IMPACTS OF SUNSCREENS ON CORAL REEFS - FUNDED WITH THE SUPPORT OF THE GOVERNMENT OF SWEDEN AND THE FONDATION POUR LA RECHERCHE SUR LA BIODIVERSITE ...
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AL
ATIVE
IMPACTS
OF SUNSCREENS
ON CORAL REEFS
FUNDED WITH THE SUPPORT OF THE GOVERNMENT OF SWEDEN
AND THE FONDATION POUR LA RECHERCHE SUR LA BIODIVERSITE
AUTHOR:
ELIZABETH WOOD
Impacts of sunscreens on corals - ICRI briefing - Feb 2018 1
SUMMARY This document responds to Goal 3(5) of the International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI) Plan of Action 2016-2018, which seeks to review
issues relating to the impact of sunscreens on coral reefs.
Sunscreens contain organic (chemical) and/or inorganic • Damage and deformation of coral larvae (planulae). • Investigating UV filter toxicity in relation to predicted
(mineral) UV filters that absorb, reflect or scatter UV warming and ocean acidification conditions.
• Damage to coral DNA and to their reproductive
light. They also contain inactive ingredients such as anti-
success. • Researching the extent and significance of bio-
microbial preservatives, moisturisers and anti-oxidants.
concentration and bio-accumulation of organic UV
To date, experiments have largely been undertaken ex- filters as well as the consequences of long-term,
Sunscreen ingredients including chemical
situ and there are concerns that they may not properly chronic exposure to sunscreen pollutants.
(benzophenone-3 and -4 (BP-3 or oxybenzone; BP-4),
reflect conditions on the reef, where pollutants could be
ethylhexyl methoxy cinnamate (EHMC), homosalate • Studying the effects of pharmaceutical and personal
rapidly dispersed and diluted. In general, concentrations
(HMS), 4-methylbenzylidene camphor (4-MBC), care products (PPCP) mixtures to provide a more
of UV filters used in experimental work have been higher
diethylamino hydroxybenzoyl hexyl benzoate (DHHB)) realistic picture of ecological risks posed by the use
than likely to be encountered in the reef environment.
and mineral (titanium dioxide and zinc oxide) UV filters of these products.
Most experiments have also been of relatively short
have been detected in coastal waters. UV filters reach
duration (12 or 24 hours). On the reef, while UV filters • Identifying those ingredients that are safe and those
coastal waters either directly as a consequence of
may be at lower concentrations, they can accumulate in that pose a realistic threat to marine ecosystems.
washing off swimmers and/or indirectly from wastewater
organisms and sediment and thus become persistent,
treatment plant effluents. Many of these components
with largely unknown consequences. Considering the many stresses already faced by reefs
have also been found in marine biota including fish,
and current concerns about the toxicity of certain
molluscs and corals as well as in sediments.
Research to date has also concentrated mainly on components of sunscreens to corals, a proactive and
the effects of sunscreens and individual chemicals at precautionary approach to dealing with this issue may
Where sunscreen components have been detected,
subcellular, cellular and individual organism level, with be required. Reducing the amount of harmful sunscreen
concentrations are very variable. They are generally
very few studies of wider impacts. components that reach the reef environment is a high
found at barely detectable levels of a few parts per
priority and will require the involvement of governments,
trillion but much higher concentrations of over 1 part per
Further research is needed to better understand which reef managers, divers, snorkelers and swimmers, and the
million (ppm) have been reported in a few locations (e.g.
ingredients are safe and which pose a realistic threat to tourism and pharmaceutical industries. The following
1.395 ppm BP-3 reported by Downs et al (2015) in the
marine ecosystems, in particular: measures are recommended:
US Virgin Islands).
• Determining concentrations of different sunscreen • Encouraging the manufacture of reef-friendly
A small number of studies have shown that sunscreen components in the water column, sediment and biota, sunscreens.
and certain individual components of sunscreen can comparing locations that are heavily visited and/or
• Promoting the use of reef-friendly sunscreens and
have negative effects on corals and other marine affected by coastal run-off with those that are more
other methods of UV protection
organisms under certain circumstances. The chemical remote.
UV filter oxybenzone has been studied most intensively • Regulating the sale and use of sunscreens containing
• Investigating the effects of sunscreen pollutants at
and the following effects have been described: toxins
reef community and ecosystem level.
• Bleaching of coral fragments and coral cells from • Exerting consumer pressure to encourage
• Exploring links between organismal or cellular/
various species of hard coral. This effect is more development and use of eco-friendly sunscreens
subcellular-level biomarkers that more easily allow
pronounced at higher water temperatures. • Introducing financial disincentives for manufacture
the study of pharmaceutical effects on biodiversity/
• Induction of the lytic viral cycle in symbiotic community composition and ecosystem functioning. and use of potentially damaging sunscreens
zooxanthellae with latent infections.
Impacts of sunscreens on corals - ICRI briefing - Feb 2018 2
1/ INTRODUCTION
There is intense concern about the future health and In recent years, a number of studies have shown that
ecological integrity of coral reefs in the face of global sunscreens and other cosmetic products contain
climate change. This is considered to be one of the chemical substances that are adding to the pollution
greatest threats to reefs worldwide and is causing coral burden faced by coral reefs. Exposure to ultraviolet (UV)
bleaching and ecosystem change at unprecedented solar radiation poses a threat to public health, including
levels. Coral reefs are also under considerable stress from the risk of sunburn, photo-aging and skin cancer (Pathak,
overfishing, destructive fishing, coastal development 1987), and growing concern about these harmful effects
and pollution. There is universal agreement that coral has led to an increase in use of sunscreens. The world’s
reefs face an unpredictable future and that action needs coastal population and coastal tourism are expected to
to be taken at all levels if their integrity and values are to grow during this century and it is anticipated that the
be maintained. use of sunscreens and cosmetics containing UV-filters
will rise further. Given the status of reefs, it is essential
that the impact of sunscreens on corals is assessed and
addressed.
2/ COMPOSITION OF SUNSCREENS
Early sunscreens worked by providing a physical barrier against UV radiation. Sunscreens typically comprise up
between the skin and the sun’s rays but by the 1960s, to 20 or more chemical compounds (Danovaro et al.,
the cosmetic industry had developed more complex 2008).
sunscreens containing specific UV filters. These filters
come in two forms, organic (chemical) and inorganic The most widely used mineral filters are zinc oxide and
(mineral), which act by absorbing, reflecting or scattering titanium dioxide, often in the form of nanoparticles (NPs)
UV light. Organic and inorganic filters are often used in to avoid the whitening effect on the skin caused by these
combination to offer full protection against both UV- compounds. The International Cooperation on Cosmetic
A and UV-B radiation. They are also present in a large Regulation defines a nanomaterial as an insoluble,
number of other pharmaceutical and personal care intentionally manufactured ingredient with one or more
products (PPCPs). dimensions ranging from 1 nm to 100 nm in the final
formulation (Auffan et al., 2009; Ansell et al., 2010).
