Epilogue The Andes, a Precious Example of a Geographical Mountain Portrait Bruno Messerli
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Epilogue
The Andes, a Precious Example of a Geographical
Mountain Portrait
Bruno Messerli
1 Introduction Being interested in the research on climate-related
problems of Mediterranean mountain regions after the
This is probably the first time that such a comprehensive last Pleistocene glaciation period, the Free University of
book on the Andes appears in German. The content adheres Berlin invited me to spend a semester in its Tibesti moun-
to a truly geographical framework, in which the factors and tain research station to pursue my interest in this topic fur-
spaces of the natural environment are portrayed and are pre- ther. In the Tibesti Massif, we reached the highest summits
sented in their interactions with anthropogenic structures in the northern and southern parts by a small camel caravan.
and processes. This gives the reader a genuine understand- Almost at the same time, a French research team investigated
ing of relationships and dependencies. It is my contention similar topics and came to comparable results in the Hoggar
that there should also be a great interest to translate this Mountains. Later we continued our studies in the mountains
book into Spanish. of eastern Africa: in 1974 in the 4,000 m high summit regions
I emphasize this because I became aware at the first of Ethiopia; and in 1976 on Mt Kenia (5,195 m). Until today,
Andean Conference in 1991 that the scientists of the research and development projects are carried out by the
Andean countries were more closely connected and had Geography Department of the University of Berne in this area.
more research cooperations with European and North- In the research focus on the mountains from the Alps to
American scholars than with those from their neighbour- the Equator, the arid belt of the Sahara posed some major
ing countries. At that time, we looked in vain for a scientist open questions relating to the oscillations of the monsoon
from an Andean country who could deliver an opening system and the related climatic changes. Intriguing evi-
address presenting a broad overview of the entire Andean dences for this are the rock paintings in the Sahara and the
realm. We realized that there existed few transnational former impressively large Lake Chad extending to the foot
projects and that there was a lack of financial resources for of the Tibesti Massif. The Emi Koussi Volcano (3,415 m) is
doing research in another country. In this situation we had the highest summit of Tibesti. An interesting question was
to rely on Wilhelm Lauer from the Geography Department for us whether this peak had been glaciated sometime in the
of the University of Bonn, an expert on the natural environ- past, or whether the aridity would have prevented this, even
ment of the entire Andean region. if the mountain would have been higher in the past.
This situation has fundamentally changed since 1991, as In search for an answer to this intriguing question, I
can be demonstrated by referring to the five international found by chance a publication of the French glaciologist
Andean Conferences until 2005. With our engagement for Lliboutry (1956). Here I quote Lliboutry, freely translated:
the Andes, we not only pursue scientific objectives but also “From the glaciated Sajama in Bolivia (6,520 m; ca. 18°S)
the goal for an effective transnational cooperation and the to the Llullaillaco, Chile (6,723 m; ca. 24°S), no peren-
promotion of a dialogue between science and politics. nial ice cover exists. But during the first ascent of the
Lllullaillaco on December 1, 1952, Bion Gonzales and
Juan Harseim observed an ice field on the western slope
2 Scientific Objectives between 5,600 and 6,500 m,” (Lliboutry 1956: 305 f.).
This rather casual observation triggered in me an urgent
Immediately after my term of office as President of the desire for more precise research on the glaciations of the
University of Berne in 1988, I decided to pursue yet another Llullaillaco. As in the Sahara, the principal aim of the
research project to further investigate open questions ema- study was to make a contribution to the climate history of
nating from my previous studies. This required intensive this exciting arid belt located between the regions affected
field investigations. by the tropical, monsoon-like rains to the northeast, and
A. Borsdorf and C. Stadel, The Andes, Springer Geography, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03530-7 323
© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015324 Epilogue
the realm located to the southwest influenced by the win- proposal to establish an African Mountain Association was
ter precipitations of westerly winds. Furthermore, we unanimously supported by the participants. Its voluntary
pursued some comparable research questions we had left and unfunded Secretariat was established in Addis Ababa.
open during our investigations on the highest summits of Hans Hurni, the later Director of the North–South Centre of
the Sahara some twenty years before. Without mention- the Geography Department of the University of Berne, was
ing the details of the numerous expeditions and field stud- at that time the Director of the Soil Conservation Research
ies, we familiarized ourselves with the impressive high Projects of the Ethiopian Ministry of Agriculture between
mountain landscapes of the Atacama region in many pro- 1981 and 1987 (Messerli and Hurni 1990):
files and transects. Supported by the experiences gained In the years that followed, further African Mountain
at various conferences and excursions in Peru, Bolivia, Conferences were held in Morocco (1990), Kenya (1993),
Argentina and in the northern and southern parts of Chile, Madagascar (1996), Lesotho (2000) and Tanzania (2002).
we enlarged and deepened our knowledge base, and But then this activity weakened because of a lack of finan-
enticed the next generation of scientists of Berne, under cial resources to permanently support an efficient secretariat
the leadership of Martin Grosjean and Heinz Veit, after or centre. Notwithstanding these difficulties, the published
my retirement in 1996, to tackle new mountain research conference proceedings furnished a most valuable informa-
challenges. tion on African mountains. In March 2013, while writing
Relating to this Geography of the Andes, published by this epilogue, I received the surprising good news from the
the two competent authors, Axel Borsdorf and Christoph Mountain Partnership Secretariat of the FAO in Rome that
Stadel, we can ascertain that this book addresses topics an African Mountain Partnership Champions Committee
for which we never before had the time nor this integrative had been constituted in Kigali, Rwanda, on 20 February
expertise. I am therefore enthusiastic and grateful to be able 2013, with the goal to enhance “the mountain partnership
to rely in future on this volume. in Africa for sustainable development in African water tow-
ers” (FAO 2013).
