Natural Ventilation, Revisited - Pioneering a New Climatisation Culture FCL MAGAZINE SPECIAL ISSUE - ETH Zürich
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FCL MAGAZINE SPECIAL ISSUE
Natural Ventilation, Revisited
Edited by Sascha Roesler | Research Module of Territorial Organisation, Prof. Dr Marc Angélil | Future Cities Laboratory
Pioneering a New Climatisation Culture
FCL MAGAZINE SPECIAL ISSUE
Natural Ventilation, Revisited
Pioneering a New Climatisation Culture
Edited by Sascha Roesler
Preface Editorial
The ‘Territorial Organisation’ research unit of the When it comes to cooling and heating buildings,
Future City Laboratory addressed the following ques- many parts of the world are still imitating 20th century
tion: What are the contemporary mechanisms at work practices. As a discipline, architecture continues to
in the production of territory and what are their effects be bound to a paradigm of comfort whose emergence
on the make-up of the human habitat? In order to tack- was closely connected with the use of oil. The familiar
le this question, the research focused on the relation result − while providing homogeneously air-condi-
between forms of collective organization (social, politi- tioned rooms and improved technical understanding
cal, and economic) and forms of territorial organisation of climate control – has all too often, however, disre-
(the material reality of the man-made environment). garded sustainable solutions. In Southeast Asia, mod-
Interdependencies between social and physical space ernisation of the built environment still largely entails
were considered in view of conceptual frameworks that a proliferation of air-conditioning units, a preference
mark prevalent political economies, whether operating that simply rejects natural ventilation as an outdated
at the global, national or local level. practice.
The inquiry was structured according to a twofold Against that background, this special issue of From left to right: Ani Vihervaara, Karoline Kostka,
method, framing a dialogue between in vitro and in vivo FCL Magazine aims to underscore the relevance of Marcel Jäggi, Katja Jug, Sascha Roesler
research, moving concurrently within the domains of natural ventilation within the contemporary urban
theory and practice. The theoretical component of the Asian landscape. Given the current requirements for in the cities of Medan (Indonesia) and Singapore by
work addressed the question of knowledge produc- energy-saving methodologies, a sustainable future looking at the urban mass housing system, typologies,
tion, i.e. the construction of models of thought pertain- will rely on more than mechanical cooling strategies housing policies, and their implications for the venting
ing to the making of territory. Specific subject matters alone. Urgently needed are urban-relevant ventilation systems. In doing so, we identify the critical obstacles
pertaining to current challenges – poverty, informal- concepts that address the interrelationships among cli- and, conversely, the potential inherent in using natural
ity, governance, ageing, logistics, food systems, climate mate, territory, and architecture, concepts that give far ventilation in an urban context. Our ultimate goal is to
change, etc. – were probed and their impact on rural greater attention to natural ventilation, which, even as pioneer a new climatisation culture in the Southeast
and urban territories investigated. The practical com- an age-old cultural practice, still has relevance to dense Asian region.
ponent of the work – situated in the context of real case urban areas today.
studies in practice – concentrated on the pragmatic This special magazine issue is the product of a
conditions of territorial production: the de facto mak- The specific focus of the research we present here collaboration among three architects: Marcel Jäggi,
ing of territory. Conceived as real-life experiments en- then, is on natural ventilation in urban environments. Sascha Roesler, Ani Vihervaara; a landscape archi-
gaging in the production of space in situ, projects were We pose new questions − regarding air pollution, for tect, Karoline Kostka; and a visual artist, Katja Jug.
launched in Ethiopia, Brazil and Egypt. example − and give insights into the ‘fine art’ of natu- Its publication marks the completion of the research
ral ventilation, such as by drying tobacco leaves. The module ‘Territorial Organisation’ that was conducted
The essays in this special issue of FCL magazine findings are based on both fieldwork and comparative from 2010 to 2015 at the Future Cities Laboratory in
highlight the research on ‘climate-led construction’ in study: We assess the current state of natural ventilation Singapore.
Southeast Asia’s building culture.
Sascha Roesler, Editor, August 2015
Marc Angélil
2 FCL Magazine Preface Editorial FCL Magazine 3
CONTENT
36 CASE STUDY MEDAN
38 EMERGENCE OF NEW BUILDING INDUSTRIES
Marcel Jäggi
50 LACK OF COMFORT
Marcel Jäggi, Dr. Sascha Roesler
58 CYCLIC VENTING SYSTEMS
02 PREFACE Dr. Sascha Roesler, Karoline Kostka
Prof. Marc Angélil
74 A MONUMENT FOR NATURAL VENTILATION
03 EDITORIAL Dr. Sascha Roesler
Dr. Sascha Roesler
82 CASE STUDY SINGAPORE
06 MONSOON CLIMATE AND THE
ARCHITECTURE OF SOUTHEAST ASIA 84 EVOLUTION OF NEW TOWNS
Ani Vihervaara, Dr. Sascha Roesler
08 MAN-MADE WEATHER
115 HDB INSIGHTS
Dr. Sascha Roesler
Katja Jug
14 WHAT THE CLIMATE IS AND WAS
142 ABUNDANCE OF ENERGY
Karoline Kostka
Dr. Sascha Roesler, Ani Vihervaara
24 WHAT THE CLIMATE DOES
148 ENTANGLED VENTING SYSTEMS
Dr. Sascha Roesler, Karoline Kostka
Dr. Sascha Roesler
154 A NEW COOLING MANUAL FOR HDB
Ani Vihervaara
164 CONTRIBUTORS
166 COLOPHON
4 FCL Magazine Content Content FCL Magazine 5
MONSOON CLIMATE AND THE is, in fact, the point of departure for this
ARCHITECTURE OF SOUTHEAST ASIA research project on ‘man-made weather’.