Organic filters include benzophenone-3 (BP-3; also Other minerals used in sunscreens include silicate-
known as oxybenzone), benzophenone-4 (BP-4), para- based substances such as talc and kaolin. Sunscreens
aminobenzoic acid (PABA) and PABA esters, cinnamates, also contain inactive ingredients such as anti-microbial
salicylates, camphor derivatives, dibenzoylmethanes preservatives, moisturisers and anti-oxidants which
and anthranilates (Chisvert et al., 2001; Danovaro may make up between 30 and 70% of the product.
and Corinaldesi 2003). These are generally used
in combination because no single one, at currently
permitted concentrations, provides sufficient protection
Impacts of sunscreens on corals - ICRI briefing - Feb 2018 3
3/ OCCURRENCE OF SUNSCREEN COMPONENTS
IN THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT
This section reviews studies have been carried out to The overall quantity of sunscreens that enter the ocean part per million (mg/L) have been reported (e.g. 1.395
investigate the occurrence and concentration of UV is not known, although some estimates have been ppm oxybenzone reported by Downs et al (2015) in the
filters in seawater, marine sediments and biota. These made. Some 20,000 tons of sunscreen were estimated US Virgin Islands). It is however, important to note, that
are not confined to areas with coral reefs but provide by Corinaldesi (2001) to be released annually into although the concentrations may be low, persistence of
a broad picture of the range of sunscreen components the northern Mediterranean. Danovaro et al (2008) low concentrations may have additive effects if these
that reach the marine environment. Risk assessments estimated that 4,000-6,000 tons of sunscreen wash off chemicals are sequestered by marine organisms.
have also been conducted to provide an indication of the people into coral reef areas each year but Downs et al
environmental implications of this pollution. (2015), citing Shaath and Shaath (2005), UNWTO (2007),
Danovaro et al. (2008) and Wilkinson (2008), concluded
Organic and inorganic UV-filters reach coastal waters that 6,000-14,000 tons of sunscreen lotion are released
either directly from people who have applied sunscreens into coral reef areas each year. Downs et al (2015) note
before entering the water and/or indirectly from that many of the lotions contain 1-10% of the UV filter
wastewater treatment plant effluents (e.g. Daughton and oxybenzone and suggest that at least 10% of global
Ternes, 1999; Danovaro et al., 2008; Sánchez-Quiles and reefs and 40% of coastal reefs are at risk of exposure to
Tovar-Sánchez 2015). Sunscreen ingredients, including this chemical. However, to date, the level of exposure
oxybenzone, BP-4, ethylhexyl methoxy cinnamate has only been quantified at a few coral reef sites.
(EHMC), homosalate (HMS), 4-methylbenzylidene
camphor (4-MBC), diethylamino hydroxybenzoyl hexyl Where sunscreen components have been detected,
benzoate (DHHB), titanium dioxide and zinc oxide, have concentrations are very variable; most work has been
been detected in coastal waters (Daughton and Ternes undertaken on oxybenzone and information for this
1999; Giokas et al. 2007, Danovaro et al., 2008; Tovar- chemical is summarised in Table 1. Sunscreen filters
Sánchez et al., 2013; Sánches Rodrίguez et al., 2015; are generally found at barely detectable levels of a few
Downs et al., 2015). parts per trillion (ng/L), but concentrations of over 1
Impacts of sunscreens on corals - ICRI briefing - Feb 2018 4
TABLE 1/ CONCENTRATIONS OF OXYBENZONE (BP-3)
REPORTED IN SHALLOW WATERS AT VARIOUS SITES.
Further details for each of the countries/states where research has been undertaken are provided after the table.
SITE SAMPLING LOCATION OXYBENZONE CONCENTRATION
US VIRGIN ISLANDS: CARIBBEAN SEA
Trunk Bay 2007 (Downs et al., 2015) Shallow water adjacent to reef. 180 people in water prior to sampling 580μg L-1 - 1.395 mg L-1
Trunk Bay June 2013. (Bargar et al., 2015) 2 samples at shoreline, 1 sample 30m from offshore island at 1m depth 1,943 – 4,643ng L-1
Trunk Bay June 2014.
shoreline at
SITE SAMPLING LOCATION OXYBENZONE CONCENTRATION
CHINA
Hong Kong (Tsui et al., 2017) 4 locations; wet and dry seasons 12.9 - 31.9 ng L-1
JAPAN
Okinawa (Tashiro and Kameda, 2013) Shallow water 300-600m from beach 0.4 - 3.8 ng L-1
HAWAII (DOWNS ET AL., 2015)
Detectable >100 ng L-1; below
Oahu Island; Maunalua Bay May 2011 4 sites; 35cm depth
quantitative range of 5 μg L-1
1 site: 19.2 μg L-1
1 site; 35cm depth
Maui Island: Kapalua Bay May 2011 Detectable >100 ng L-1; below
Often >500 swimmers
quantitative range of 5 μg L-1
PALAU (BELL ET AL., 2017)
4.12 - 10.2 ng L-1 in 3 samples. Not
8 samples. Tourist location: visited by tens of thousands of people.
Palau: Jellyfish Lake water. Jan 2016 detectable in 4 samples; present but
Marine lake water
not measurable in 1 sample.
Palau: Jellyfish Lake, from inlet by tourist dock: 8 samples 4.99 - 5.36 ng L-1 in 2 samples. Not
8 samples. Marine lake water by tourist dock
Jan 2016. detectable in 6 samples
Palau: Outside Jellyfish Lake near outside dock: Jan
4 samples. Not a swimming area Not detectable in any of 4 samples
2016.
8 samples. Marine lake water. Intended as control site away from 4.4 to 18.5 ng L-1 at 3 sites; not
Palau: Ngermeuangel Lake water. Jan 2016.
tourist areas detected at 9 sites
Palau: lagoon outside entrance to Ngermeuangel Lake:
4 samples. Not a swimming area Not detectable in any sample
Jan 2016.
Palau: Ocean outside Lighthouse Reef 4 samples: control site Not detectable in any sample
Impacts of sunscreens on corals - ICRI briefing - Feb 2018 6
3.1. US VIRGIN ISLANDS Carolina sites found the highest concentrations
measured were > 3700 ng OC L-1 and ~ 2200 ng
3.5. HONG KONG
(Caribbean) oxybenzone L-1 at a local beach front park, where beach (West Pacific)
use was the greatest (Bratkovics et al., 2015).
