Gendered adverts: an analysis of female and male images in contemporary perfume ads
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
Comunicação e Sociedade, vol. 21, 2012, pp. 95 – 107
Gendered adverts: an analysis of female and
male images in contemporary perfume ads
Sandra Tuna e Elsa Freitas
Universidade Fernando Pessoa. esimoes@ufp.edu.pt; stuna@ufp.edu.pt
Abstract
Nowadays, in an increasingly more evident manner, perfumes assume the role
of tokens of individuality and sexual orientation of those who wear them. Magazine
ads that divulge the different perfume brands foreground that characteristic, by using
partially stereotypical forms of representation when it comes to their protagonists:
men, women (alone, in couples or in groups). After a brief theoretical contextualiza-
tion on the verbal and visual signification modes in magazine ads, the present article
undertakes the analysis of a corpus constituted by perfume magazine ads of different
brands, gathered during 2010 and 2011, in order to detect recurrent themes, forms of
representation and motifs as to the use of female and male images that can be found
in this specific type of advertising.
Key-words
Advertising; perfumes; magazine ads; male images; female images.
Introduction
In a discussion on the socio-cultural implications of scents throughout the years,
Classen et al. (1994) draw attention to the emotionally-charged nature of odour and to
the marginalization of the sense of smell in contemporary Western societies. Today, in
the world of commodities, besides the product category under analysis – perfume as an
image enhancer – fragrance has extended to other toiletries, in which scents are often
associated with different product properties, thus gaining importance and visibility both
in the sphere of consumer products and in public (promotional) discourses. This is the
case, for instance, with deodorant ads (especially for men), where the primary function
of the product, i.e. to eliminate body odour is completely superseded by its powerful and
enticing scent, in which case the association with something that is olfactorily pleasant
counteracts the negative smell of bodily odours (Freitas, 2008: 143). In this instance,
scent appears as a positive redeeming factor for a product whose main function is basi-
cally negative, because it neutralizes something undesirable:
Although natural body odour is stigmatized and supressed, artificial body
odour – in the form of perfume and colognes – is condoned and even
celebrated. Thus, while deodorants strip the body of its natural olfactory
signs, perfumes invest it with a new, ‘ideal’ olfactory identity. These ideal
identities are promoted by the ‘dream merchants’ of the perfume indus-
try who assure consumers that all good things come to those with the
right sense. (Classen et al., 1994: 180)
On the other hand, the large number of perfume adverts in all kinds of
media increases steadily, as new fragrances are launched periodically by beauty
95
Comunicação e Sociedade, vol. 21, 2012
laboratories and fashion designers, in a demanding market that requires constant
updating, thus making advertising a fundamental element in the commercial
strategy of such products.
Thus, by looking into recent male and female perfume adverts, this short
study seeks to identify recurrent themes and discursive patterns in perfume adverts
in magazines, as well as to analyse the major strategies used in such messages,
outlining, at the same time, differences and similarities between them according to
the gender they are aimed at.
1- Methodology
The analysis undertaken is based on a significant collection of various brands
2010-11 fragrance adverts, collected from fashion and women magazines, namely
various issues of Cosmopolitan and Elle. Where necessary, adverts included in
sites dedicated to the gathering of perfume averts were used as they offer better
editing quality. Notwithstanding, in every instance, these correspond to the ad-
verts’ print versions.
The methodological approach adopted in the present article consists mostly
of content analysis, understanding ‘content’ to include every component of the ad-
vert, according to Guy Cook’s (1992: 3) proposal, which considers both pictorial and
verbal elements as essential and equally meaningful parts of advertising discourse
in the print medium. In fact, to privilege textual analysis over visual matter (or vice-
versa) would result in a severely unbalanced reading of the corpus, since the con-
veyance of meanings in print ads takes place by means of a process of convergence
and reiteration of the same message via every channel available. Although a total
simultaneity in the analysis of the channels is virtually impossible, we will try to take
into consideration every element in the ads of our corpus in our readings.
In order to single out the main themes in this corpus, in addition to iden-
tifying the main characteristics of perfume adverts, we have looked into three
major aspects – (a) recurrent visuals, which, in the case of print perfume adverts,,
include mostly photographic images (Rose, 2001: 6); (b) perfume names, and
(c) other verbal elements – though we understand this division between the ad’s
constitutive elements can only be postulated for methodological purposes and
does not mimic the real-life experience of audiences when they come across them
in magazines or even outdoors.