In South America we became active for the first time
3 Political Objectives in 1988. Soon afterwards it was announced that in 1992
a major international event would take place in South
In 1983 Jack Ives and I witnessed and participated in the America, the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, which
foundation of the International Centre for Integrated required the preparation of Agenda 21 addressing the most
Mountain Development (ICIMOD) in Kathmandu. At pressing problems of the 21st century. One chapter of this
that time, we directed a project of the United Nations Agenda was devoted to the mountains, their resources and
University (UNU) on natural hazards in Nepal. The initia- their populations. Obviously the Andes were an important
tive for the creation of ICIMOD as a Center for research on component here. The compilation of the mountain chap-
the Hindukush and Himalaya, encompassing the states of ter was based on a recognition of the close interlinkages
Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, between science and politics, as well as by the fact that the
Nepal and Pakistan, came from UNESCO and was finan- Himalaya, the mountains of Africa and the Andes, were an
cially supported by Germany and Switzerland. important part of the developing realm. Therefore they were
The guiding principle for ICIMOD was based on destined to assume a major political role.
the themes of the 1975 UNESCO-MAB Conference in This need to prepare a sound document for the Rio
Kathmandu, in particular on the sixth programme, Man’s Conference meant that an international scientific congress
Impact on Mountain Ecosystems. The concepts for this pro- hat to be organized before the end of 1991. Since my time
gramme were developed by a UNESCO group of experts in as a student I had a close friendship with Wilhelm Egli,
Salzburg; Jack Ives and I had the privilege to participate in the later Vice-Director of the Swiss School in Santiago.
this Salzburg meeting. Today ICIMOD counts a staff of 150 He became instrumental in assisting us in the preparation
people, and has gradually achieved, after many years and for the Congress in Santiago. Another happy coincidence
numerous hurdles, an effective cross-border cooperation. resulted from meeting Hugo Romero of the Geography
In 1986, after many years of scientific work in the moun- Department of the Universidad de Chile during an excur-
tains of North and East Africa, we organized an interna- sion of the Commission on Mountain Geoecology of the
tional conference on African mountains in Addis Ababa. International Geographical Union (IGU) Union in New
In addition to prominent scholars from the University of Zealand in 1988. In a most competent way Hugo Romero
Addis Ababa, 53 scientists from ten African and eleven supported us in the organization of the 1991 Andean
non-African countries attended this conference. An excur- Congress.
sion to the various well-equipped research stations of the The President of the UNU, Hector Gurgulino de Souza
country was enthusiastically acclaimed, and an African of Brazil, sent us an opening address from Tokyo, the seatEpilogue 325
of the UNU, and he also assured us of financial support. 3. Organization of further Andean symposia every three
For this first Andean Congress, we benefited from the coop- years, the next one being planned in Bolivia;
eration of the Chilean universities of Santiago, Tarapaca, 4. Effective cooperation between the Andean countries
Antofagasta and La Serena, as well as the University of in the areas of interdisciplinary research- and training
Mendoza, Argentina. The conference proceedings were projects;
entitled: Primer Taller de Geoecología de Montaña y 5. Efforts to incorporate the scientific findings into politi-
Desarrollo Sustentable de los Andes del Sur (Romero cal decision making processes.
1996). While the term geoecology, in accordance with the Details about the Atacama Accord, ten scientific papers,
name of the IGU Commission, was initially emphasized, and an introduction by Hugo Romero were published in a
at the following Andean Conferences the cultural frame- special volume of Mountain Research and Development
works and economic processes received greater attention. (Romero 1993). It is astonishing how concisely the weak-
The Andean Conference in Chile was the impetus for the nesses of a cross-border cooperation and of a dialogue
foundation of the Andean Mountain Association (AMA) between science and politics were also spelled out in
(Romero 1993). This strengthened our position at the this document. The plan to publish the World Mountain
last preparatory meeting for the Earth Summit in Rio de Newsletter in Spanish proved to be too ambitious and could
Janeiro, and later at the Rio Congress in 1992. With the suc- not be realized without the establishment of a permanent
cessful incorporation of a chapter on Mountains in Agenda well equipped secretariat. In this context, similar prob-
21, we had reached a major political goal. lems and questions as in Africa emerged, in particular with
respect to the continuity of Andean Conferences and to the
reasons for their eventual demise.
4 Science and Politics in a Dialogue The second international Andean Conference, entitled
for a Future and Sustainable Sustainable Mountain Development—Managing Fragile
Development of Andean States Ecosystems in the Andes, took place from 2 to 11 April
1995 in Huarina on the shores of Lake Titicaca and in La
As indicated above, the first international Andean Conference Paz, followed by an extended excursion to the Sajama
on Mountain Geoecology—Ressource Management and (6,542 m) National Park. At the conference, the progress
Sustainable Development took place in Santiago de Chile made since 1991 was discussed in detail. Further topics
from 21 October to 4 November 1991. Over 50 represen addressed were the plans to establish Andean corridors of
tatives from institutions in Europe, North America and protection; research activities on biological, social and
Latin America participated in this event. Even a delegate cultural aspects and problems, and on sensitive indica-
from Kenya was present, as the preparatory work for the tors for climate change and global transformations; as well
1993 Conference in Nairobi on the theme of Planning for as the exchange of relevant information. Also, for the first
Sustainable Use of Mountain Resources was already under time, the various ecological, economic, social, and cul-
way. tural conflicts were incorporated into the research agenda.
The excursion programme of the Santiago Conference The results of the Conference were formulated in the
was very ambitious and focused on the following destina- Proclamation of Lake Titicaca which also included a strong
tions: (1) an Andean transect from Santiago to Mendoza; commitment to the Andean Mountain Association.
(2) Northern Chile and its investments in modern agricul- Once again, a special issue of Mountain Research
ture; (3) the arid region of the Salar de Atacama with the and Development was devoted to the second Andean
centre of San Pedro de Atacama; (4) a mountain profile Conference. A note of thanks has to be expressed to
from the desert coastal plain around Arica to the snow- the organizers of the conference and the editors of the
covered volcanoes of the Peruvian, Bolivian and Chilean Proceedings, Carlos Baied and Máximo Liberman, as well
Altiplano. The ecological, economic and cultural diversity as to Jack and Pauline Ives for their editorial work on this
experienced during the excursions was impressive and stim- special volume of Mountain Research and Development.
ulated the participants in formulating a so-called Atacama The co-editor of this book on the Andes, Christoph Stadel,
Accord. In an abbreviated form, the following five major was present at this, and on the following two Andean
parts shall be mentioned: Conferences. In the Report on the Bolivian Conference, he
1. Agreement for the foundation of the Andean Mountain published the paper The Mobilization of Human Resources
Association (AMA) for scientists and managers of by non-governmental Organizations in the Bolivian Andes.