Initial analysis of seawater at Trunk Bay on St John Tsui et al. (2017) investigated the occurrence and
Island showed levels of oxybenzophenones in the distribution of seven commonly used organic UV filters
water column between 1 ppm and 90 parts per billion
(ppb) (Downs et al., 2011). Further sampling revealed
3.3. MAJORCA ISLAND in corals, seawater and sediment from the eastern Pearl
River Estuary, South China Sea. Three of the sites had
oxybenzone levels of 1.395 ppm (mg L-1) at a site near (Mediterranean Sea - Spain) coral cover over 65% and were hotspots for snorkeling,
the edge of the Trunk Island coral community (Downs et scuba diving and swimming. The remaining site was dived
al., 2015). A sampling site 93 m east of this site contained Chemical analysis of the surface nearshore waters of less frequently due to strong currents and low (65%) and concentrations (31.8 ±
and padimate-O were 62–321 ng L−1, 30–264 ng L−1 DHHB) were monitored in samples from six beaches 8.6 and 24.7 ± 10.6 ng g-1 wet weight respectively) were
andindicated that over 20% of coral samples from the
study sites contained BP-3 concentrations exceeding
3.7. PALAU
the threshold values for causing larval deformities and (Pacific Ocean)
mortality in the worst-case scenario. Higher probabilities
of negative impacts of BP-3 on coral communities are Bell et al (2017) analysed 22 chemicals in water and
predicted to occur in the wet season (Tsui et al., 2017). 23 in sediment and jellyfish samples in Jellyfish Lake
(a tourist site) and three comparison sites (non-tourist
sites) in Palau. The chemicals were either found directly
3.6. HAWAI’I in sunscreen formulations or products (metabolites) that
the body makes from one of the sunscreen chemicals.
(Pacific Ocean) These were found to be widespread in Jellyfish Lake
and also present in the sites presumed to be ‘pristine’
Seawater samples were collected in public swimming with little human use. In general, water samples had low
areas at five sites in Maunalua Bay (Downs et al., levels of sunscreen compounds, while jellyfish tissues
2015). Four sites had detectable levels of oxybenzone and sediment had relatively higher levels of these
([100 pptrillion; ng L-1) but were below the quantitative compounds and metabolites, a potential indication of
range of measurement (5 ppb (µg L-1). The fifth site bioaccumulation of these chemicals (Bell et al., 2017).
contained measurable levels of oxybenzone (19.2 ppb Jellyfish Lake had the highest concentrations of the
(µg L-1). Samples were also collected at two sites along chemicals, suggesting that these are entering the
the northwest coast of Maui Island. Kapalua Bay is a environment by washing off tourists and that jellyfish
protected cove and has a public beach that can often may then be absorbing and metabolizing oxybenzone
receive 500 swimmers per day in the peak tourism season. (Bell et al., 2017). Compounds were also detected in
The Kapalua sample, taken immediately above remnants Ngermeuangel Lake, where there are no visitors. Bell et
of a coral reef, had detectable levels of oxybenzone but al (2017) suggest that the sunscreen compounds here
was below the quantitative range of measurement (5 may have come from effluent/sewer leaking from the
Snorkeling in Jellyfish Lake - Palau. Photo: ©
ppb (µg L-1). Kahekili Beach Park is a public beach that nearby population centre into the adjacent watersheds.
also serves visitors from a number of nearby hotels and Bell et al (2017) conclude that the presence of sunscreen
resorts (Downs et al., 2015). Unlike Kapalua, Kahekili is chemicals in both the jellyfish and the sediments is
an exposed shoreline and not protected within a bay, and cause for concern. The Golden Jellyfish medusa stage is
retention time of contaminants is thought to be minimal relatively short lived, with a life span of about 6 months
because of the prevailing currents. The Kahekili sample and this stage may not live long enough to be directly
had detectable levels of oxybenzone but was below the affected; however their benthic polyp stage, critical to
quantitative range of measurement (5 ppb). Kahekili is a their life cycle, could be affected (Bell et al., 2017).
heavily visited beach and had 71 swimmers within 200
m of the sampling site at the time of sampling (11:45 h).
Extreme tourism in the Caribbean
Impacts of sunscreens on corals - ICRI briefing - Feb 2018 84/ IMPACT OF SUNSCREENS ON CORALS
AND REEF BIOTA – EVIDENCE TO DATE
Given the growing concern that some sunscreen
ingredients may be having a negative impact on corals
4.1. Effect of sunscreens The experiments were carried out using aliquots of
sunscreens at final quantities of 10, 33, 50, and 100
and other reef biota, investigations are underway and and selected sunscreen μL/L seawater. In all replicates and at all sampling
this section summarises some of the key work. The
experiments carried out so far have used concentrations
components on coral sites, addition of commercial sunscreen resulted in the
release of large amounts of coral mucous (composed
of sunscreen and sunscreen components that are fragments of zooxanthellae and coral tissue) within 18–48 hr,
significantly higher than is generally found in the marine and complete bleaching of hard corals within 96 hr.
environment (Leonard pers. Comm. 19-12-2017). The first investigations into the possible harmful Bleaching was faster in corals subjected to higher
For example, Danovaro et al (2008) used sunscreen effects of sunscreen on corals (Danovaro et al., 2008) temperature, suggesting synergistic effects with heat.
concentrations of 10, 33, 50, and 100 μL/L seawater. consisted of a series of experiments conducted in four The zooxanthellae released from treated corals had
Assuming that the density of the compounds is close coral reef areas: Siladen, Celebes Sea (Indonesia); lost photosynthetic pigments and membrane integrity.
to 1, then µL/L equals mg/L and the experimental Akumal, Caribbean Sea (Mexico); Phuket, Andaman In contrast, zooxanthellae membranes from untreated
concentrations were approximately 10, 33, 50 and Sea (Thailand), and Ras Mohammed, Red Sea (Egypt). corals were intact (Danovaro et al. 2008).