2- Perfume adverts: overall features
One of the most prominent features of perfume advertising is that they are
strongly based on visuals. A pioneer study carried out on perfume advertising in
magazines in Portugal (Tuna, 2004) reveals that a significant number of print per-
fume adverts rely on pictorial elements alone, with no other verbal elements but
brand and product names, which are also prominently displayed, thus providing
enough verbal cues and contextualizing elements to the advertising message. The
fact that scents are difficult to describe and verbalize may partly explain an emi-
nently visual strategy in advertising: smell is a ‘highly illusive phenomenon’, as it
cannot be remembered for a long time, and it can hardly be named, except by anal-
ogy (Classen et al., 1994: 3). This lack of vocabulary on scents and fragrances may
be attributed to their relative low status in contemporary Western societies, as it
96
Gendered adverts: an analysis of female and male images in contemporary perfume ads . Sandra Tuna e Elsa Freitas
is possible to confirm by looking at the scarce vocabulary on olfactory sensations,
which, as claimed by Classen et al. (1994: 109-113) is relatively poor when compared
to non-European languages:
Although the human nose is capable of recognizing thousands of diffe-
rent odours, nearly all of our odour categories – sweet, pungent, bitter,
and so on – are borrowed from a limited selection of taste terms. Smells
are otherwise designated by reference to things from which they emana-
te (…). It has been suggested that this poverty of olfactory terms is due
to the relative unimportance of olfaction in the West.
Perfume ads also seem to confirm
precedence of visual elements over verbal
ones, not to mention that copy text ele-
ments tend to be rather repetitive, unvary-
ing and exiguous. Phrases such as ‘The
new fragrance for … (men/women)’ seem
to be rather common, although we intend
to look into this aspect more thoroughly
below. The names given to perfumes,
however, present a richer variety, albeit
some lack of diversity as far as motifs or
themes are concerned, which justifies a
specific analysis of the element ‘name’ in
the present study. Even so, the latter are
frequently the only or the most prominent
verbal element in clearly visual-based ad-
Figure 1: Coco Chanel, 2011 vertising, which seems to be consistent
with Classen’s view that there has been a
rise of visualism in modern Western socie-
ties, related to an increased importance of
the sense of sight from the Enlightenment
on, intensified in contemporary societies:
‘Smell is such a neglected sense in the
modern West that we can scarcely con-
ceive of it as being an important subject of
cultural elaboration.’ (Classen, 1993:7-8).
Reliance on pictures, on the other
hand, may also be the result of an interna-
tionally-oriented standardized campaign.
Indeed, like many fashion and cosmetics
products, perfumes are often marketed as
part of an international brand’s product
range, which means that pictures are likely
to be part of the overall advertising strat-
egy. Despite acknowledged pictorial cul-
tural dimensions, it seems to be a fact that
Figure 2: Ricci Ricci, 2011
the iconicity of pictures makes them more
97
Comunicação e Sociedade, vol. 21, 2012
Figure 3: Examples of 2010 ads
Figure 4: Examples of 2011 ads
98
Gendered adverts: an analysis of female and male images in contemporary perfume ads . Sandra Tuna e Elsa Freitas
suitable to cross borders (Messaris, 1997: 93), and this is commonly a feature of cross-
cultural and/or global advertising approaches.
It is also important to note that, in perfume ads (which often strive for glo-
bal markets), visual iconicity – which, as we have seen, can be a far safer bet that
elaborated texts – often extends itself to (a) verbal matter, as in the case of special
letterings that ‘signify’ the product by means of a metonymic relationship or even to
(b) the container of the product itself. As Cook points out, bottle shapes are crucial
in the conveyance of meanings in perfume ads (1992: 78), confirming the message
that has already been passed on to us by the other channels.
Typically, the perfume advert consists of one or two people, a sophisticated
perfume bottle, the perfume name and a short text line indicating the product’s tar-
get audience (for him, for her, for both). It may eventually depict the perfume bottle
alone, even though this is a less frequent approach.
In the study mentioned above (Tuna, 2004, 157-160), which included 158 per-
fume adverts consistently collected between 1998 and 2001, 85% of the adverts
included the picture of a woman or a man or a couple, whereas adverts that empha-
sised the product alone represented 15% of the adverts gathered. The proportions
as far as male and female depiction is concerned may vary, though, but we will
concentrate on this aspect below. An analysis of print perfume advertisement of
2010-2011 indicates similar proportions in overall aspects of perfume advertising.