resources, with the major objective of establishing The third international Andean Conference was held
foundations for a sustainable development; in Quito from 9–14 December 1998 and was devoted to
2. Establishment of a World Mountain Newsletter in the general theme of Understanding Ecological Interfaces
Spanish, with the participation of all Andean countries; of Andean Cultural Landscapes for Management. Fausto326 Epilogue
Sarmiento of the University of Georgia, USA, was organiz- countries, among them scholars from different disciplines,
ing this conference. The wide range of participating schol- representatives of government agencies from the Andean
ars, sponsors and organizations can be seen as a sign for the countries, and of non-governmental organizations. The
growing interest in the work of AMA. Additional organi- two plenary sessions, The Andes–Scenarios for Change
zations represented at the meeting were the Pan American at different Scales, and Management of Biodiversity:
Centre for Geographical Studies and Research (CEPEIGE), Protected Areas and Susceptible Areas, as well as five
the US Centre for Latin American and Caribbean Studies workshops formed the organizational framework of the
(CLACS), the UNU, UNESCO-MAB, and the World conference. The following titles of the workshops attest to
Commission on Protected Areas of the IUCN. Sponsoring the wide range of themes that were discussed at the meet-
agencies included the US National Science Foundation, ing: 1. Climate Change, Water Resources, and Natural
the Andean Finance Corporation, the Government of the Disasters; 2. Andean Cloud Forests; 3. Andean Páramos:
Netherlands, the Instituto Geográfico Militar and other local Challenges for the 21st Century; 4. Fertility Regulations
institutions. Looking at the theme of the conference and the in Agroecosystems of the Tropical Andes: Effects of bio-
individual contributions, it became evident that a modest logical, ecological and cultural diversity; 5. Information
but significant shift from mountain ecology to a new focus Networks for the Sustainable Development of Latin
was taking place in which the cultural landscape, the human America. The conference also adopted a final declaration
impact on the environment and the resources received (Lambi and Monasterio 2002).
greater attention (Sarmiento and Hidalgo 1999). Of interest was the decision to form a Páramo Group
During an excursion after the conference, a group of with the objective to internationally exchange information
participants, among them Christoph Stadel, went up to the and data, and to develop activities with the aim of protect-
upper mountain hut at the base of Chimborazo, at an ele- ing the fragile ecosystem of the páramos, or using it in a
vation of some 5,000 m. In the presence of scholars, rep- sustainable fashion (Hofstede 2002). The participants also
resentatives of the provincial government, of a delegation reflected on the path of Andean research in the last ten
of local and indigenous communities, and of national park years, on its challenges, advances and shortcomings.
personnel, a commemorative plaque for Alexander von The fifth international Andean Conference, with the
Humboldt was solemnly unveiled at the Bolívar Monument. theme Sustainable Development in the Andes, took
It reads: Alexander von Humboldt, June 1802, in Memory place from 25 April to 1 May 2005 in Salvador de Jujuy,
of his Contributions to Mountain Geoecology, December Argentina. As I have not attended this conference, I have
15, 1998. The plaque further lists the names of repre- to rely on information from Hugo Romero. The sponsor-
sentatives of organizations who were or still are closely ing agencies included the UNESCO MAB Programme;
connected with the work of Alexander von Humboldt: the French Embassy; the Agency for Research Support in
Indigenous Communities of Chimborazo; Jack Ives repre- Argentina; the Provincial Government of Jujuy; and the
senting the UNU and the International Mountain Society; University of Jujuy. In the following, I have opted to out-
Fausto Sarmiento as a representative for AMA; Lawrence line, in a selective and abbreviated way, the principal find-
Hamilton for the IUCN and the Commission for Protected ings related to a sustainable development of the Andes:
Areas; Bruno Messerli for the International Geographical 1. The landscapes of the Andes represent one of the most
Union; Juan Hidalgo for CEPEIGE; and Patricio Hermida important source regions of a biological, social and cul-
as the Manager of the Chimborazo Reserve (Sarmiento tural diversity. Today they are subject to great pressures
1999). As a fascinating surprise, one month before this resulting from various forms of growth processes. This is a
Inauguration Act at the Chimborazo, and 200 years after major challenge for science and political decision makers.
Alexander von Humboldt’s climb and research on the 2. The entire population of the Andes depends on the
Chimborazo, we received the great news that the General hydrological, biological, and energy resources of the
Assembly of the United Nations had decided on 10 mountains; and this also impacts on the social and cul-
November 1998 that 2002 would be the International Year tural structures. This fact entails a mutual responsibility
of Mountains. of all stakeholders for a sustainable development.
The fourth international Andean Conference, with the 3. The natural and cultural value systems of the Andes
general theme of Sustainable Development in the Andes, have to be incorporated into the Latin-American states
a Strategy for the 21st Century, was organized for 25 in a peaceful fashion. This appears particularly impor-
November to 2 December 2001 at the Universidad de los tant at this age of globalization.
Andes in Mérida, Venezuela. Maximina Monasterio, presi- 4. The Andes and their populations adhere to a certain
dent of AMA (2001–2004) and director of the Instituto de cosmological vision. This entails that the indigenous
Ciencias Ecológicas y Ambientales, organized this meet- people, the urban populations and the peasant commu-
ing. It was attended by more than 250 persons from 21 nities from different regions and altitudinal zones haveEpilogue 327
to live in close interaction of nature and society, and Common to all these ideas and projects is the recognition
that they have to ensure the maintenance of a highly that sustainable development cannot be achieved without a
diversified resource basis. solid knowledge base. Therefore science must find a new and
5. In the Andes, marginal areas with difficult accessibility enhanced status in society and politics. We can conclude that
and deficient infrastructures persist, and this can result the scientific advancement which was achieved by the five
in a high ecological and human vulnerability. international Andean Conferences between 1991 and 2005
6. Globalization processes which ignore local production is a success story. However, the important question today is
conditions lead to economic, political and socio-cul- what the path of scientific endeavors will be in the future.
tural tensions at the local and regional levels. In the Himalaya, ICIMOD in Kathmandu has excelled in
7. The explosive growth of cities can have negative various activities. While not all of the eight countries were
impacts on the hydrological and soil resources of participating to the same level in common projects, many
neighbouring mountain areas. Quite often, this is rein- open and fruitful exchanges took also place between the
forced by unsettled jurisdictional conditions and inad- large states of China, India and Pakistan. Here, scientists
equate planning. from these three countries can be considered bridge build-
8. Political and economic interests, for example the devel- ers; on the basis of their work, later discussions between
opment and utilization of natural resources, or the scientists and government representatives could tackle cru-
transformation of forests by the introduction of non- cial mutual issues. As an example for this, we might men-
native species with a high market potential, can lead to tion the pressing water problems. Rivers flow uncontrolled
a degradation of ecosystems and to natural hazards and across international boundaries. During the monsoon peri-
disasters, especially in ecologically sensitive areas. ods, the periodic flooding is often a serious threat to the
These points reveal and require new arenas for action, environment and populations; at other times, shortages of
which we will have to address, based on the findings of the water might have detrimental effects. Therefore, there is an
Andean Conferences. But what is the future of the Andean urgent need for cross-border talks, information exchange,
Conferences? I have heard from Hugo Romero that Peru adaptive measures and warning systems.