To consider natural ventilation as an inher-
ent part of Southeast Asia’s cultural heritage
Natural ventilation represents a significant would not mean, as it would with a temple,
cultural heritage for Southeast Asia. Largely to place it under protection; rather, the
unrecorded by experts and social elites, this intention is to actively promote its realisation
cultural technology awaits an awakening in contemporary urban building practice.
to new life. Historically, the incorporation of
natural ventilation in building concepts
generated a heritage in Southeast Asia that −
as anthroplogist Roxana Waterson suggests −
can generally be considered ‘the Architecture
of Southeast Asia’. The Indonesian architect
Topane-petra Pandean, on the other hand,
made the summary observation that while
the numerous ethnic groups in Indonesia had
‘developed different forms of houses’, these
still all had ‘relatively identical characteristics
in relation to natural climatisation’, largely
owing to the ‘identical climatic circumstances’
in many regions of the country. This trans-
ethnic finding can be understood as a common
base for contemporary climatic research in
architecture in that region of the world, and
6 Monsoon Climate and the Architecture of Southeast Asia Monsoon Climate and the Architecture of Southeast Asia 7
Man-Made Weather
Toward new climatic research in architecture
Sascha Roesler Being responsible for 50 per cent of worldwide energy
consumption, the building sector is one of the primary causes
of CO2 emissions, and as such, is one of the key drivers of
climate change. The concept of ‘man-made weather’ has
developed − at least since the turn of the millennium − a
second and uncanny meaning, and one which grew out of the
first: the control of indoor microclimates by air conditioning
and central heating has contributed to the genesis of a new
global macroclimate. Increasingly, the climate is becoming
a hybrid between nature and culture and can no longer be
seen as a variable independent of mankind.
‘Man-made weather’, the working title of this research project on
natural ventilation, refers to an expression coined by the supposed inven-
tor of air conditioning for his novel discovery; American engineer Willis
Carrier made use of the phrase for decades in order to promote his patented
technology.1 His 1906 patent, A Method for Heating and Humidifying Air 2 ,
represents a seminal treatise of the 20th century, and its significance is com-
parable to Sigmund Freud’s The Interpretation of Dreams, a book published
in the same period.3 Just as for Freud, the Interpretation of Dreams represent-
ed the key to the unconscious, air conditioning for Carrier was the key to
the weather. In both cases, an unromantic attempt was made to bring what
is in fact uncontrollable – the unconscious, the weather – under man’s con-
trol. In Carrier’s phrase ‘man-made weather’ connotes both the hopes of
the engineer and the rainmaker to add artificially created weather to some-
thing naturally given. Since Carrier, that artificial creation of weather has
meant harnessing four interdependent parameters of an overall system:
1) Controlling temperature
2) Controlling humidity
3) Controlling air circulation and ventilation
4) Cleansing the air 4
Fig. 01 Illustration of Willis Carrier’s patent, ‘A Method for Heating and Humidifying Air,’ 1906
8 Monsoon Climate: Man-Made Weather Sascha Roesler Sascha Roesler Monsoon Climate: Man-Made Weather 9
Control as ‘hegemonic model’ 5 My hypothesis is that the concept of ‘control’ represents the centre 1900
One might say with some justification that architectural modernity is of gravity in today’s climate-discourse in architecture. ‘Control’ is a para- Man-Made Weather
the tradition that ultimately brought the (interior) climate to heel. The no- digm of building services engineering that increasingly dominates the
= Air Conditioned
tion of heating or cooling entire buildings homogenously and independent- way architecture is considered in relation to climate. I would offer that the
control-paradigm’s demand for a homogenous indoor climate’ 7 has caused Building
ly of their external climatic conditions simply did not exist until around the
end of the nineteenth century. Since the middle of the twentieth century, many other aspects of climate relevant to architecture to be neglected. To
this need for control in both workplace and housing design has been ac- cite Bruno Latour, ‘the work of purification’ 8 in the climate-discourse in
companied by an increasing standardisation of indoor temperature, and architecture correlates outdoor climate again and again (even against bet- 2000
meantime, this has emerged a powerful global standard. We are striving ter knowledge) with nature, and the indoor climate with culture. Yet the Man-Made Weather
all over the world to maintain air temperature at 20°C and with 50 per cent majority of all structures remain excluded from this discourse, inasmuch = New Global
relative humidity. As architects, we are called upon to develop alternative as nature still governs the interiors of these buildings! Over and beyond the
global standard of comfort, numerous other forms of climate, architecture
Macroclimate*
energy concepts for new building models; we do so with an awareness of
where this global standard has brought us over the past hundred years. and individuals’ interaction have existed. ‘What used to be diverse, season-
Fig. 02 Willis Carrier Today, climate change spurs us once again to address, and in greater depth ally sensitive, “local” indoor weather patterns accompanied also by local * The Age of Anthropocene
than hitherto, the complex relationship between architecture and climate, conventions and competences in modifying and varying patterns of activity
in hopes of achieving a more sustainable way of building.6 and clothing, are being replaced by a highly uniform indoor climate, itself
an outcome of a universalising mode of scientific enquiry.’9 Architects today
would do well to investigate, and more thoroughly, this diversity outside of
the cognisance of building physics and building services engineering.