3- The pictures
We have discussed above that pictures, which in the present study consist
mostly of photographs, are expected to travel best in a globalized world. Therefore,
it is hardly surprising that they remain a more stable element in international adver-
tising. Moreover, if, besides the adverts that consist of picture and product name,
we also consider the significant amount of adverts that contain minimal textual ele-
ments, such as ‘Parfum’, or ‘Eau de Toilette’, the prominent role played by pictorial
features in advertising for perfumes becomes even more obvious.
The themes more commonly featured in perfume advertising pictures co-
incide with the most recurrent concepts and motifs, which comes as no surprise
since, as these adverts consist mostly of pictures, we can expect pictorial elements
to convey the main concept developed in the advertising message. Even so, certain
visual elements and themes are more recurrent. As far as settings and props are
concerned, flowery images and contexts abound, and so do sea landscapes and wa-
terfalls. Urban settings also constitute very recurrent sceneries, especially in brands
that adopt this concept (see figures 3 and 4).
When it comes to participants, the depiction of female models is by and large
the most common motif. There are indeed more adverts for female perfumes, and
there are more perfumes for women in most brands, but it is also a fact that there are
also adverts for men that use female models, and female perfume adverts that depict
men. Even so, the image of the woman is extremely exploited in perfume advertising,
and female nakedness has become very common in these advertisements. The typical
image of the sensuous woman enticingly or defiantly addressing the viewer continues
to be repeatedly employed in contemporary advertising, assuming the form of an
‘agent provocateur’, whose main function in ads is that of eliciting the desired emo-
tional response in the viewer (Cortese, 2004: 29). As explained above, adverts that
emphasize the image of the product itself are fewer (Figures 5 and 6)
99
Comunicação e Sociedade, vol. 21, 2012
Figure 5: Advert for male fragrance
Figure 7:
Adverts for male fragrances
(2010)
Figure 6: Advert for female fragrance
Adverts for men’s fragrances also use male models. However, the way they are
depicted still differs considerably from the adverts for women’s perfumes. Naked-
ness is less exploited, and models are frequently depicted in more casual positions,
emphasizing lifestyle rather than sensuality. Nonetheless, there seems to be an in-
creasing tendency to use the male figure in identical ways to their female counter-
parts, and the exploitation of men’s body in advertising, including nakedness, has
become increasingly more common (Cortese, 2004: 30) (Figure 7).
The adverts shown in Figure 8 reflect more recent tendencies towards con-
vergence in men’s and women’s adverts, producing a rather ‘effeminate’ image, an
effect especially obtained through the pose and the model’s gaze.
When we compare these adverts or Gaultier’s to that for Davidoff (or Lacoste),
which also uses a half-naked male figure, we may see that the latter, despite an ap-
parent use of the same visual devices, manages to preserve a more conventional
100
Gendered adverts: an analysis of female and male images in contemporary perfume ads . Sandra Tuna e Elsa Freitas
image of masculinity. If these two ad-
verts are yet compared to a third one,
which illustrates a more traditional
approach to advertising’s display of
male characters, differences become
even more evident.
It is possible that this broaden-
ing of possibilities in terms of male
representation corresponds to a more
tolerant view of society as to what the
concept of ‘masculinity’ might encom-
pass. However, we might postulate with
Cook that the depiction of tendentially
traditional roles still prevails: ‘Like other
products concerned with sexual rela-
tionships, perfume ads wrongly assume
an exclusively heterosexual market, al-
though some recent ads may have been
Figure 8: Trends towards convergence in male and deliberately ambivalent about the sexual
female fragrances (Gucci and Gaultier)
orientation they portray’ (1992: 103).
Figure 9 Male adverts (more conventional approaches)
A motif that is frequently adopted by perfume
advertising pictures is the image of a couple, which is
recurrent not only in adverts that promote male and
female fragrances simultaneously, but also in per-
fume adverts in general (Figure 10)
Some of these pictures exploit eroticism quite
explicitly, which seems to reveal increased permis-
siveness in contemporary Western societies. This may
raise some cultural issues, including that of taboo con-
cerning the use of themes such as sex and eroticism in
advertising. These motifs are often used as strategies
for increasing the appeal of products that, intrinsically,
do not present any kind of taboo association, in an
Figure 10: Adverts depicting couples
101
Comunicação e Sociedade, vol. 21, 2012
effort to make them look more daring and risqué (Odber de Baubeta, 1995: 95; Freitas,
2008: 148), as befits lifestyle goods such as perfumes.
