in loss.b An important finding from more about how to help to make our connections between symptoms
these reports and studies is that communities more resilient to future experienced by some oil spill workers
consumer perception matters and disasters, read Creating healthy and coastal residents and DWH.b In
is an important driver of economic communities to overcome oil spill the future, researchers recommend
impact and recovery.b disasters. that health studies be initiated
Community Resilience before, during, and/or immediately
CURRENT GAPS AND
FUTURE OPPORTUNITIES following a large spill and continue
Resilience can be defined many
long enough to identify long-term
ways, but scientists that studied A range of mental and physical
effects and potentially secondary
the human impacts of DWH typical- health impacts have been attributed
waves of chronic illnesses.b
ly define it to mean the ability of a to oil spills in general and the DWH
community to adapt to change and specifically, but in most cases clear Need for a community health
learn from past experiences.b Re- cause-and-effect relationships are observing system
searchers looked at different factors absent. Overall, researchers have Environmental disasters of various
that improved resilience in Gulf com- found that mental and physical kinds and magnitudes occur
munities, including economic devel- health effects and their interactions regularly in the Gulf region, with one
Fishing boats serving as vessels of opportunity pull oil into a fire boom. (USCG)
6often following another. Recurring health impacts. They have proposed nomic disparities). The information
disasters can take a toll on human a framework for a community collected through the CHOS, if im-
health in the region, particularly in health observing system (CHOS) for plemented, will be used primarily by
communities that already suffer the Gulf of Mexico region.a public health and medical profes-
significant health and economic sionals, emergency managers and
The CHOS would build upon and
disparities.b Previous studies of responders, and researchers. The
leverage existing, ongoing nation-
health impacts following disasters in analysis of these data could then
al health surveys while including
the Gulf demonstrated the need for be used to assess disaster-related
new long-term studies designed to
baseline health information to study health effects; enhance disaster
identify and describe disaster-as-
the effects of disasters.a However, planning and response; improve
sociated health trends in the five
it became clear following DWH that protection for disaster responders
Gulf states. The goal is to target
these data are lacking. To ensure and workers; build individual and
recruitment efforts to encompass
baseline data are in place prior to community resilience; and promote
a representative sample of the
the next major disaster, scientists new clinical, biomedical, and public
Gulf region’s coastal population,
funded through the Gulf of Mexico health research and practice. Local
and specifically include people
Research Initiative (GoMRI) assert observations and monitoring will
considered vulnerable or typically
that ongoing health monitoring is need to continue indefinitely to
under-represented (for example,
essential to develop and maintain ensure long-term understanding of
ethnic minorities and those who
these types of data and to capture potential impacts.a
suffer health, healthcare, and eco-
acute, chronic, and long-term
GLOSSARY
Acute — Occurring over a short period of time, the air that are too small to see and easily inhaled.
typically less than 72 hours. Occupational exposure limits — The maximum
Chronic —Taking place over an extended period of concentration of a toxic substance a worker can be
time, typically weeks, months, or years. exposed to over a period of time without suffering
Crude oil — Naturally occurring, unrefined oil. Crude harmful effects.
oil is refined to produce a wide array of petroleum Socioeconomic impacts — Impacts to human
products (e.g., heating oils, gasoline, diesel, lubricants, populations that address both social and economic
asphalt, propane). factors.
Fine particulate matter — Solid or liquid particles in Volatile — Easily evaporated at normal temperatures.
REFERENCES
Publications resulting from the GoMRI-supported synthesis activities serve as the primary references for
this work. Additional supporting literature, either cited in GoMRI synthesis papers or necessary for foundational
information about the subject, is also included.
GoMRI synthesis publications Supporting publications
a. Sandifer, P., Knapp, L., Lichtveld, M., 1. Kwok, R. K., Engel, L. S., Miller, A. K., 3. Middlebrook, A. M., Murphy, D. M.,
Manley, R., Abramson, D., Caffey, R., Blair, A., Curry, M. D., Jackson, W. B., Ahmadov, R., Atlas, E. L., Bahreini, R.,
. . . Singer, B. H. (2020). Framework for . . . Sandler, D. P.; GuLF STUDY Research Blake, D. R., . . . Ravishankara, A. R.
a community health observing system Team. (2017). The GuLF STUDY: a (2012). Air quality implications of the
for the Gulf of Mexico region: Prepar- prospective study of persons involved Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Proceed-
ing for future disasters. Frontiers in in the Deepwater Horizon oil spill ings of the National Academy of
Public Health, 8, 588. response and clean-up. Environmental Sciences, 109(50), 20280-20285.