was asked in 2008 to organize the next Andean Conference, In Africa the last international Conference of the African
but so far such a follow-up conference has not taken place. Mountain Association took place in 2002. After some years
This puts us into a similar position as in Africa in 2002. of interruption, the Mountain Partnership and the Mountain
Research Initiative in Uganda organized another meeting;
but a decisive new step was the initiative of the African
5 Summary and Outlook Mountain Partnership, an organization of the FAO, to found
the African Mountain Partnership Champions Committee
At the Andean Conferences, in 1991, the papers on on 20 February 2013. The major goal of this new institution
European and North-American projects presented in is fostering sustainable development in the mountains of
English prevailed; in 2001, in contrast, projects of Latin- Africa, with a particular focus on climate change and water
American countries were predominantly presented in resources.
Spanish. Also international projects were more prominently For the African mountains as water towers of the conti-
developed, often financially supported by Europe or North nent, the following six priorities were established: research
America. Here are a few examples: protection and sustain- and knowledge; information sharing; advocacy/policy;
able use of páramos; management of mountain rain or cloud community livelihoods and development; payment for
forests; fertility and management of Andean soils; land use ecosystem services; capacity building and private sector
and biodiversity; climate change; natural hazards and disas- involvement. The African Mountain Partnership Champions
ters; El Niño and La Niña; corridors of protected areas. Committee was given a mandate comprising nine princi-
Still, the conferences, especially those in Mérida and Jujuy, pal components, similar to those established by the Andean
also revealed research gaps and deficits; for example: the Mountain Association. In addition to representatives of
mapping of natural hazards and risk management strategies; African countries (except from those of North Africa), the
water resources and land use; impact of urban growth and FAO, UNEP, and the IUCN are members of the Committee.
urbanization on mountain environments; traditional knowl- Major financial support for the activities is given by the
edge and cultural diversity; positive and negative aspects McArthur Foundation. It is intriguing to see that although
of tourism, cross-border cooperation. Particularly interest- the theme of mountain issues and problems had disappeared
ing was the call for a more pronounced engagement of sci- from the major research and policy agenda in Africa for
entists in concrete development projects, for a closer and more than a decade, it has reappeared with renewed vigor
better cooperation with local populations, and for a more in the scientific and political agendas from the local to the
effective dialogue with political decision makers. global levels. The details about the new Africa initiative328 Epilogue
can be consulted in the documents of the FAO (2013). It There is the possibility that FAO will attempt to found a
will be interesting to see what the future path of mountains Mountain Partnership Committee in South America, similar
research and mountain development in Africa will entail. to that in Africa. This would be in line with the role of FAO
Coming back to the Andes, one might add that at the as the Lead Agency for the UN of the Mountain Chapter
Andean Conference in Mérida the list of participants of the Agenda 21. In this respect, FAO was instrumental in
included also representatives from Brazil, Guatemala and lobbying the General Assembly of the UN between 1998
Cuba, which indicates that the Andean meetings had sub- and 2012 to pass eight resolutions related to the Mountain
stantially gained in prestige in the whole of Latin America. Chapter of Agenda 21 Managing Fragile Ecosystems—
In Mérida it was also stated that the cooperation between Mountain Sustainable Development.
the Andean Mountain Association and the Consorcio para el When I consider that in Andean research we find our-
Desarrollo Sostenible de la Ecoregión Andina (CONDESAN) selves right now in a phase of rather slow international
with its seat in Lima had demonstrated a successful begin- activities, and that we are not certain how promising the
ning. This would indeed be an important link between sci- research future will look, the book by Axel Borsdorf and
ence and concrete development programmes. I have been Christoph Stadel appears particularly timely. It gives the
unable to monitor the further progress of these initial ini- scientific community new insights into the interrelation-
tiatives over the past decade. It will be interesting to see ships between nature and society, new overviews and
whether CONDESAN, in partnership with UNEP-Vienna, intriguing stimulations for past and future perspectives,
will venture on a new programme for Latin America within for retrospectives as well as outlooks. We therefore like
the framework of a global mountain monitoring programme, to express to the two authors our deep gratitude for this
as was suggested by the Mountain Forum in March 2013. Geographical Portrait of the Andes.Glossary Ablation Process by which snow or ice is melting or APEC Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation removed from a snowfield or glacier Apu High mountain peak, often glaciated Accretion Gradual increase or extension of land by natural Aracea Tuberous flowering plant of the tropics forces over a long period of time Argillaceous soil Clay-rich soil Acequia Irrigation canal Asiento (older meaning) Agreement between the Spanish A climates Tropical rainy climates Crown and a sovereign power, in effect between the Acrisol Clay-rich soil associated with humid tropical early 16th century and the mid-18th century, by which climates the latter power was granted a Monopoly to supply Adobe Building material of sun-dried mud or mud bricks African slaves for the Spanish colonies in the Americas. Af climate Equatorial, permanently humid climate (modern meaning, seat) Agroecología Sustainable agricultural practice with the aim Atacameño civilization Pre-Hispanic civilization with its of preserving the ecological integrity centre in current Chile, with its climax around 800 BCE Agrosilvicultura Combined agricultural and silvicultural Audiencia Spanish colonial high court and the district use of land resources under the court’s jurisdiction Agrotourism (Agritourism) Agriculturally based form of Aw climate winter-dry equatorial climate tourism bringing visitors in close touch with farmers and Ayllú Indigenous community agricultural activities Aymara Indigenous group of people and language, region- ALADI (formerly LAFTA) Latin American Integration ally concentrated on the Bolivian Altiplano Association, created in 1980, currently 13 members Ayní Traditional form of mutual help practiced in indig- Alameda (Prado Paseo) Elegant urban boulevard enous communities of the Andes Altiplano Andean high mountain plateau in southern Peru, Babaco (carica x heilbornii) Mountain variety of papaya, Bolivia, and northern Chile native to the tropical Andes Alto Perú Part of the colonial Vice-Royalty