4- The words of perfume ads
A closer look at advertisements for perfumes will reveal that there are few
references to smell, which is, after all the sense directly affected by these products
(see Classen et al., 1994: 189). This does not mean, however, that there is no ap-
peal to the senses, in general. On the contrary, the use of the terms ‘sense(s)’ and
‘sensation(s)’ is very frequent in perfume adverts, as the following example from
a print ad by Calvin Klein Truth illustrates: ‘Inspiration in the wind. Rhythm in the
water. The senses don’t lie’ (Figure 11)
Cook describes perfume adverts as ‘ticklers’, with very short copy, and normally
advertised through sudden burst campaigns, in special seasons, such as Christmas or
Valentine’s Day (1992: 103). In fact, the
difficulty in describing a scent in objec-
tive ways has not limited advertisers’
choices; according to Cook, ‘para-
doxically, this resistance to description
increases rather than decreases the
verbal freedom of advertisers’ (1992:
104). While the copy may play a rela-
tively minor role, words too are used
to create the overall image or effect of
the advertisement. The scent is often
described through emotionally-load-
Figure 11: Calvin Klein Truth (‘Senses don’t lie’)
ed, often abstract, nouns, such as ‘se-
duction’, ‘love’, ‘pleasure’, ‘sensation’, ‘tenderness’, among others. Thus, irrespective
of the amount of verbal elements, perfume advertising resorts to an emotional appeal,
in which the product is symbolically associated with sensuality, eroticism, mystery, ex-
oticism, as well as with different kinds of images connected with lifestyle and status.
These adverts try to create a mood rather than provide information about the tangible
properties of the product, which, as we have seen, are difficult to describe objectively:
‘the language is used to create a conception of the product, not to describe the product
itself’ (Classen et al., 1994: 187). In fact, as Cook points out, perfumes are ‘marketed and
perceived as expressions of the self and of sexuality’ (1992: 101), which means that a de-
gree of indeterminacy is welcome by ads, in that self-expression that consumers which
to attain and convey to others should not be too narrowly defined.
4.1- Names
In advertising, which relies so much on pictorial cues, the few verbal elements
will definitely stand out, and are therefore likely to be the object of careful considera-
tion. Brand and product (range) names are frequently the only verbal components
in perfume ads, and therefore play a prominent role in these messages, as well as in
the whole marketing strategy. They establish a close association with the brand and
commonly, in signature names, only the brand name is used. Given their salience,
normally both dimensions of names – their semantic-pragmatic features and their
visual features – do matter (Goossens, 1985).
102
Gendered adverts: an analysis of female and male images in contemporary perfume ads . Sandra Tuna e Elsa Freitas
Perfume names are often connected with mood rather than with the descrip-
tion of some factual property. Thus, their associative meaning is largely dependent
both on brand image and on advertising strategy. In addition, the typographical
characteristics play an active part in the conception and completion of that message:
On the label of a perfume flacon, on the package surrounding the flacon, and in
printed advertising for perfume, the typographic image of a perfume name is a form of
symbolic synesthesia that connects visual, auditory and olfactory images- the graphic
forms of the written name, the sound of the spoken name, and the fragrance. These im-
ages are not merely perceptions; they are symbols with meanings. (Bigelow, 1992:243)
The names of perfumes evolve greatly around the brand image and the pic-
tures, revealing thematic convergence. It is not surprising then that names evoking
love, glamour, eroticism, exoticism, lifestyle and colours are rather recurrent.
5. Themes and gender
As mentioned above, perfume
advertising campaigns are often built
to be used worldwide in standard-
ized campaigns, and therefore resort
to many of the appeals used in such
campaigns, as claimed by De Mooij
(1994: 244-249), who discusses the
themes and concepts that seem more
suitable for international campaigns,
namely to lifestyle concepts, and to
everyday themes, particularly youth-
fulness and love, as well as to ‘made
in’ concepts, which are exploited in
various ways.