Climatic research in architecture
Today, climate change spurs us once again to address, and in greater
depth than hitherto, the complex relationship between architecture and
climate, in hopes of achieving a more sustainable way of building. I call
this preoccupation the climatic research in architecture (or of architects); and
I recently coined the term microclimate ethnography 10 for the empirical ele-
ment of the research. In this research project we have investigated thermal
structures, thermal practices and thermal regimes that either support or
neglect the use and re-use of natural forms of ventilation. Allow me to set
out, in three brief points, my view of how architects could approach con-
temporary climatic research.
Fig. 04 Book cover, 1969
(1) Thermal structures
The first point concerns what I would refer to as thermal structures.
Related to the concept that has been termed ‘passiveness’ 11 since the 1960s,
these structures take a place under the heading of vernacular and infor-
mal construction. Until the mass proliferation of central heating and air
conditioning, built structures always featured an inherent thermal dimen-
sion. Reyner Banham rightly speaks of ‘structure as prime controller of
environment’.12 Thick walls in a hot-dry climate also serve as thermal
reservoirs, absorbing the incident heat and keeping interiors cool. Only
since the epistemological divergence of buildings into the separate entities
of ‘structure’ on the one hand and ‘building services’ on the other, have
structures lost their thermal significance, becoming pure load-bearing enti-
ties accompanied by non-load-bearing elements such as thermal, acoustic
and other supplementary functions. By investigating approaches that once
again conjoin structural and (building services) technological thinking in
the construction field, this epistemological separation between structure
and building services is likely to be abandoned. Thus, my first point of cli-
Fig. 03 Romanticising the climate of the island of Bali (Indonesia). Walter Spiess’s ‘The Landscape and Her Children’, 1939 matic research in architecture is the investigation of thermal structures.
10 Monsoon Climate: Man-Made Weather Sascha Roesler Sascha Roesler Monsoon Climate: Man-Made Weather 11
(2) Thermal practices (3) Thermal regimes
The second point concerns what I would call thermal practices. An un- The third point ultimately relates to what I would call thermal regimes.
derstanding of climatisation informed by vernacular architecture is based This concept connotes the complex relationship that societies form with
upon the awareness of the constant and inevitable interplay between body their climates in different periods. Indeed, architecture is one fundamental
and building, between corporeal and building ‘technologies’, between ways territory of thermal regimes, but certainly not the only one. With increas-
of life and ways of building. Thermally relevant activities that take place ing frequency, modern thermal regimes are superimposed upon naturally
near and inside buildings are traditionally an integral part of any climati- given environmental conditions. Only the reflection of this new artificial cli-
sation culture. An example of thermal practices would be the way people matic order (=thermal regimes) fosters architects’ interrogation of climate-
inhabit their houses according to the season or the time of day, or how they related epistemologies. The relationship between architecture and climate
vary their manner of dress relative to the changing outdoor temperature. is socially preconditioned, evident when one considers the thermal regimes
One might concur with architectural theorist James Fitch, who states, ‘our of diverse societies. How do, for example, thermal regimes in Switzerland
very concepts of warmth and coolness are relative and highly subjective’.13 compare with those in Singapore? That thermal regimes acquire their po-
Today’s architects have to learn alongside their clients to design buildings litical and legal dimensions through governance and norms must be taken
whose climate control strategies make a foundation for the thermal prac- into consideration. This is the third point of a climatic research in archi-
tices of their future users. This is my second point of a climatic research in tecture – the investigation of thermal regimes.
architecture – the investigation of thermal practices.
We are striving all over the world to maintain air temperature
at 20°C and with 50 per cent relative humidity.
References Roesler, Sascha (2013) ‘On the Use of Slots 8
Latour, Bruno (1993), p. 11.
and Shafts. Informal Cooling Strategies
Altomonte, Sergio (2008) ‘Climate as Indicators for New Cooling Concepts – 9
Shove, Elizabeth (2009), p. 38.
Change and Architecture: Mitigation and Microclimate Ethnography in the Ard el
Adaptation. Strategies for a Sustainable Lewa Informal Quarter of Cairo (Egypt)’, 10
Roesler, Sascha (2013).
Development’, Journal of Sustainable FCL Magazine, N° 1, Sept., Singapore.