of Peru (later Baharaque Building material of adobe intertwined with the vice-Royalty of Río de la Plata), located in the sticks, canes or straw Andean regions of current Bolivia and northwestern Barriada Shanty town in Lima Argentina Barrio de invasión (barrio informal, callampa) Illegally Amaranth (Kiwicha, amaranthus) Andean food and erected settlement of invading migrants medicinal plant Batholith Large, generally discordant plutonic rock mass Amenity migration Migration of people for perceived or B climates Dry climates actual environmental and/or cultural benefits Berkeley School of Cultural Ecology Founded by Carl O. Andean Community of Nations (Comunidad Andina) Sauer, emphasizing the strength of human capacity for Customs Union, including Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador adaptation to physical and social environments and Peru as full members B-horizon of soil Mineral horizon below the A-horizon, Andean Pact Trade bloc of Andean countries, in existence sometimes called the zone of accumulation between 1969 and 1996 Biopiracy Situation where the indigenous knowledge of Andenes Agricultural terraces on steep slopes nature is used by external people or agencies for profit, Andinismo Andean variety of mountaineering without permission from local communities Andesite Dark-coloured extrusive rock Biosphere Reserve Special category of protected area, Andosol Dark soil found in volcanic areas consisting of a strictly protected core zone, surrounded Antisuyu Eastern part of the Inca Empire by a buffer zone of limited protection functionality, and A. Borsdorf and C. Stadel, The Andes, Springer Geography, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-03530-7 329 © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2015
330 Glossary an outer transition area or development zone, UNESCO Chemical weathering/physical weathering Destructive label processes on rock material by chemical decomposition/ Bodega Small shop by physical disintegration Breccia Coarse-grained rock composed of large, angular Chibcha (Muisca) civilization Pre-Hispanic high civiliza- or broken rock fragments cemented together in a finer- tion of the central highlands of current Colombia, from grained rock matrix about 1,200 CE to 1,536 CE Bromelia Genus of the family Bromeliaceae Chicha Andean maize beer BS climate Semi-arid steppe climate Chimú civilization Pre-Hispanic high civilization with its Buen vivir (suma kawsay, suma qamaña) Alternative form centre in the coastal Pacific lowlands of current Peru, of development focused on a broad notion of well-being from 1,250 CE to 1,476 CE and quality of life, not solely defined in materialistic terms Chinchasuyu Northern part of the Inca Empire BW climate Arid desert climate Chirimoya Tropical fruit of the species Annona cherimola Cabecera Chief town or village of a district Cholo(cholonization) Native who has given up his Indian Cabildo Town council in the Spanish colonies, today indig- identity enous community in Colombia Chuño Freeze-dried starchy potato product traditionally Cacique Local indigenous leader made by highland Quechua and Aymara communities Callejón (conventillo) Inner-city slum Climatic snowline Average altitude above which horizon- Campesino Andean peasant tal surfaces are more than half snow-covered Campo de lluvia Rain-fed cultivation area Cocalero Coca-growing farmer Campo de riego Irrigated cultivation area Cocos Plate Oceanic plate of the eastern Pacific Ocean Capacitación Development of abilities and capacities of Collasuyu Southern part of the Inca Empire people Colono Worker on a hacienda Caral (Norte Chico) civilization Pre-Hispanic civili- Company state Territories formerly controlled by mining zation on the Pacific coast of current Peru, from about corporations (in Chile) as spatial-functional components 3,000 BCE to 1,800 BCE of their mining activities Carreras Streets in Bogotá running in a north–south direction Compartimiento Division of territory Carretera Marginal de la Selva Partially completed inter- Complementarity (complementaridad) Andean concept of national highway project following the eastern foothills exchanges between places or activities of the Andes CONAIE Confederación de Nacionalidades Indígenas Casa de Austria Spanish rule of Latin America by the del Ecuador, the largest and most powerful indigenous Habsburg dynasty umbrella organization in Ecuador Casco colonial Colonial centre of a Latin-American city Concientización Awareness raising of people Castellanización Acculturation of indigenous people to CONDESAN Consortium for the Sustainable Development Spanish language and Hispanic culture of the Andean Ecoregion, linking nearly 100 institu- Caudillo Strong, often charismatic political leader in Latin tions from 17 Latin-American countries, with a focus America on applied research, information exchange and policy C climates Humid, mesothermal climates development Ceja de la montaña Dense cloud forest (‘eyebrow of the Conquista Spanish conquest of pre-Columbian civilizations mountain’) at the transition zone between the eastern Cordillera Mountain range montane forests and the highlands of the Andes Corrasion Process of erosion whereby rocks or soil are Cf climate Permanently moist, moderately warm climate mechanically worn away by the abrasive action of solid Chacra Land of the indigenous population outside an ejido materials moved along, esp. by wind, in a wider sense of the colonial Latin-American city also by waves, running water, glaciers or gravity Chakana Ritual bridge in the Andean mythology and Cosmovisión andina Traditional vision, belief system and philosophy cultural concept based on harmony and close interrela- Chala Arid, desert-like coastal plain and adjoining cordil- tion between nature and the cultural identity of Andean lera foothills in Peru people Chan Chan Capital city of the pre-Hispanic Chimú Counter-urbanization Demographic and social process civilization whereby people move from urban to rural areas Chasqui Courier of the Inca communication system Cretaceous Period Final period of the Mesozoic era and Chavín civilization Pre-Hispanic civilization with its centre in before the Tertiary period the sierra of current Peru, from about 900 BCE to 200 BCE Creole (Criollo) Person of Spanish descent