Figure 12: Lifestyle ads Yet, there are some differences
in perfume adverts according to the
target gender. Although there has been
a convergent move in male and female
perfume adverts as far as images,
themes and concepts are concerned,
it is possible to trace divergence in
the advertising approaches, namely in
the strategies adopted, which seem to
raise relevant discussions on gender
discourses, as they point to the way
advertising uses images of women
Fig. 13: Male and female adverts foregrounding
gendered advertising approaches and men to promote products, as well
as in thematic preferences.
Classen et al. (1994: 189) claim that perfume adverts reflect the changes in
the role and image of women in Western societies. The changes referred to by the
authors concern the motifs and images explored in perfume advertising since the
1950s, when advertising messages drew on themes such as femininity and elegance,
displaying images of glamorous social events, and projecting the idea of women
whose main objective in wearing a perfume was to please men (1994: 189-190).
103
Comunicação e Sociedade, vol. 21, 2012
Images of the ‘sensuous’ and of the ‘natural’ woman became frequent in the next
two decades (Myers, 1986: 75). And, in the 1980s and 1990s, images of self-fulfil-
ment through the use of a fragrance took over (Classen et al., 1994: 189-190).
Male perfume adverts have evolved in a different way, especially because this
kind of product, and its advertising, was for some time considered as mostly femi-
nine. Thus, in the 1960s and 1970s, alternatives to the word ‘perfume’ (eau de toilette,
cologne and aftershave) were preferred, so as to avoid feminine connotations, a con-
cern that was also patent in the projection of blatant masculinity (Classen et al., 1994:
190-191). The idea that perfume adverts would make men more attractive to women
continued to be exploited, and, according to the authors, contemporary adverts have
become more sophisticated, but they still avoid the traditional connotations of the
term ‘perfume’, and still highlight the image of masculinity, which is now combined
with an idea of sensitivity.
According to our research, while the increased sophistication of advertising can
hardly be neglected, a clear-cut thematic evolution does not seem so obvious. Although
we have not carried out a diachronic
study, the exploration of motifs present in
the previous decades is still traceable in
contemporary advertising (Figure 14).
On the other hand, traditional
themes and less conventional approach-
es seem to co-exist. There are indications
of some convergence regarding perfumes
for men and women, which is well illus-
trated in adverts promoting male and
female fragrances simultaneously and
fragrances that are actually aimed at both.
It is also true that advertising has
become more audacious, exploiting im-
ages of romantic love, but especially erot-
icism and hedonism, as well as images
that clearly challenge and subvert tradi-
tional values. This also a characteristic
shared by both female and male perfume
adverts. Based on our analysis, we may
claim that almost all of the adverts col-
Figure 14: Male and female adverts, from 2010 and 2011
lected – for men as well as for women’s
fragrances – would fit into the themes of
love and eroticism, with more or less ex-
treme approaches, lifestyle (professions,
fashion, sports, glamour and sophistica-
tion), exoticism and ‘made in’ concepts,
as well as religious motifs, however sub-
verted they may appear. However, if we
look at the way such themes are distrib-
uted according to gender, there seems
to be a an emphasis on themes such
Figure 15: Adverts for male/female fragrances,
displaying more audacious approaches
as sports and business/professions in
104Gendered adverts: an analysis of female and male images in contemporary perfume ads . Sandra Tuna e Elsa Freitas
men’s perfume ads, whereas women’s fragrances tend to be advertised through mo-
tifs such as love, eroticism, glamour and fashion.
Nonetheless, and despite the confluence mentioned above, we have con-
firmed that the depiction of women models is still more frequent, and that nudity
and the erotic depiction of women participants prevail, when compared to similar
proportion of men depicted in more business-like poses.
Conclusion
Through this brief incursion in the world of perfume advertising in magazines,
it was possible to point out, in a tentative manner, a number of recurring themes
when it comes to the promotion of this specific product. As we have seen, the prod-
uct ‘perfume’ has a singularly elusive nature, which makes it virtually impossible
to advertise in terms of concrete physical attributes; hence the displacement that
can be witnessed in most perfume ads, where nothing specific about the product is
revealed, and a fictional beautified world is created to replace the lack of hard facts.
When it comes to the kind of settings preferred, it was also possible to identify some
recurrent thematic clusters, such as love and erotic appeals in general, lifestyle ap-
peals (where we can include professional and urban settings, sports activities, or
even glamour and sophistication related to the fashion world), more or less explicit
references to exotic settings, as well as references to religious motifs
As we have seen, perfumes appeal to one of our senses (olfaction) which is not
highly regarded in the Western world, being normally subsumed under the sense of
sight. This fact justifies the frequent use of synesthetic relationships between what
the ads show us and the sort of olfactory feelings the perfume is expected to inspire.