Development, Vol. 1, N° 1, March.
11
See: Bowen, Arthur et al. (eds.) (1981).
Shove, Elizabeth (2009) ‘Manufacturing
Banham, Reyner (1969) The Architecture of weather: climate change, indoors and out’, 12
Banham, Reyner (1969), p. 25.
the Well-tempered Environment. Chicago: The in Jankovic, Vladimir/Barboza, Christina
University of Chicago Press. (eds.), Weather, Local Knowledge and 13
Fitch, James Marston with William
Everyday Life, Rio de Janeiro. Bobenhausen (1999 [1949]), p. 37.
Bowen, Arthur et al. (eds.) (1981). Passive
Cooling, Proceedings of the International Soper, Kate (1995) What is Nature? Culture,
Passive and Hybrid Cooling Conference, Politics and the Non-human, Blackwell
Publishers Limited. Image Credits
Miami Beach.
de Dear, R J/Leow, K G/Foo, S C (1991) Fig. 01: Unites States Patent and Tradmark
‘Thermal comfort in the humid tropics: Office.
Endnotes
Field experiments in air conditioned and
naturally ventilated buildings in Singapore’, Fig. 02: commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
International Journal of Biometeorology, Vol.
1
See: Banham, Reyner (1969), p. 172. File:Willis_Carrier_1915.jpg
34, Number 4.
2
US Patent 854270. Fig. 03: chaari.wordpress.com/2009/10/12/
Fitch, James Marston with William walter-spies-orientalist-painter-of-magical-
Bobenhausen (1999 [1949]) American
3
Freud, Sigmund (1900). bali/
Building (2). The Environmental Forces that
Shape It. Oxford University Press, New York.
4
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willis_Carrier Fig. 04: Architectural Press.
[accessed 24.01.2014].
Freud, Sigmund (1900) Die Traumdeutung, Fig. 05: Department of Special Collections,
Franz Deuticke: Leipzig und Wien.
5
Shove, Elizabeth (2009), p. 39. Stanford University Libraries.
Latour, Bruno (1993) We Have Never
6
Altomonte, Sergio (2008), p. 97.
Been Modern, Harvard University Press:
Cambridge, Massachusetts.
7
de Dear, R J/Leow, K G/Foo, S C (1991),
Fig. 05 Proposal for a new thermal regime for the borough of Manhattan, New York. p. 264.
Buckminster Fuller and Shoji Sadao. Dome Over Manhattan, 1960
12 Monsoon Climate: Man-Made Weather Sascha Roesler Sascha Roesler Monsoon Climate: Man-Made Weather 13
What the Climate
Is and Was
The monsoon of Southeast Asia
Karoline Kostka One reason to consider the larger region of Southeast Asia as
a whole is its climate. The climate of this Asian sub-region is
‘noticeably uniform, characterised by constant temperatures,
high relative humidity, heavy precipitation and regular
recurrence of the monsoon winds.’ 1 Southeast Asia’s tropical
climate is dominated by the rhythm of an alternating wet
season, the ‘summer season’ starting around June with
heavy precipitation and a dry season, the ‘winter season’
beginning in December with little rainfall. Over the course
of one year, both monsoon seasons are interrupted by an
inter-monsoon period. In the recent past, this weather pattern
has increasingly lost its stability, such that monsoon in
Southeast Asia is significantly less pronounced.
Today, the term ‘Southeast Asia’ refers to those landmasses and archi-
pelagos that are covered by the states of Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos,
Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam.2
Numerous small islands and island clusters, constituting the Archipelago
of Southeast Asia as the world’s largest, dominate the area.3 The unity of
the larger region of Southeast Asia in terms of its common climate suggests
a research method that transcends purely local approaches. By referring to
‘nations’ alone, one is not capable of re-imagining the relationship among
architecture, territory and climate, without confronting the pitfalls of re-
gionalism. Modern climatic research in architecture, therefore, has to move
between different scales (from XL to S) and between different territories.
Today, ‘monsoon’ has three major definitions, as listed below.
Fig. 01 In August, the landmass of the island of Singapore heats up more quickly than the surrounding waters of the Singapore Straits;
accordingly, clouds drift over the island, resulting in heavy rainfall
14 Monsoon Climate: What the Climate Is and Was Karoline Kostka Karoline Kostka Monsoon Climate: What the Climate Is and Was 15
East- Asian
Monsoon
Indian
American Monsoon
Monsoon
North American Monsoon
Tropics of Cancer
West- African
Monsoon
Monsoon Territory
Equator South- American
Monsoon
South- Asian
Monsoon
North-West Pacific
East African Monsoon
Tropics of Capricorn Monsoon
Asian-Australian Monsoon
African Monsoon
South- American
Monsoon
Decisive phenomenological Monsoon Indicators
Change of prevailing Wind direction
Wind direction July
Wind direction December
lenght of the wind arrow
indicated a Windspeed of 2 m/s
Fig. 02 The area stretching from central
Surface Temperatures West Africa all the way to India, Japan,
18˚ Isotherm demarcates the land area and Australia in the south is defined as the
where temperatures never fall below than 18˚ major global monsoon territory. The major
Steady cold Water Streams and Currents monsoon indicators are defined by criteria
Water SurfaceTemperature of 29˚ such as prevailing winds, surface tem-
peratures, and overall pressure areas along
Water SurfaceTemperature of 27˚
the equator. As a system, the planetary
monsoon joins 3 major regions affected (the
ITC (Intertropical Convergence), a wide the low pressure
belts near the equator where the north and south trade winds Northeast-American, the African and the
clash resulting in generally strong convective cloud. Asian-Australian Monsoon Regions) into
Due to different surface temperatures during the seasons, one highly vulnerable ‘patch’, and defines
the ITC shifts along the equatore to the tropics of cancer 9 other sub-regions, each of which meets
and capricorn. the same criteria of monsoon indication.