100mg/L. This is markedly higher than most of the Nubbins of Acropora were collected and washed
concentrations shown in Table 1, the exceptions being with virus-free seawater prior to being transferred Among the individual sunscreen organic compounds that
the swimming ‘hotspots’ where hundreds of people to polyethylene bags for in-situ incubation with were tested, butylparaben, ethylhexyl methoxycinnamate,
are in the water as in the US Virgin Islands (Downs et commercially available sunscreens and also with oxybenzone and 4-MBC caused rapid and complete
al., 2015). Further research is thus needed before firm individual sunscreen components. Concentrations used bleaching even at the lowest concentrations used in the
conclusions can be reached. were 10, 33, 50, and 100 μl L-1 seawater (i.e. between experiments (10 μL L-1). Conversely, all other compounds
10 to 100 ppb). Additional experiments were performed tested (i.e., OC, ethylhexylsalicylate and 4-tert-butyl-
with two other hard corals, Stylophora pistillata and 4-methoxydibenzoylmethane (avobenzene)) and the
Millepora complanata. solvent propylene glycol, which is also present in
sunscreen formulations, had a minor effect or no effects
Corals were incubated at the same depth as the donor when compared with controls (Danovaro et al., 2008).
colonies at in situ temperatures. Samples of seawater
were collected at 12-hr intervals and analysed for virus- After the addition of sunscreens, viral abundance in the
like particles and zooxanthella released by the corals. surrounding seawater increased significantly, reaching
At the end of the experiments, samples of coral tissue values greater by a factor of 15 than in controls. As
were preserved and stored for zooxanthellae counts. with the bleaching, this occurred even at the lowest
Levels of bleaching were quantified using colorimetric concentration used in the experiments (10 μL L-1). The
analysis of digital photographs taken at the beginning viruses were considered to have been released from the
of the experiments and after various times of treatment corals or their symbiotic zooxanthellae, and virus-like
(Danovaro et al 2008). particles were found around and inside the zooxanthellae.
In contrast, addition of organic nutrients without UV
Impacts of sunscreens on corals - ICRI briefing - Feb 2018 9filters or preservatives (as controls) did not result in a weekly seawater renewal. PSII photosynthetic efficiency Orbicella annularis), Montastraea. cavernosa, Porites
significant increase in viral abundance. Viruses were of the symbiotic micro-algae was monitored using PAM astreoides and Acropora cervicornis were also used
not found inside or outside the zooxanthellae (Danovaro (Pulse Amplitude Modulation), to predict the sublethal to investigate the effects of exposure to oxybenzone.
et al., 2008). endpoint of coral bleaching (Fel et al., 2017). This study Corals for the cell analysis were obtained from various
found that the organic UV filters Mexoryl SX, Mexoryl sources and maintained in glass aquaria with custom
These findings correlate with previous research by XL, Ethylhexyltriazone and OC did not induce coral LED lighting (Downs et al., 2015).
Danovaro and Corinaldesi (2003) which investigated the bleaching nor reduce the photosynthetic efficiency of the
effects of cosmetic sun products on viral abundance symbiotic micro-algae at nominal concentrations above The results studies were consistent with the
and bacterial activity in surface seawater samples from those reported in natural seawaters (Giokas et al., 2007), morphological observation by Danovaro et al. (2008).
Ancona, northern Adriatic Sea. They tested sunscreen and avobenzone showed an effect only at the highest In the light, oxybenzone caused injury directly to
containing both chemical and physical sun-blocking nominal concentration (5,000 µg L-1). The mineral UV the zooxanthellae. Under dark conditions, bleaching
agents (Ambre solaire Mexoryl sx 7, Laboratoires filter zinc oxide had no effect at 10 µg L-1 but altered the resulted from the symbiophagy of the zooxanthellae, a
Garnier) and a solar oil without UV protection (Bilboa Sun PSII at 100 µg L-1 and induced coral bleaching at 1,000 process whereby the coral gastrodermal cell ‘digests’
Oil, Cadey) and found that sunscreen supplementation µg L-1 (nominal concentrations with analytical control). the zooxanthella (Downs et al. 2009). In addition,
induced the lytic cycle in a large fraction of total planulae exhibited an increasing rate of coral bleaching
bacterial abundance (13-24% of bacteria, at low and in response to increasing concentrations of both BP-2
high concentrations, respectively), whereas solar oil had
a lower impact (6-9%).
4.2. Effects of benzophenones and oxybenzone.
on coral planulae and in vitro The Downs et al (2014; 2015) study showed that both
Danovaro et al (2008) concluded that sunscreens, by
promoting viral infection, potentially play an important
coral cells BP-2 and oxybenzone are photo-toxicant, with adverse
effects exacerbated in the light versus in darkness.
role in coral bleaching. However, Leonard (personal The lethal concentration 50 (LC50: standard measure
Downs et al. (2014; 2015) examined the effects of
communication 19-12-2017) suggests that there is of toxicity: the concentration of the substance that
benzophenone-2 (BP-2) and oxybenzone on planula
insufficient evidence at this stage to conclude that the causes the death of 50% of the test subjects) of planulae
larvae of Stylophora pistillata at the Inter-University
increase in virus density causes bleaching. He points exposed to oxybenzone in the light for an 8- and 24-h
Institute of Marine Sciences (IUI) in Eilat, Israel. Planulae
out that the coral microbiome is a complex ecosystem exposure was 3.1 mg/L and 139 μg L-1, respectively.
were collected using light traps and exposed to BP-2 and
of bacteria, archea, fungi and viruses whose respective The LC50s for oxybenzone in darkness for the same time
oxybenzone during four different time-period scenarios.
population growths are under subtle controls. When this points were 16.8 mg L-1 and 779 μg L-1.
Six concentrations were used for the experiments,
ecosystem is disorganized by high concentrations of
ranging from 246 mg L-1 (ppm) to 2.46 μg L-1 (ppb)
an external compound it is to be expected that certain Whether in darkness or light, both benzophenones
for BP-2 and 228 mg L-1 (ppm to 2.28 μg L-1 (ppb) for
organisms (here the virus) will take advantage of the induced coral planulae to transform from a motile
oxybenzone. Histopathology and cellular pathology,
stress situation and multiply when the other partners planktonic state to a deformed, sessile condition. Downs
planula morphology, coral bleaching, DNA damage and
are weakened (Leonard; personal communication 19- et al (2015) conclude from these experiments that
planula mortality were then measured.