Glossary 331 Cs climate (Mediterranean climate) Moderately warm Epigenetic valley Gap valley whose direction is not related climate with dry summers to the tectonic structure or composition of the rocks of Cuadra Block of buildings in a Latin-American city the landforms traversed by the river Cuenca (hoya) High mountain basin in the Andes Epiphyte Plant that grows non-parasitically upon another Cuesta (Escarpment) Asymmetric ridge with a gentle plant and derives its moisture and nutrients from the slope (dip slope) on one side and a steep slope (scarp air, rains and sometimes from debris accumulated slope) on the other around it Cultigen Plant that has been selected or modified by Espeletia (frailejón) Perennial shrub vegetation of the humans humid páramo ecosystem Cultivar Cultivated plant selected for desirable characteristics Ethno-development Development concept based on respect Cuntisuyu Western part of the Inca Empire for and a focus on the ethnic identity of local communities Curaca Leader of a territory conquered by the Inca Evapotranspiration Loss of water from a land area Cw climate Moderately warm climate with dry winters through the transpiration of plants and the evaporation Cyclogenesis Development or strengthening of cyclonic from the soil circulation in the atmosphere Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) Sea zone of 200 nauti- D climates Cold, snowy climates cal miles prescribed by the UN Convention on the Law Demographic Transition Model Five-stage model por- of the Sea, recognizing the special rights of a coastal traying the development of birth rates, death rates and state over the exploration and use of marine resources total population growth rates over time Fault Line of rock fracture along which displacements Denudation Wearing away of the Earth’s surface by vari- have occurred ous natural processes, including, weathering, erosion, Feria Weekly market day mass-wasting and transportation Ferralsol Nutrient-poor yellowish or reddish tropical soil Desarrollo con Identitad Sustainable development based Festuca Tall tussock grass on the semi-arid Altiplano on the local natural and human resources, cultures, needs (puna) of the Andes and priorities Finca Small farm or rural retreat for wealthy urbanites Desarrollo hacia adentro Development with an internal Fjord Long, narrow, U-shaped inlet of the sea with steep orientation based on a protection of national economies slopes/walls on either side Desarrollo hacia afuera Development with an export Fluvio-glacial deposits Accumulation of material by gla- orientation cial melt waters Desquamation Peeling off or detachment of scaly rock Foehn (föhn) Warm and dry downslope wind fragments Fragmented development Uneven development between Diaguita civilization Pre-Hispanic civilization with its rich and poor areas and segments of the population centre in the current Chico Norte of Chile, from 850 CE Frontogenesis Meteorological process of tightening hori- to 1,550 CE zontal temperature gradients to produce weather fronts E climates Polar (ice) climates Fumaroles Emissions of vapour and gases from volcanic Ecotourism Form of tourism that brings visitors in close vents touch with relatively undisturbed natural areas and Fundo Chilean term for farm focuses on environmentally and socially responsible Gamma World City City that links smaller urban regions travel, personal education and sustainability with the world economy Ecumene The sphere settled and used by humans Garúa( llovizna, camanchacas) Sea mist or light drizzle on Edaphic differentiation Soil-related differentiation the Pacific side of the Peruvian Andes Eje (Diagonal Transversal) Street not following the rectan- Gated community (barrio cerrado, barrio vallado) Secluded gular urban plan and strictly controlled residential neighbourhood Ejido Formerly communal land surrounding the Spanish Gentrification Preservation and upgrading of older city colonial city districts El Dorado Legendary region of fabulous gold treasures Geo-determinism (environmental determinism) View El Niño Periodically occurring warm Equatorial Current that the physical environment necessarily shapes human diverting the cold Peruvian Current along the Pacific landscapes and guides social development coast from central Ecuador to northern Chile Geo-ecology Interdisciplinary science which studies inter- Encomienda Spanish colonization system to regulate indig- action and interrelations in the environment enous labour and to give land grants to the Spanish elite Geoglyphes Large figures and symbols carved in to the ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation Nazca Desert of Peru
332 Glossary
Global/globalized city Urban centre with a global func- IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature
tional orientation and/or importance Janca Altitudinal zone above the climatic snowline in Peru
Global Competitive Index Index ranking the competitive- Junta Vecinal Neighbourhood alliance in El Alto, Bolivia
ness of global cities according to their ability to attract Jurassic Period Second period of the Mesozoic era
capital, business, qualified labour and visitors Karst phenomena Formation of features of the surface
Gondwana Old, contiguous proto-continent of the and subsurface through the dissolution of soluble rocks
Southern Hemisphere in limestone regions
Graben Elongated crustal unit that is bounded by fault Killa Moon goddess of the Inca
lines on its long sides Kichwa Indigenous, Quechua-speaking group in Ecuador
Green Revolution Development of new agricultural tech- Köppen-Geiger classification Classification of world
nologies based on hybridized seeds, new irrigation tech- climates based on the climatic requirements of specific
niques, synthetic fertilizers and pesticides types of vegetation
Grito ‘Shout of Independence’ from Spanish colonial rule LAFTA Latin American Free Trade Association, created
Guanaco Wild camelid animal of the Andes and Patagonia in 1960 and effective from 1962. In 1980 it was reorga-
Guano Excrements of seabirds used as manure and highly nized into the Latin American Integration Association
effective fertilizer (ALADI)
Hacienda Large farmstead Lahar Mudflow on the flanks of a volcano, often up to
Heliconia (strelitzia, ‘bird-of-paradise flower’) Attractive 100 °C hot, chiefly composed of volcaniclastic material
flowering plant, native to the tropical Americas and the La Niña Periodically occurring drop in temperature of a
Pacific Ocean region normally warm ocean current affecting the Pacific coast
Hielero Harvester of glacier ice from central Ecuador to northern Chile
Highway of Volcanoes String of volcanoes in Ecuador Lapilli Small pyroclastic fragments ejected during a volca-
Huaico Landslide or flash flood nic eruption
Huari (Wari) civilization Pre-Hispanic civilization on the Leaching Separation, selective removal or dissolution of
Pacific coast and sierra of current Peru, from about 700 soluble elements from a rock by the action of percolating
CE to 1,000 CE water
Huasipungo Plot of land lent to indigenous people in return Leptosol Shallow soil over hard rock or highly calcareous
for their services on a hacienda material, or deeper soil that is gravelly or stony
Hydration Inorganic chemical reaction whereby water is Lixisol Tropical soil with subsurface clays and high base
added to the structure of minerals saturation
Hygric differentiation Moisture-related differentiation Lo Andino Andean concept of traditional wisdom, knowl-
Hypsometric ecological zonation Zonation of climate and edge, ethics, philosophy, as well as agrarian and commu-
vegetation by elevation nity practices
Inca High civilization of the Andes conquered and Loma Periodically appearing grassland vegetation in the
destroyed by the Spanish in the early 16th century coastal fog zone on the lower western flanks of the west-
Indianidad Indian identity ern cordillera of Peru
Indígena Indigenous person Loma Alto (Real Alto) Ceremonial centre of the Valdivia
Informal sector of the economy Activities outside for- civilization
mally registered and controlled sectors of the economy Manzana City block, or unit of measure for an agricultural plot
Inquilinato Subtenant, or collective form of housing of Mapuche (Araucanians) Indigenous ethnic group in
poor urban people southern Chile