Health Perspectives, 125(4), 570-578. 4. Nance, E., King, D., Wright, B., & Bullard,
b. Sandifer, P.A., Ferguson, A., Finucane,
M.L., Partyka, M.L., Solo-Gabriele, H., 2. Rusiecki, J., Alexander, M., Schwartz, R. D. (2016). Ambient air concentrations
Hayward Walker, A., . . . Yoskowitz, E. G., Wang, L., Weems, L., Barrett, J., exceeded health-based standards for
D. (2021). Human health and socio- . . . Engel, L. S. (2018). The Deepwater fine particulate matter and benzene
economic effects of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill Coast Guard cohort during the Deepwater Horizon oil spill.
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Oceanography, 34(1), 50-67. Medicine, 75(3), 165-175. ment Association, 66(2), 224-236.
75. Mehri, Z.O. (2010). Gulf coast oil disaster: Impact on human
reproduction. Fertility and Sterility, 94(5), 1575-1577. ABOUT THE GoMRI/SEA GR ANT
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International Archives of Occupational and Environmental The GoMRI Research Board established Synthesis &
Health, 91(1), 47-56.
Legacy committees to review 10 years of oil spill science
7. Peres, L. C., Trapido, E., Rung, A. L., Harrington, D. J., Oral, E.,
Fang, Z., . . . Peters, E. S. (2016). The Deepwater Horizon oil spill findings. Look for Sea Grant extension publications on
and physical health among adult women in southern Louisiana: these GoMRI synthesis topics:
The women and their children’s health (WaTCH) study. Environ-
mental Health Perspectives, 124(8), 1208-1213. • Observing and modeling oil plumes and circulation
8. Slack, T., Kroeger, R. A., Stroope, S., Keating, K. S., Sury, J., • Combined ecosystem modeling
Brooks, J., . . . Beedasy, J. (2020). Deepwater Horizon oil spill
exposure and child health: A longitudinal analysis. Population • Combined oil spill modeling
and Environment, 1-24.
• How oil weathers and degrades
9. Ferguson, A., Del Donno, C., Obeng-Gyasi, E., Mena, K., Altomare,
T. K., Guerrero, R., Gidley, M., Montas, L., & Solo-Gabriele, H. M. • Ecological/ecosystem oil spill impacts
(2019). Children exposure-related behavior patterns and risk
perception associated with recreational beach use. International • Human health and socioeconomic oil spill impacts
Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(15),
2783. • Microbiology, genetics, and oil spills
10. Finucane, M. L., Clark-Ginsberg, A., Parker, A. M., Becerra-Or- • Dispersant-related impacts from oil spill response
nelas, A. U., Clancy, N., Ramchand, R., . . . Black, A. B. (2020).
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Deepwater Horizon oil spill. RAND Corporation.
11. Shepard, A. N., Valentine, J. F., D’Elia, C. F., Yoskowitz, D. W.,
Dani Bailey, Texas Sea Grant College Program,
& Dismukes, D. E. (2013). Economic impact of Gulf of Mexico danielle.bailey@tamu.edu
ecosystem goods and services and integration into restoration
decision-making. Gulf of Mexico Science, 31(1), 10-27. Emily Maung-Douglass, Louisiana Sea Grant College
12. Ylitalo, G. M., Krahn, M. M., Dickhoff, W. W., Stein, J. E., Walker, C. Program, edouglass@lsu.edu
C., Lassitter, C. L., . . . Dickey, R. W. (2012). Federal seafood safety
response to the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Proceedings of the Missy Partyka, Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant
National Academy of Sciences, 109(50), 20274-20279.
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aftermath of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Oceanography, Stephen Sempier, Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant
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Consortium, stephen.sempier@usm.edu
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assessment protocols for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Tara Skelton, Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant
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Consortium, tara.skelton@usm.edu
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L., Cheung, W., Jacquet, J., . . . Pauly, D. (2012). Impact of the
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LaDon Swann, Mississippi-Alabama Sea Grant
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16. Asche, F., Bennear ,L. S., Oglend, A., & Smith, M. D. (2012). U.S. Monica Wilson, Florida Sea Grant, UF/IFAS Extension,
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17. MDRG (Market Dynamics Research Group). (2010). Oil spill
research report. Louisiana Department of Culture and Tourism:
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port_regional_nationwide20110407.pdf
Texas • Louisiana • Florida
Mississippi-Alabama
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Special thanks to the many external reviewers who
contributed to the betterment of this oil spill science
outreach publication.
This work was made possible in part by a grant from The Gulf of
SUGGESTED CITATION Mexico Research Initiative, and in part by the Sea Grant programs of
Partyka, M., Bailey, D., Maung-Douglass, E., Sempier, Texas, Louisiana, Florida and Mississippi-Alabama. The statements,
S., Skelton, T., & Wilson, M. (2021). Understanding the findings, conclusions and recommendations do not necessarily reflect
the views of these organizations.
human health and socioeconomic impacts from the
Deepwater Horizon oil spill. GOMSG-G-21-002. GOMSG-G-21-002 MASGP-21-035 May 2021You can also read