12-2017). oxybenzone is a skeletal endocrine disruptor, inducing
‘ossification’ of the planula and encasing the entire
In some experiments, coral cells in culture (calicoblasts)
In experiments designed to more closely mimic conditions planula in its own skeleton.
were also used as a surrogate for coral planulae. Coral
on the reef, coral nubbins of Stylophora pistillata were
cells from Stylophora pistillata were used in the BP-2
exposed for 5 weeks to low concentrations of UV filters It was also shown that both chemicals are genotoxic to
experiments and this species together with Pocillopora
in 15 litre aquaria, using a closed-circuit system with corals, exhibiting a strong positive relationship between
damicornis, Montastraea annularis (valid name now
Impacts of sunscreens on corals - ICRI briefing - Feb 2018 10DNA-AP lesions and increasing concentrations. BP-2
exposure in the light induced extensive necrosis in
Coral larvae released from adult colonies of Porites
astreoides collected from reefs in the Florida Keys were
4.4. Direct and indirect
both the epidermis and gastrodermis, and in the dark, exposed to each of the 5 sunscreen formulations and effects exposing reef biota to
it induced autophagy and autophagic cell death (Downs
et al., 2015). Monitoring at Trunk Bay (US Virgin Islands)
the one ‘reef-friendly’ ingredient (titanium dioxide).
The three sunscreen/seawater concentrations tested
sunscreens
showed minimal recruitment/survival of juvenile coral were: 100µl L-1 (which corresponds to the maximum
McCoshum et al (2016) investigated the effects of
and lack of regeneration from experimentally induced concentration tested by Danovaro et al. 2008), 1µl L-1
sunscreens on lab-reared organisms commonly
lesions in established colonies of Porites astreoides and 0.01µl L-1. The same procedures were followed for
found in shallow coral reef ecosystems, including
over a 5-year period (Downs et al., 2011). Downs et al. the controls, with sunscreen being replaced by the same
included flatworms (Convolutriloba macropyga) with
(2011) found levels of oxybenzophenones in the water volume of fresh seawater. Treatment order/placement
symbiotic algae, soft corals (Xenia elongata), glass
column at this site to be between 90 ppb and 1 ppm and was randomized and color-coded to enable blind scoring
anemones (Aiptasia spp.) and diatoms (Nitzschia
suggested that the severe ecological degradation of (Sharp et al., 2017).
spp.). The organisms were grown together in a 208 litre,
the reefs in this area was caused by sunscreens from
established multi-species aquarium. Experiments were
recreational swimmers, given that other forms of land- In this study, none of the treatments (either ‘reef friendly’
conducted using artificial saltwater to which was added
based or marine-based pollution are limited (Downs et or commercial sunscreens) resulted in significant
a commercial sunscreen (‘Equate 50 SPF sunscreen’
al., 2015). larval mortality compared to the controls. The highest
containing homosalate, oxybenzone, OC, octisalate,
concentration (100µl L-1) of one of the commercial
and avobenzone as active ingredients), following the
brands (Brand 1, containing 7.5% octinoxate, 5.0%
4.3. Effects of organic and octinosalate, 4.0% oxybenzone) significantly inhibited
methodology described by Danovaro et al., (2008).
mineral UV sunscreen filters larval settlement but neither of the ‘reef friendly’
sunscreens significantly decreased larval settlement
All test organisms subjected to sunscreen-contaminated
on coral larvae when compared to the controls.
water showed reduced population growth compared to
control groups, suggesting organisms near populated
and common marine tourist destinations, where
Sharp et al., (2017 unpublished; personal communication Blum (personal communication 18-01-2018) has
sunscreen contamination is expected, could be at risk of
09-01-2018) have provided information on the effects pointed out that testing finished products can be difficult.
population and colony decline (McCoshum et al., 2016).
of sunscreens on coral larvae in a technical report. In Some sunscreen formulas are polymer-based, with the
The tested concentrations were 0.26 ml L-1, 0.026 ml
these experiments, the effects of two sunscreens being result that the active ingredients become suspended
L-1 which are equivalent to approximately 260 mg L-1
developed as ‘reef-friendly’ products and one ‘reef at the surface or on the sides of test containers rather
and 26 mg L-1 (ppm) and are very high compared to the
friendly’ sunscreen ingredient (titanium dioxide) were than dispersing in the water. They eventually disperse,
levels of sunscreen generally found in natural waters and
compared with three leading commercially available releasing the chemical compounds from the polymer
in Jellyfish Lake, Palau where Bell et al., (2017) levels of
sunscreen brands. The commercial sunscreens beads, but this is unlikely to happen during the initial 24-
zero to 1205 ng L-1 (parts per trillion) of UV filters (see
contained the active ingredients oxybenzone, 48 hour period. Water in oil emulsions or purely oil based
Table 1 for oxybenzone).
avobenzone, octinoxate, octisalate, homosalate, and formulas do not disperse well either and these factors
OC in varying concentrations as UV filters while the need to be taken into consideration when conducting
Nominal sunscreen contamination also affected the
‘reef-friendly’ sunscreens contained non-nano titanium tests (Blum, personal communication 18-01-2018).
behaviour of the study organisms. Although motile
dioxide as the UV filter.
flatworms did not appear to avoid sunscreen when given a
choice of sunscreen-contaminated and uncontaminated
areas, they did select light areas in uncontaminated
water and dark areas in sunscreen-contaminated water.
Impacts of sunscreens on corals - ICRI briefing - Feb 2018 11The lack of avoidance of the sunscreen by flatworms replaced by other ingredients (Corinaldesi et al., 2017). ‘oxidative stress’ in cells that can damage health and
suggests these organisms, and potentially other motile Sunscreen B, containing oxybenzone, homosalate and ultimately cause death (Sharma et al., 2012).
biota, will not avoid environments polluted by sunscreen. preservatives, had the strongest impact: it caused
anomalies (mostly represented by development block or Titanium dioxide nanoparticles used in sunscreen are
Soft corals showed a reduction in polyp pulses per cell necrosis) in 100% of embryos after 24h of treatment coated with silica, magnesium, or aluminium to eliminate
minute in sunscreen contaminated arenas. The observed at the maximum sunscreen concentration of 50 µL L−1 UV reactivity. It has been shown that, in this form, ROS
reduction of pulses per polyp, and the change in flatworm (equivalent to about 50mg L-1). The observed impact production is low when the nanoparticles are exposed
light preference suggest that the sunscreen is causing was dose dependent with alterations to development experimentally to ultraviolet light (Lewicka et al., 2013).
some stress, but the mechanisms involved are unknown seen in half of the embryos treated at the lowest In contrast, zinc oxide nanoparticles derived from the
(McCoshum et al., 2016). Eyal (personal communication sunscreen concentrations. Sunscreen A had a lower same sunscreens do not have coatings and produced
16-01-2018) suggests that reduced pulsations and light impact, affecting the development of one third of the substantial amounts of ROS under UVA illumination,
avoidance might be stress responses due to oxygen embryos of P. lividus at all concentrations (Corinaldesi and could thus potentially cause high levels of
radicals and/or malfunction of the photosynthetic et al., 2017). In contrast, the effects of the eco-friendly oxidative stress in marine organisms (Tagliati personal
apparatus of the symbionts. Sunscreen C were indistinguishable from the control communication 22-12-2017). People are also less well
after 24h of treatment. protected from the adverse effects of sun exposure if
photoactive nanomaterials are used in sunscreens.