Intermediarios Trading middlemen Maria Lionza Religious cult with its roots in the native
Inti Sun God of the Inca Venezuelan queen Maria Lionza
Inticancha (later called Coricancha) ‘Golden Enclosure’ MAS Movimiento al Socialismo, political party in Bolivia,
of the Inca city of Cusco headed by Evo Morales
Inti Raymi Festival in Cusco celebrating the God of the Sun Mashua (tropaeolum tuberosum) High-yielding tuber crop
and commemorating the foundation of the Inca city of Cusco of the high Andes at elevations around 3,000 m
Intracratonic basin Large sedimentation basin within a Matorral Brushwood thicket
crustal mass Mayordomo Steward of a large landholding
Invierno Rainy season in the tropical Andes, winter in the Mayorista Powerful, large trader
extratropical Andes Maximón Folk saint venerated in parts of Latin America
Isostasy Condition of equilibrium of the units above the Medellín Cartel Mafioso-type association specializing in
plastic mantle of the Earth’s surface the illegal export of cocaineGlossary 333 Mediterranean climate Moderately warm and seasonally OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and humid (winter months) climate Development, founded in 1961 and including 34 coun- Mercantile system Economic system based on the objec- tries, with the objective of stimulating economic prog- tive of increasing a nation’s wealth by government regu- ress and world trade lations favouring the nation’s commercial interests Ökosophie Estermann’s concept based on the links humans MERCOSUR (Mercado Común del Sur) Free-trade maintain with nature zone, with Brazil, Argentina, Venezuela, Paraguay and Olluco (papalisa, melloco, chugua, ullucus tuberosus), Uruguay as full members Frost-resistant and moderately drought-resistant Mestizaje Amalgamation of Amerindian and European cul- high-altitude root vegetable in the tierra helada of the tural heritages and formation of a new distinct culture Andes Mestizo Person of mixed Amerindian-White racial ancestry Omagua (selva baja walla) Humid and hot ecosystem rain- Minorista Small retailing trader forest level in Amazonian Peru Miocene Epoch of the upper Tertiary period and before the Oriente Amazon lowland region in Ecuador Pliocene Orogeny Mountain formation process Minga (minka) Voluntary communal labour in indigenous Oxidation Interaction between oxygen molecules and communities other substances Mingado Free labourer in a mine during Spanish colonial Pachacamac Ancient city of the Paracas civilization, rule located in the Pacific coastal lowlands of current Peru Minifundio/minifundista smallholding/smallholder Pachakutic–Nuevo País Movimiento de Unidad Plurinacional, Misiones Jesuit colonial territories in parts of Brazil and Political party in Ecuador Paraguay Pachamama Goddess of fertility and the earth Mita Forced indigenous labour or tribute Palaeozoic Geological era between the Precambrian and Moche (Mochica) civilization Pre-Hispanic civilization, the Mesozoic with its centre in current northern Peru, from about the Pan-American Highway (CarreteraPanamericana) Highway time of Christ to 800 CE extending from Alaska to the southern tip of South America Model of Mobility Transition Five-stage model devel- Paracas civilization Pre-Hispanic civilization on the oped by Zelinsky, focusing on population mobility and Pacific coast of current Peru, from about 1,100 BCE to migration 200 BCE Montaña Humid tropical montane forest on the eastern Paramito Cold fall wind affecting the foot of cordilleras flanks of the sierra Páramo Humid savannah-type grasslands in the Andean Morro Distinct mountain peak in proximity to a cordillera highlands of the inner tropics Mulatto Person of mixed black-white racial ancestry Parcela de agrado Large and exclusive residential parcel of NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement. signed in land 1992 by Canada, Mexico and the US Participatory GIS/Community Integrated GIS Geographical Nazca civilization Pre-Hispanic civilization on the Pacific Information System based on an active involvement and par- coast and western flanks of the sierra in current Peru, ticipation of local communities from about 370 BCE to 600 CE Pediment Broad, flat, or gently sloping erosion surface in Nazca Plate Oceanic plate off the Pacific coast of Peru arid climates Necropolis Large, ancient cemetery with important tomb Pegmatic Coarsely crystalline igneous rock material structures Peninsulares Direct descendants of Spain Nieves penitentes Jagged pinnacles of snow or firn result- Peon Agricultural worker ing from differential ablation under conditions of strong Permian Last period of the Palaeozoic insolation; especially occurring in high-altitude, low-lat- Peruvian Current (Humboldt Current) Cold ocean cur- itude zones rent affecting the Pacific coast of Ecuador, Peru and Nitisol Deep, red, well-drained soil with a high clay con- northern Chile tent, found in the tropics and subtropics Physiological population density Population density Nothofagus Southern beech of southern South America and defined by the number of people per unit area of arable Australasia and settled land Nudo Mountain knot in the Andes Plan Colombia US support in Colombia to combat the Obraje Workshop or manufacturing plant during the drug cartels and leftist insurgents Spanish colonial rule Plaza Square or market location Oca (oxalis tuberosa) Hardy and frost-resistant high-alti- Plaza Mayor (Plaza de Armas) Central square of a Latin- tude tuber crop in the tierra helada American city
334 Glossary Pleistocene glaciation Glacial epoch during the Quaternary Regosol Weakly developed mineral soil in unconsolidated Plinthosol Soil formed under a variety of climatic and top- material ographic conditions, characterized by a subsurface layer Remittances (remesas) Money transfers from abroad, of containing an iron-rich mixture of clay minerals and sil- migrants to families and relatives in their old homeland ica, often hardening into ironstone concretions Repartimiento Land grant awarded by the Spanish Crown Pneumatolytic Produced by gaseous emanations to soldiers and other people, and to promote colonization Podsol Soil that develops underneath coniferous vegetation Rio Protocol Peace agreement signed in 1942 in Rio de Polycentric urban structure City consisting of several Janeiro, with the intent of redrawing the border between urban nodes Ecuador and Peru and to resolve their territorial conflict Polylepis (queñua) Shrub and tree species of high eleva- Runa Quechua term for Andean person tions in the tropical Andes, characterized by a gnarled Rupa-rupa (selva alta) Warm and very humid level of shape and a multi-layered bark montane and cloud forests at the eastern slopes of the Porphyric rock Igneous rock composed of large crystals sierra in Peru embedded in a fine-grained groundmass Ruta de Azogue (mercury trade route) Colonial trade Pueblos jóvenes Shantytowns in Lima route linking Huancavelica, Peru, with Arica on the Puerto habilitado Port granted the privilege by the Spanish Pacific coast Crown to participate in the transatlantic trade Ruta de la Plata (silver trade route) Colonial trade route Puna Semi-arid steppe vegetation in the outer tropical linking highland Potosí with Arica highlands (tierra helada) Sabana de Bogotá Inter-montane plateau around Bogotá, Puquio