Within the planetary monsoon system, the
July Southeast Asia Monsoon is a sub-region in
December the Asian–Australian Monsoon Zone
16 Monsoon Climate: What the Climate Is and Was Karoline Kostka Karoline Kostka Monsoon Climate: What the Climate Is and Was 17Fig. 03 Summer Monsoon > 1250 mm 500 mm Fig. 04 Winter Monsoon
(southwest wind and 1000 mm 250 mm (northeast wind
heavy precipitation) 750 mm 125 mm and precipitation)
500 mm 25 mm
Indicated are both the 250 mm 12,5 mm In December and January,
mean monthly precipitation 125 mm 6.25 mm the mean precipitation is
for June and July, and the 25 mm 0 mm lower than in summer, and
monsoonal wind directions. no precipitation information no precipitation information is marked by pronounced
In summer, a large conti- Monsoonal Winds Monsoonal Winds winds from the Northeast.
nental landmass heats up In winter, while the large
more quickly than the ocean Asian landmass cools down,
water that surrounds it. This the surrounding ocean water
makes a lower pressure along the equator stays
area above the sea, and relatively warm. Cold, dry
draws humid and moist air air flows from the land out
in a southwesterly direction over the ocean, heats up,
where, ultimately, it reaches rises, and then releases
the warmer land, and con- moisture over the ocean
denses into rain and islands
Monsoon definitions
(1) Prevailing surface winds (3) Geographical area
The Indian Monsoon is the most pronounced and, at same time, the Finally, the phenomenon ‘monsoon’ is often equated with the geograph-
one credited with the word’s origin. ‘Monsoon’ derives from the Arabian ical description of monsoon regions. Regional monsoons are described over
‘mausim’, the word for ‘season’. The term was first used in British India six sectors: Africa, Asia-Australia, North America, South America, Pacific
and neighbouring countries to refer to the heavy seasonal winds blowing and Atlantic oceans, thereby collectively configuring the global monsoon
in from the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea in the southwest, both of system. The two major monsoon sub-systems of the world are the West
which brought heavy rainfall to the area. Primarily, the term refers to very African and Asian-Australian monsoons. Within these two systems, com-
direction-stable regional winds, in conjunction with a two-time reversal of mon climate conditions determine the different monsoon regions and their
the most common wind direction over southern Asia and the Indian Ocean tropical ecology, the landscape of each region having a specific and unique
in the course of a year. Monsoon winds are accompanied by regular heavy identity.7 The understanding of the global monsoon system is of major im-
precipitation occurrences, caused by those seasonal changes in lower atmos- portance given that today, more than 50 per cent (3.9 billion) of the world’s
pheric circulation that is typically associated with the asymmetric heating population live in monsoon regions, which cover one quarter of the earth’s
of land and sea. landmass.8 In addition to their climates, monsoon regions have a growing
urban population in common, as evidenced by major urban densities such
(2) Global climate system as Hong Kong, Macao, and Singapore.
More and more, ‘monsoons’ refer to very large-scale wind circulations
that can simultaneously affect − and be affected by − global climate. They
are notorious weather incidents with annual ‘metronomic’ regularity. The
monsoons (reversal surface winds) are mainly caused by a) the migra-
tion of the zenith position of the sun between the tropics of Cancer 22.5° N
and Capricorn 22.5° S; b) different heating and cooling properties of wa- ‘Monsoons’ refer to very large-scale wind circulations that
ter and land; and c) corresponding windage. The chain reactions affecting can simultaneously affect − and be affected by – global climate.
weather patterns throughout the world are collectively known as ‘global
tele-connection’.4 The global tele-connection explains causes by other geo-
graphic events in the area of trade winds. More recently proposed, the
‘global monsoon’ 5 hypothesis interprets monsoon systems as ‘part of one
global-scale atmospheric overturning circulation, implying a connection
between the regional monsoon systems and an in-phase behaviour of all
northern hemispheric monsoons on annual timescales.’ 6
18 Monsoon Climate: What the Climate Is and Was Karoline Kostka Karoline Kostka Monsoon Climate: What the Climate Is and Was 19Southeast Asian monsoon
The Southeast Asian monsoon region is located in the centre of the
Asian-Australian monsoon system. Asian-Australian monsoon affects
East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, the Australasian islands and north-
ern Australia. According to climate types, Southeast Asian monsoon is a
‘Tropical Monsoon Climate’ (Am) and a ‘Tropical Wet / Rainforest Climate’
(Af ).9 Throughout the year average temperatures exceed 18° C, while the
mean precipitation ranges from 1500 to 2500 mm: three times the world’s
average rainfall. For the most part, monsoon tropical areas are situated
within the realm of developing countries. Since many of their societies
rely on rain-fed agriculture, prediction of the amount, timing and loca-
tion of monsoon winds and rains is crucial to their communities’ interest.