4.5. Effects of sunscreen filters An additional set of experiments revealed that the eco-
friendly sunscreen had a similar efficacy to sunscreens A
Lewicka et al (2013) suggest that sunscreens with zinc
oxide should have nanoparticle surface coatings to limit
on sea urchin development and B in protecting human fibroblasts from UVA radiation ROS generation under ultraviolet illumination.
(Corinaldesi et al., 2017). These findings suggest that Yung et al., (2014) confirmed that exposure of marine
Corinaldesi et al (2017) compared the effects of different development of sunscreens that are both effective and algae and invertebrates to zinc oxide nanoparticles can
sunscreens on embryonic and larval development of environmentally friendly is potentially feasible. induce a wide range of toxic effects, both acute lethal and
the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus, a key species chronic sublethal. They also noted that toxicity can occur
of coastal ecosystems of the Mediterranean Sea and in certain species when exposed to environmentally
Eastern Atlantic Ocean and one of the most common
model organisms for ecotoxicological studies. Whilst
4.6. Toxicity effects of realistic concentrations. Wong et al., (2013) showed
that in general, zine oxide nanoparticles ZnO were more
this sea urchin is found on coral reefs, the study is inorganic UV filters toxic to algae (marine diatoms Skeletonema costatum
relevant because it compares the impacts of ‘standard’ and Thalassiosia pseudonana) than zinc oxide, but
and ‘eco-friendly’ products. Most commercial sunscreens with inorganic filters relatively less toxic to crustaceans (Tigriopus japonicus
employ materials with nanoscale dimensions so that and Elasmopus rapa) and the medaka fish (Oryzias
Two widely used commercial sunscreens in Europe and the products are both transparent and smooth when melastigma).
the USA were used, with one whose ingredients had applied to the skin (Lewicka et al., 2013). These are
been patented as eco-friendly (Danovaro et al., 2014). generally considered to be safer than chemical UV filters. Whilst research shows that nanoparticles are potentially
Both the Europe (Sunscreen A) and USA (Sunscreen However, certain types of titanium dioxide and zinc hazardous, Hanna et al (2013) point out that many
B) products contained organic and inorganic filters oxide nanoparticles produce reactive oxygen species of the studies used short-term laboratory exposure
(titanium dioxiste nanoparticles) already reported to (ROS) under UV illumination (Lewicka et al., 2013). ROS tests with relatively short-lived species, and may not
affect marine organisms (Díaz-Cruz and Barceló, 2009; are a group of free radicals, reactive molecules and be so relevant in the marine environment. They thus
Manzo et al., 2013; Minetto et al., 2014). The eco-friendly ions derived from oxygen, that are extremely harmful to coupled laboratory-based studies of mussels (Mytilus
sunscreen did not have these compounds or they were organisms at high concentrations and that can induce galloprovincialis) with modelling in order to simulate
Impacts of sunscreens on corals - ICRI briefing - Feb 2018 12the effects of nanoparticles on mussel populations have negative effects on growth and photosynthetic
using results from the studies on individuals. Mussels activity of coral symbiotic algae (genus Symbiodinium)
exposed to zinc oxide nanoparticles for 12 weeks at concentrations estimated to be present in sewage.
had increased respiration rates and concentrations Nevertheless, it is important to note that a full evaluation
of zinc in their tissues. These impacts were related to is still lacking (Tagliati et al. unpublished, personal
decreases in growth and survival, and suggested that communication 19-12-2017).
mussels were expending energy to combat the effects
of excess environmental zinc but were unable to meet
these demands at the highest exposure concentration
of 2 mg L-1. Large mussels seemed to tolerate higher
concentrations of zinc oxide nanoparticles for longer
periods of time, as survival was higher for large than for
small mussels after 6 and 12 weeks of exposure. Hanna
et al (2013) noted that, whilst the results of exposure
to 0.1–2 mg L-1 zinc oxide nanoparticles in seawater
indicated that these are toxic to mussels, these levels
were unlikely to be reached in natural marine waters.
However, these chemicals may accumulate in the tissues
of long-lived organisms following exposure.
Fel et al., (2017) exposed coral nubbins (Stylophora
pistillata) for 5 weeks to the mineral UV filter zinc oxide at
nominal concentrations above those reported in natural
seawaters. They found that this treatment had no effect
at 10 µg L-1 but altered the photosynthetic efficiency at
100 µg L-1 and induced coral bleaching at 1000 µg L-1.
Studies on the impacts of titanium dioxide nanoparticles
on tropical corals are currently in progress by Tagliati
et al. (unpublished, personal communication 19-12-
2017), involving both nanoparticles alone and coated
nanoparticles mixed with cosmetic ingredients to
simulate a commercial-sunscreen composition. Results
so far indicate that titanium dioxide nanoparticles
used as UV filters in sunscreen do not necessarily
Impacts of sunscreens on corals - ICRI briefing - Feb 2018 135/ KEY RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
It is known that significant amounts of sunscreen
wash off into the sea and, in controlled experiments,
5.2. Damage and deformation
some sunscreen chemical UV filters are toxic and of coral larvae (planulae)
have negative effects on corals and other marine life
even at concentrations as low as 62 parts per trillion. Some sunscreen chemicals, in certain situations, cause
Oxybenzone has been identified as the main substance coral larvae to stop swimming, change shape and
of concern. Organic UV filters have been reported to ultimately die. Oxybenzone has been shown to be an
induce acute toxicities, developmental toxicities and endocrine disruptor, causing the outer epidermal cells
reproductive toxicities to different organisms. Some of coral larvae to turn into skeleton at the wrong stage
studies have shown that sunscreen ingredients promote in their development (Downs et al., 2015). Studies on
viral infections in bacteria and zooxanthellae, causing other organisms have similarly shown that exposure to
coral bleaching. sunscreen UV filters such as benzophenones, camphor
derivatives and cinnamate derivatives induce various
Although estimates of the quantities of UV filters in
sea water vary, concentrations have been found in 5.1. Bleaching of hard corals endocrine disrupting effects (Kim et al, 2014; Wang
et al., 2016). However, Wang et al (2016) note that the
sea water that are considered to be ‘environmentally effective concentration (26 µg L-1) of oxybenzone, at
relevant’ and pose a threat to reefs. Downs (2016) notes Laboratory and controlled in-situ studies using which reproduction of the Japanese medaka fish was
that “emerging research is showing that oxybenzone fragments and cells from various species of hard coral significantly decreased, was at least a couple of orders
concentrations on nearshore reefs around the world have shown bleaching in response to sunscreens. This of magnitude greater than those detected in the ambient
are commonly between 100 parts per trillion and 100 may be for a number of reasons: environment (e.g. 125 ng/ L-1 in a Swiss Lake).