Underground tunnel of irrigation canal Colombia, filled with a lake during the Pleistocene Puya raimondii Largest species of bromeliads (‘Queen of Saber andino Traditional Andean wisdom and knowledge the Andes’) endemic to the highlands of Peru and Bolivia Salar Salt pan in the semi-arid parts of the Altiplano Pyroclastic material Material formed by volcanic explo- San Agustín civilization Pre-Hispanic civilization with its sion or aerial expulsion from a volcanic vent centre in the highlands of current southern Colombia, Q’ollo Riti’i Festival (‘Star of the Snow Festival’) Pilgrimage from about 600 BCE to 1,540 CE and traditional mountain rituals of the Q’ero people below Saraguros Indigenous group of people living on the high- Mt Ausangate in Peru lands of southern Ecuador Quechua (1) Major indigenous and linguistic group Saya Administrative subdivision of the Inca Empire Quechua (2) Temperate to cool ecosystem level at the outer Scree Material that makes up a sloping surface, also known flanks of the cordilleras (2,300–3,500 m) in Peru as talus Q’ero Indigenous group in Peru Selva Tropical rainforest Quimbaya civilization Pre-Hispanic civilization in the Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) Insurgent terrorist northern Andes, from about 900 CE to 1,200 CE movement in Peru in the 1980s and 1990s Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) High-altitude, protein-rich Sérac Jagged, sharp-ridged block of glacier ice grain crop of the Andes Shuar Indigenous group of people living in the western Quipu Inca counting system of knots Amazon lowlands and adjacent foothills in Ecuador Raised fields (camellones, waru waru) Rows of heaped up Sierra Andean mountain region agricultural plots separated by small ditches Solfatara Emissions of sulphurous gases from volcanic Ramsar Convention Convention on the protection of vent wetlands of international importance, signed in 1971 in Soroche Altitude sickness triggered by a reduced supply of Ramsar, Iran oxygen to the human body Rancho Shantytown in Caracas Spiritual Park Protected area with an emphasis on its spir- Rastafarianism Religious-cultural movement with roots in itual heritage the Old Testament and in the Coptic religion Stratovolcano Volcano constructed by alternating layers of Reciprocity (reciprocidad) Andean concept based on lava and pyroclastics an interchange of knowledge, labour and relationships Subduction Process of one crustal block descending between humans and nature beneath another one, by faulting or folding processes Reconquista Christian reconquest of Islamic territories on Sukacollo Raised field on the Bolivian Altiplano the Iberian Peninsula; in Chile and Argentina also wars Suni (jalca sallqa) Cold grassland and shrub ecological in the 19th century against the Amerindians zone (3,500–4,000 m) in the Peruvian highlands Reducciones Amerindian villages established by the colo- Sunken fields (qochas) Narrow strips of agricultural par- nial authorities to Christianize, control and exploit the cels and small irrigation ditches laid out in shallow, native population excavated hollows
Glossary 335 Surazos (nortes) Cold Antarctic winds affecting Patagonia Tussock Bunch grasses in the Poaceae family, occurring in Syncretism Blending of different religious beliefs and/or many different habitats philosophical views Urban primacy Situation in which the largest city of a Tafonization Process by which granitic rocks are hollowed country or another administrative unit dominates the out by cavernous weathering urban system, and the second- largest city has less than Tahuantisuyu Inca Empire half the population of the largest city Tamarillo (solanum betaceum) Tree tomato, native to the Uros (Uru people) Group of indigenous people living in the tropical Andes Lake Titicaca/Lake Poopó region of Peru and Bolivia Tambo House of supplies and rest of the Inca Uti possidetis Legal principle recognizing an acquired ter- Tarabucos Indigenous group of people in the Bolivian ritory, unless this is being changed by international law highlands near Sucre Valdivia civilization Pre-Hispanic civilization, with its Tarwi (lupinus mutabilis) Andean lupin plant cultivated for centre in the area of the Gulf of Guayas, from about its edible beans 3,500 BCE to 1,500 BCE Tectonics Branch of geology dealing with the broad archi- Valle Central (Valle Longitudinal) Principal longitudinal tecture of the upper part of the Earth’s crust valley between the coastal mountains and the high cor- Tephra General term for all pyroclastic features dillera in Chile Tertiary Period Geological period after the Cenozoic and Verano Dry season in the tropical Andes, summer in the before the Quaternary extratropical Andes Thermo-isopleth map Map depicting lines of equal value Vertical control Complementary forms of land use and where the coordinates are the time of the day and the day agricultural activities at different altitudinal levels of the year Vice-Royalty Large Spanish colonial administrative dis- Tholeiite Group of basaltic rocks trict in Latin America Tiahuanaco civilization High civilization pre-dating the Inca Violencia Civil war in Colombia, 1948 - ca.1958 civilization, with its centre in the vicinity of the southern War of the Pacific War between Chile and Bolivia, shores of Lake Titicaca, from about 330 CE to 1,000 CE 1879–1883 Tierra caliente Lowest, warm ecological zone in the tropi- Woolsack weathering (spheroidal weathering) Peeling off cal Andes of concentric layers of rock material creating rounded Tierra templada Intermediate temperate ecological zone boulders, especially of granitic rocks Tierra fria Upper, cool ecological zone WTO World Trade Organization, founded in 1995 with the Tierra helada High, frost-prone ecological ecological zone intention to supervise and liberalize international trade Tierra nevada (nival) Zone of permanent snow and ice Xerophyte Species of plant that has adapted to dry Tola Resinous shrubs characteristic of the semi-arid puna environments vegetation Yareta Evergreen pant adapted to the high insolation rates Totora Reed subspecies of the giant bulrush sedge, of the puna grasslands famously found on Lake Titicaca Yuca (manioc cassava) Manihot esculenta, extensively culti- Triassic First period of the Mesozoic era and before the vated tuberous root crop in tropical and subtropical regions Jurassic Yungas Deeply entrenched, humid transverse valleys in Tropic of Cancer Northernmost latitude (around 23° eastern Bolivia 26′N) north of the Equator at which the sun is directly Yunga costal Semi-arid ecosystem level with sparse vegeta- overhead tion on the Pacific flanks of the western cordillera in Peru Tropic of Capricorn Southernmost latitude (23° 26′S) Yunga fluvial Humid, warm montane forest level at the south of the equator at which the sun is directly overhead eastern slopes of the cordillera in Peru Trueque System of barter and exchange Zafra Seasonal harvesting work Tugurio Unplanned, marginal urban settlement in Colombia Zambo Person of mixed Amerindian-black racial ancestry Tumba real Cave-like structure in Machu Picchu adjacent to Zona franca Duty-free zone the Temple of the Sun, containing several ceremonial niches Zonda Warm and dry downslope wind in Patagonia
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