Although some 60 per cent of the region’s population still lives under rural
conditions, the Asian-Australian monsoon system also affects some of the
world’s largest cities. This raises the need to understand monsoon as an
urban design phenomenon, and one that must be treated in the context of
‘city climate’ theory.
Monsoon prediction and climate change
Current spatial strategies in the context of climate change in Southeast
Asia embrace risk-based land-use planning initiatives. These include the
Fig. 05 Average annual rainfall role of green spaces and environmental buffers such as large-scale man-
in Sumatra (map published 1981)
grove planting for protection against eroding coasts and future sea-level
rise.10 In 2009 the United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change identified the regions most vulnerable to climate change impacts by
overlaying climate hazard (called ‘Climate Change Vulnerability Mapping
for Southeast Asia’). Climate hazards are thus defined as the frequency of
droughts, floods, and cyclones over about 20 years (1980–2000), physi-
cal exposure to landslides, and inundation zones of a five-meter sea level
rise. ‘Based on this mapping assessment, the most vulnerable regions in
Southeast Asia include’:
– Cambodia (almost all regions)
– Indonesia (West and East Java): exposure to droughts, floods, landslides,
sea level rise
– Indonesia (West and South Sumatra): exposure to droughts, floods, land-
slides, sea level rise
– Lao PDR (North and East regions)
– Philippines (all the regions): exposure to tropical cyclones, landslides,
floods, droughts
– Thailand (Bangkok region): exposure to sea level rise, floods
– Vietnam (Mekong River Delta): exposure to sea level rise
– Vietnam (Eastern coastal areas): exposure to tropical cyclones, droughts 11
Fig. 06 Overview of the winds
in Sumatra
20 Monsoon Climate: What the Climate Is and Was Karoline Kostka Karoline Kostka Monsoon Climate: What the Climate Is and Was 21Since the 1950s, the presence of El Niño (or El change, the temperatures of ocean water increase,
Niño Southern Oscillation) has intensified. From resulting in a decrease of temperature difference (as
East Africa to the United States, droughts and regards land and ocean surface). At the same time
floods have increased in number the overall pressure areas lose
markedly, and represent phe- their intensity, resulting in lower
nomena that could start a chain
For some years, equilibrium forces and weaker
reaction throughout the atmos- monsoon in Southeast Asia winds. For some years, monsoon
phere, causing stronger lows and has been significantly in Southeast Asia has been sig-
heavier rain. By acknowledging less pronounced. nificantly less pronounced. As
the global monsoon system, the a result, heavy rains during the
overall planetary influence on monsoon season will occur with
wind, rain, temperature, vegetation and air circula- increasing regional impact and with higher frequency
tion became an important focus in climate under- over the course of time. In some regions however, the
standing. With the rising water level caused by climate rain fails almost entirely.
Fig. 07 Ethnic groups in Southeast Asia
References Endnotes 8
de.slideshare.net/lschmidt1170/
chapter7-10793606 [accessed 21.05.2015].
Jha, A K and Brecht, H (2011) ‘Building 1
Villiers, John (1984 [1965]), p. 13.
Urban Resilience in East Asia’, in An Eye on Translation by the author.
9
On the basis of moisture regime and tem-
East Asia and Pacific, No. 8. The World Bank. perature, the humid tropics are also termed
2
Source: asean.org [accessed 11.08.2015]. ‘warm humid tropics’. Exceptions within this
Kottek, M et al. (2006) ‘World Map of zone are the highlands of this geographical
Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification 3
See: Tomascik, Tomas (1997). area. The Köppen and Geiger climate clas-
updated’, in Meteorol. Z, 15. sification uses temperature, precipitation
4
Wang, B and Q Ding (2008). and elevation information to indicate high
Ramage, C (1971), ‘Monsoon Meteorology’, altitude climate types and links additionally
in International Geophysics Series, Vol. 15, San 5
See Wang and Ding (2008) and Trenberth to natural vegetation patterns. See Kottek,
Diego: Academic Press. et al. (2000). M et al. (2006), p. 259–263.
Tomascik, Tomas (1997) ‘The Ecology of the 6
Trenberth et al. (2000), p. 13.
10
Jha, A K and Brecht, H (2011), p. 12.
Indonesian Seas’, in The Ecology of Indonesia
Series, Part One, Vol. 7. 7
East Asia with mountain ranges, plateaus
11
Yusuf, A A and Francisco, H A (2009), p. 6.
and basins; South Asia with lower moun-
Trenberth, K E et al. (2000), ‘The global tain ranges, deltas and river plains; and
monsoon as seen through the divergent at- Southeast Asia with mainly archipelagos Image Credits
mospheric circulation’, in Journal of Climate. and sea. Monsoon regions are determined
Potential areas of major by: ‘Prevailing wind shifts by a minimum
Sea level rise Fig. 01–04, 08: Karoline Kostka.