ppb — well within the range of being a significant • In darkness, bleaching results from the symbiophagy
environmental threat”. Furthermore, Downs et al. (2015) of the zooxanthellae; a process whereby the host
suggest that the threat of oxybenzone to corals and cells ‘eats’ the zooxanthellae (Downs et al. 2009). 5.3. Damage to coral DNA
coral reefs from swimmers and point and non-point
sources of waste-water could more extensive than just • In the light, BP-2 causes damage directly to the and reproductive success
a few meters surrounding the release area. For example, zooxanthellae, independent of any host-regulated
degradation mechanism. Danovaro et al (2008) Oxybenzone has been shown to be as genotoxic,
in Okinawa, Tashiro and Kameda (2013) demonstrated
showed that bleaching occurred as a result of organic meaning that it damages coral DNA, which can reduce
that oxybenzone contamination from beaches can travel
UV filters inducing the lytic viral cycle in symbiotic a coral’s lifespan and immunity to disease, as well as
over 0.6 km from the pollution source.
zooxanthellae with latent infections. disrupting normal development and reproduction.
The main impacts of chemical filters (the primary cause • Oxybenzone induces coral bleaching by lowering
of concern), under certain circumstances, appear to be: the temperature at which corals bleach when
exposed to prolonged heat stress. This means that
the impact of increasing sea surface temperatures
may be exacerbated by the presence of sunscreen
contaminants and the resilience of corals to climate
change undermined.
Impacts of sunscreens on corals - ICRI briefing - Feb 2018 146/ KNOWLEDGE GAPS
AND FURTHER RESEARCH REQUIRED
There are concerns that experiments undertaken to date and Granek, 2016). Studies should focus on locations framework about nano-ecosafety to saltwater
have been largely ex-situ, and mainly at subcellular, with high visitor numbers where sunscreens are organisms, because of fragmentary and incomplete
cellular and organism level, with very few studies of the suspected as a possible cause of coral bleaching or information and sometimes profiles of limited
wider impacts of sunscreens and their UV filters. There reef decline. ecological significance.
is a lack of firm evidence of widespread negative impacts
• Investigating UV filter toxicity in relation to ocean
at reef community and/or ecosystem level. The evidence It is essential that reef scientists work with industry to
warming and acidification predictions, to assess the
available may not properly reflect conditions on the reef, ensure that all sunscreen ingredients are subjected to
effects of global climate change on this issue. While
where pollutants may rapidly disperse and be diluted. toxicological testing in a standardised manner. Some
sunscreen exposure might not cause evident stress
Concentrations of UV filters used in experimental work work is already underway to develop simple toxicity
in healthy corals, the response could be different
have generally been higher than those likely to be indicators for sunscreens, using coral nubbins exposed
if corals are already facing stressful conditions.
encountered in the reef environment, although no study for periods of 5 weeks to low concentrations of UV filters
Studies carried by Danovaro et al. (2008) showed
has assessed the levels of these chemicals in the tissues (Fel et al., 2017). Given that different sites are exposed to
that bleaching of corals and coral cells exposed to
of long-lived species. different pollutants (as found in the US Virgin Islands),
organic UV filters was faster at higher temperatures.
each site must be investigated independently (Downs et
Further research needs include: • Researching the extent and significance of bio- al., 2011). A more rigorous approach of this nature would
concentration and bio-accumulation of organic UV enable managers to pinpoint where sunscreen pollution
• Determining concentrations of different sunscreen
filters, and the consequences of long-term, chronic is having an impact and to focus attention on remedial
components in the water column, sediment and biota
exposure to sunscreen pollutants. measures. Biocides, fertilizers and pesticides leaching
in different locations, comparing sites that are heavily
from the coast should be included in such studies.
visited and/or affected by coastal run-off with those • Studying the effects of mixtures of pharmaceutical
that are more remote. and personal care products (PPCP) which would
provide a more realistic picture of ecological risks,
• Investigating the effects of sunscreen pollutants at
since organisms are rarely, if ever, exposed to single
reef community and ecosystem level. Downs et al.
contaminants.
(2015) linked some of the pathologies described
above with reef degradation in the US Virgin Islands, • Identifying those ingredients that are safe and those
and it is possible that whole-organism changes could that pose a realistic threat to marine ecosystems.
affect nutrient and food web dynamics, biodiversity The organic UV filters which are widely recognised as
and community composition, habitat structure, and being ‘of concern’, but there are other ingredients of
disease dynamics (Prichard and Granek 2016). sunscreens that could have impacts but about which
little is known. Minetto et al. (2014) in at review of
• Exploring links between organismal or subcellular/
ecotoxicity of nanoparticle forms of zinc oxide and
cellular-level biomarkers since studying
titanium dioxide and other mineral nanoparticles
pharmaceutical effects on biodiversity/ community
concluded that it was difficult to determine a clear
composition in complex systems is difficult (Prichard
Impacts of sunscreens on corals - ICRI briefing - Feb 2018 157/ RECOMMENDATIONS
Over-exposure to UV solar radiation is indisputably a Measures that can be taken include: have to abide. For example, a review by Ruszkiewicz et
human health issue and the development of sunscreens al., (2017) into neurotoxic effects of active ingredients
with organic and inorganic UV filters has been a significant
factor in reducing risks. However, considering the many
7.1. Encouraging in sunscreen products advocates revisiting the current
safety and regulation of specific sunscreens and
stresses already faced by reefs and the current concerns the manufacture investing in alternative UV protection technologies.
about the toxicity of certain components of sunscreens
to corals and other marine organisms, a proactive and
of reef-friendly sunscreens
precautionary approach is required, especially in areas
IAs with all pharmaceutical products, sunscreen
7.2. Promoting the use
with high levels of marine-based tourism. The key
need is to reduce the amount of harmful sunscreen
manufacturers are governed by detailed regulations that of reef-friendly sunscreens
components that reach the reef environment. This will
specify the limits of concentration of allowable UV filters
before a sunscreen can be placed on the market.
and other methods of UV
require the involvement of governments, reef managers,
divers, snorkelers and the tourist and pharmaceutical
protection
The regulations vary in different countries. For example,
industries.
in Europe, Regulation (EC) No 1223/2009 covers A growing number of sunscreens are now on the market
assessment of the potential impact of chemicals on that are considered to be eco-friendly, safe and non-
Although this document focuses on the effects of
human health and Regulation (EC) No 1907/2006 toxic to corals. Initiatives providing information on these
sunscreen components on reef biota and the wider
covers the Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and include:
marine environment, it is important to note that there
Restriction of Chemicals (REACH). The REACH regulation
are also wider concerns about the effects of these • The Environmental Working Group (EWG) in the
is aimed at ensuring a high level of protection of both
chemicals on human health. Krause et al (2012) point USA: a non-profit organisation whose work includes
human health and the environment and its provisions
out that human exposure to UV-filters in sunscreens is advocacy in the area of toxic chemicals (https://
are underpinned by the precautionary principle (http://
high because they are rapidly absorbed from the skin. www.ewg.org/sunscreen).
eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2006/1907/2014-04-100).