Even though the sense of smell is not given importance per se, perfumes have ac-
quired high status, in that they are luxury items that most people can afford and
which can say much about what they are in social terms.
This glance into the world of perfume advertising has confirmed these two
general trends: (1) the emphasis on the replacement of facts for lifestyle scenes
or mere portrayal of those who wear that specific scent, and (2) foregrounding of
visuality, in that the specific action of smelling is never depicted or mimicked, be-
ing synesthetically replaced by the gaze of the actors portrayed, which in its turn, is
replicated by the gaze of people who contemplate the ad.
It was also possible to determine some recurrent themes in point (2): the use
of female models is (still) more frequent, even though the imbalance between the
use of women and men in this type of ads has diminished. This is probably due to
the fact that the use of perfume by men is now accepted as natural or even desir-
able, which did not happen in the past, where the use of fragrance for the purpose
of smelling good has to be masked under some type of practical purpose.
Another theme that is recurrent nowadays is the use of couples in these ads.
Even though they are normally formed by a man and a woman, assuming by de-
fault the existence of a heterosexual relationship, this couple (or sometimes group)
representation might imply a degree of intended indeterminacy in terms of target
audience, implying that one perfume can be used both by men and women or even
that the target intended might be homosexual. This tendency is also visible in more
effeminate portrayals of male actors (who, very often, are much more naked than
they were in the past). Also, both men and women are often shown in provocateur
roles, which were reserved to women in the past.
105Comunicação e Sociedade, vol. 21, 2012
This alteration in themes can, in fact, correspond to the portrayal of new so-
cial trends in gender roles. Or, as some authors point out, it can be nothing more
than a fanciful reshuffling of previous notions on ‘proper’ male and female images
in society: in that case, the apparent novelty of some of the perfume ads we have
discussed could be a mere scratching of the surface that only confirms what tradi-
tional advertising has been proposing for a long time, reflecting heterosexuality as
the norm, as well as the widespread use of (naked) women as an enticement factor.
Further research in this area may contribute to enlighten some of the issues we have
tentatively raised in the present article.
References
Bigelow, C. (1992) ‘The Typography of Perfume Advertising’ in Van Toller, S. & Dodd, G. (eds.)
(1992) Fragrance: The Philosophy and Biology of Perfume, London and New York: Elsevier
Applied Science, pp. 243-259.
Classen, C., Howes, D. & Synnott, A. (1994) Aroma: The Cultural History of Smell, London and New
York: Routledge.
Classen, C. (1993) Worlds of Sense: Exploring the Senses in History and across Cultures, New York:
Routledge.
Cook, G. (1992) The Discourse of Advertising, London: Routledge.
Cortese, A.J. (2004) Provocateur: Images of Women and Minorities in Advertising, Lanham: Rowman
& Littlefield.
De Mooij, M. (1994) Advertising Worldwide: Concepts, Theories and Practice of International,
Multinational and Global Advertising, New York: Prentice Hall.
Freitas, E.S.L. (2008) Taboo in Advertising, Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Goossens, L. (1985) ‘What’s in an Advertising Name?’ in Debusscher, G. & van Noppen, J.P. (eds.)
(1985) Communiquer et Traduire: Hommages à Jean Dierickx, Bruxelles: Éditions de L’Université
de Bruxelles, pp. 95-102.
Messaris, P. (1997) Visual Persuasion: The Role of Images in Advertising, Thousand Oaks, London,
New Delhi: Sage Publications.
Myers, K. (1986) Understains…The Sense and Seduction of Advertising, London: Comedia.
Odber de Baubeta, P. (1995) ‘Pecado, Sedução e Tentação: O Discurso Publicitário Actual’ in
Discursos – Estudos de Língua e Cultura Portuguesa 10, Lisboa: Universidade Aberta, 95-120.
Rose, G. (2001) Visual Methodologies, London: Sage Publications
Tuna, S.G. (2004) ‘Advertising in Translation: The Translation of Cosmetics and Perfume
Advertisements into Portuguese’ Unpublished PhD Thesis, Warwick: University of Warwick.
Electronic references
‘Images de Parfums: Fragrance Advertisements from 1980s onwards’. Available at http://www.
imagesdeparfums.fr/ (accessed on January-May 2011)
106You can also read