Villiers, John (1984 [1965]) Südostasien vor 120° between July and January’; ‘Average
High probability of der Kolonialzeit, Frankfurt am Main: Fischer frequency of prevailing wind direction
Potential areas of major vulnerability by hazard of Fig. 05: Ministriy of Interior, Republic of
droughts and warmth Weltgeschichte Vol. 18. in January and July that exceeds 40 %’;
Sea level rise
‘Mean resultant wind in at least one of the Indonesia, Land Use Planning Directorate
High probability of Medium probability of Wang, B and Ding, Q (2008) ‘The global month exceeds 3 m sec-1’; ‘Fewer than one and General Agrarian Directorate.
vulnerability by hazard of vulnerability by hazard of
Potential areas of major
droughts and warmth
monsoon: Major modes of annual variations cyclone-anticyclone alternation occurs
Sea level rise droughts and warmth Fig. 06: Royal Tropical Institute (KIT),
in the tropics’, in Dynamics of Atmos. and every two Years in either month in a 5°
High probability of Medium probability of Ocean. latitude-longitude rectangle’. See Ramage, C University of Leiden.
Low probability of
vulnerability by hazard of vulnerability by hazard of vulnerability by hazard of (1971), p. 6.
Potential areas of major
Sea level rise
droughts and warmth droughts and warmth droughts and warmth Yusuf, A A and Francisco, H A (2009) Fig. 07: Roxana Waterson, The Living House.
Potential areas of major High probability of Medium probability of Low probability of Center and scope of empirical Climate Change Vulnerability Mapping for
Sea level rise vulnerability by hazard of vulnerability by hazard of vulnerability by hazard of probability of vulnerability by Southeast Asia, Economy and Environment
droughts and warmth droughts and warmth droughts and warmth Hazard overlay sea-level rise Program for Southeast Asia (EEPSEA).
High probability of
vulnerability by hazard of and floods
Medium probability of Low probability of Center and scope of empirical
droughts and warmth
vulnerability by hazard of vulnerability by hazard of probability of vulnerability by
Fig. Medium
08 Southeast
probabilityAsia
of is one of the regions most vulnerable to climate change impact
droughts and warmth droughts and warmth Hazard overlay sea-level rise
and floods
vulnerability by hazard of Center and scope of empirical
Low probability of
droughts and warmth probability of vulnerability by
vulnerability by hazard of
droughts and warmth Hazard overlay sea-level rise
Low probability of andWas
floods
22 vulnerability
Monsoon Climate:
by hazard of What the Climate Is and Karoline Kostka Karoline Kostka Monsoon Climate: What the Climate Is and Was 23
Center and scope of empirical
droughts and warmth probability of vulnerability by
Hazard overlay sea-level rise
Center and scope of empirical
and floods
probability of vulnerability byWhat the Climate
Does
Climate, culture, and construction
Sascha Roesler, Indigenous, or more generally spoken, vernacular building
Karoline Kostka
can be understood as the evolutionary result of precise − albeit
pre-scientific − observations of the environment. Research
into vernacular architecture has amassed a tremendous
amount of evidence that indicates a close correlation between
climate, culture, and construction. In vernacular cognition,
architecture relies on climate, and climate is perceived by
means of architecture and construction. Natural ventilation
is set up at the intersection of climate, tropical ecology,
and architecture.