They note that oxybenzone has been found in 96% of
The European Union (EU) lists 28 allowable UV filters, • MarineSafe (www.marinesafe.org): a campaign and
urine samples in the US and that several UV-filters have
but in the USA, 24 ingredients are covered by the Food certification scheme that aims to reduce the number
been found in 85% of Swiss breast milk samples.
and Drug Administration with some of the filters allowed of toxic chemicals and plastics finding their way
in the EU being excluded (Pirotta, 2015). In Japan and into the ocean through replacement, management
the USA, oxybenzone can be used as an active ingredient and user engagement. MarineSafe awards an
at levels of up to only 5-6% but in the EU levels of up to assurance mark to products formulated without
10% are permitted (Kim et al.,, 2014). marine-toxic ingredients or interactions, and that
are independently tested by certified laboratories to
These regulations have been established to ensure ensure that the finished product is not harmful.
human safety and also take environmental concerns
into account. It is important that research into impacts Many local authorities, reef managers, tour organisers,
of sunscreens on reefs and reef biota continues to feed dive companies and non-profit organisations have
into the regulatory framework to which manufacturers campaigns on environmental issues ranging from
Impacts of sunscreens on corals - ICRI briefing - Feb 2018 16marine litter to protection of endangered species and of the most important messages is to ‘Read the Label’, However, the best information may not be being used:
reef etiquette, and these could be expanded to include and check the ingredients to ensure that the product is sunscreens containing OC, any of the benzophenones,
sunscreens. A good example of this is the U.S. National ‘reef safe’ before buying or using it. People are also being butyl methoxydibenzoylmethane, hexyldecanol,
Park Service, responsible for managing reefs in South urged to consider alternative protective measures, such cetyl dimethicone, methylparaben, polyethylene,
Florida, Hawaii, U.S. Virgin Islands and American Samoa, as use of sun-protective clothing (McCoshum et al., propylparaben, and butylcarbamate, are considered to
who have produced an information sheet entitled Protect 2016; https://www.ewg.org/sunscreen). By ‘covering- be non-biodegradable and those containing titanium
Yourself, Protect The Reef! The impacts of sunscreens up’ using appropriate clothing and hats, finding shade oxide and zinc oxide are considered biodegradable and
on our coral reefs (noaa.gov/_docs/Site%20Bulletin_ and/or avoiding going out in the middle of the day, the safe3 although mineral substances are by definition,
Sunscreen_final.pdf). This explains the issues and need for sunscreens is significantly reduced and there non-biodegradable. In addition, the nanoparticle form of
potential impacts of sunscreens, asking people to use will thus be less pollution. Recent recommendations for zinc oxide is now known to be toxic and not necessarily
ones that are less likely to damage corals. reducing sunscreen pollution in Jellyfish Lake (Palau) ‘reef friendly’.
include similar practical advice and also that people
Since the first warnings about the dangers of sunscreen should be educated in the most responsible use of eco- Hawaii: Efforts are underway to ban the sale of
toxicity (e.g. Danovaro et al., 2008) the environmental friendly sunscreen, which means application at least 20 oxybenzone throughout the state. Legislation stalled
lobby has been highly active in calling for people to buy/ minutes before entering the lake (Bell et al., 2017). in the final days of the 2017 session, but the effort
use only non-toxic sunscreens. Dive magazines, dive continues, with state lawmakers already starting their
centres and industry bodies such as PADI are also raising push to pass the bill in 2018 (Yoshioka 2017). If this is
the issue and urging people to use eco-friendly products. 7.3. Regulating the sale successful it would ban sale of oxybenzone products but
According to Downs (2016) some resorts and dive shops
are even proposing to offer ‘coral safe’ sunscreen for free
and use of sunscreens not entirely prevent their use because of international
tourists who might carry sunscreens in with them from
to their guests. In this respect it is important that clear containing toxins overseas. This highlights the importance of campaigns
and accurate information is provided and that people to raise awareness amongst visitors.
read the label. This approach is being taken in Mexico and Hawaii
In Bonaire in the Caribbean, a seminar is planned in Mexico: Sunscreens that are known to contain toxic 7.4. Exerting consumer
2018, to raise awareness about the potential threats to
reefs from sunscreens containing oxybenzone (Anon.,
chemicals may not be used at the Xcaret and Xel-Há
ecological reserves. At the park entrances, visitors must
pressure to encourage
2017) and to encourage all retailers of sunscreen hand in their non-biodegradable sunscreens for the development and use
products on Bonaire to only sell sunscreens that are free
of oxybenzone. Bonaire’s economy depends largely on
duration of their visit, and a sample of biodegradable
sunscreen is provided; when they leave, their own
of eco-friendly sunscreens
healthy coral reefs and therefore it is not unreasonable sunscreen is returned1. At Xel-Há this initiative is
The major sunscreen manufacturers may be reluctant to
to expect local businesses and inhabitants to contribute enshrined in the sites Environmental Management
make changes to tried and tested formulations and would
pro-actively to solving this potential problem. System which covers a number of activities to reduce
probably not do so unless dictated by official regulations
impacts on the environment. The “chemical-free
or if it becomes more profitable to produce and sell a
Although there are still unanswered questions regarding sunscreen exchange program” at Xel-Há leads to about
different product. In this latter respect, consumer
the eco-safety of the many sunscreen products on the 100,000 chemical-free sunscreens being exchanged
demand and consumer/retailer-led campaigns can be
market, those with higher levels of toxicity are known. One annually with visitors2.
1- http://blog.xcaret.com/en/biodegradable-sunscreen-everything-you-need-to-know/
2- http://www.xelha.com/social-responsability-xelha.php 3- http://blog.xcaret.com/en/biodegradable-sunscreen-everything-you-need-to-know
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