James Fleming and Vladimir Jankovic have recently argued that
there are ‘index- and agency-based readings of climate’.1 From their point
of view, the ‘definition of climate’ as a ‘statistical index’ is a relatively new
phenomenon. By conceiving of it as an index, ‘climate has been eroded to
an abstract three-dimensional geophysical system, rather than an intimate
ground-level experience.’ 2 Historically, ‘climate has more often been de-
fined as what it does rather than what it is. This means that climate has not
usually been seen as an indicator of weather trends, but as a force − and
a resource – informing social habits, economic welfare, health, diet, and
even the total “energy of nations”. In these domains of social life, climate
as agency has helped translate matters of concern into matters of fact. […]
Early modern scholars […] saw climate prescriptively as the norm that con-
nected environmental features with social potentials. In this sense, climate
literally produced seasons and endemic disease, vegetation and diet, soil
and vernacular architecture, customs and political organisation. Climate
was considered as agency organising social experience as a result of the
material circumstances of life.’ 3
Fig. 01 Courtyard of the premises of Chinese businessman Tjong A Fie (1860–1921), Medan (Indonesia)
24 Monsoon Climate: What the Climate Does Sascha Roesler, Karoline Kostka Sascha Roesler, Karoline Kostka Monsoon Climate: What the Climate Does 25Monsoon landscapes
500 km 15 km 2 km 50 m 2m
LAYER During the six-year journey he took through the Malaysian archipel-
ago between 1854 and 1862, Alfred Russel Wallace kept a diary, in which,
Atmosphere among many other things, he describes
Troposphere the island of Singapore.Canopy
Boundary layer 4
His
layerde- Suface layer
scriptions give the modern reader insights into how the flora and fauna,
as well as the climate of Singapore, presented themselves to a European
traveller. Wallace describes a forested island, one still significantly shaped
500 km 15 km by its natural parameters:2 km ‘The island of Singapore 50 m consists of a multitude 2m
of small hills, three or four hundred feet high, the summits of many of
which are still covered with virgin forest. The mission-house at Bukit-tima
ere Troposphere Boundary layer Canopy layer Suface layer
was surrounded by several of these wood-topped hills, which were much
frequented by woodcutters and sawyers, and offered me an excellent col-
lecting ground for insects. […] Several hours in the middle of every fine
day were spent in these patches of forest, which were delightfully cool and Fig. 04 Monsoon rainforest. Secondary tropical rainforest Fig. 05 Monsoon rainforest. Secondary tropical rainforest at Bukit
2 km 50 m 2m
shady by contrast with the bare open country we had to walk over to reach at the MacRitchie Nature Trail & Reservoir in Singapore, 2015 Lavang, Sumatra, Indonesia, 2013
them. The vegetation was most luxuriant, comprising enormous forest
Boundary layer
trees, as well as a variety
Canopy layer
of ferns, caladiums, and other undergrowth, and
Suface layer
abundance of climbing rattan palms.’ 5
The tropical rain-forest is the climax vegetation of the humid tropics. A Although the long-term planetary climate has shaped the landscapes
2 km 50 m wide
2m range of vegetation types grows in the humid tropics, with numerous of the Southeast Asian monsoon region, these landscapes are both object
tree species of varying height, canopy structure, and biomass.6 Three types and subject, both effect and cause of climatic phenomena. Over time, and
of forest can be distinguished: tropical rain-forests in the lowlands, moist with their distinct characteristics, they became the visible indicator of ex-
yer Canopy layer Suface layer
deciduous forests in regions with a pronounced dry season, and montane treme climate and temporary weather conditions. Southeast Asia’s land-
forests in the high lands.7 The tropical rain-forest vegetation is diverse and scape consists of disproportional solids and fluids with different heating
complex and characterized by the following: high biodiversity (comprising and cooling properties, voids and barriers for wind circulation and dense
50 m 2m 40−50 per cent of Earth’s five to ten million species); high plant biomass high vegetation that creates wind-friction, but at the same time, enables
(ranging from 200 to 400 Mg/ha, with most of the biomass accumulat- wind velocity and bundles moisture and humidity. The islands and archi- Fig. 06 A Section (AA’) in main
ing in the first eight to ten years); a concentration of a large proportion of pelagos are determined by three major characteristics that can only be iden- wind SW – NE directions reveals a
nopy layer Suface layer
the total nutrient capital within the plant biomass; a rapid rate of nutrient tified as the monsoon landscape of Southeast Asia: sequence of main landscape ele-
ments that impacts the monsoon
Fig. 02 Different monsoon layers recycling; a multi-storey canopy of mature tropical rainforest containing climate (voids and barriers):
determine the climate conditions numerous species in different strata; and a virtually closed ecosystem for 1) land-water relation of vast sea with relatively large islands and long the Pacific Ocean, the Island of
and scale of weather phenomena most nutrients and water within the mature or high (tropical) rainforest.8 coastlines Sumatra, the Straits of Singapore
and Malacca, the Peninsular of
2) islands with high altitudes in relation to the sea water level and Malaysia, and the Gulf of Thailand
3) tropical rainforest vegetation on volcanic soils.
Fig. 03 The Southeast Asian (island) monsoon landscape is characterised by a disproportion of solids (landmass) and fluids (sea water)
Southwest monsoon during the summer season (June to September): Humid air from the pressure high of the Pacific Ocean reaches the Northeast monsoon during the winter season (December to early March): Dry air from the pressure high of the Malay Peninsular crosses
warmer Sumatran mainland. As the air stream develops over the vast ocean surface, the elevated island topography (highlands of Leuser the Straits of Malacca and reaches the lowlands of Sumatra in the east. There, the stream is blocked again by the highlands of Leuser
National Park) act as a barrier for air stream movement, and as a result, heavy precipitation occurs. The winds approaching Singapore from the National Park. The moisture is released in moderate precipitation
direction of Sumatra are called ‘Sumatras’. They are common in this season, which is also known as ‘hazy period’ in Singapore
26 Monsoon Climate: What the Climate Does Sascha Roesler, Karoline Kostka Sascha Roesler, Karoline Kostka Monsoon Climate: What the Climate Does 27Monsoon landscapes of Southeast Asia are determined by three major landscape elements; topography, vegetation, and soil types Built heritage
Exactly 100 years after Wallace, the American architect Dorothy Pelzer
travelled through the Malaysian archipelago with no less a systematic ap-
proach. In contrast to Wallace, however, who had set out to study the natu-
ral history of the region, Pelzer documented the vernacular architecture of
Southeast Asia – just before sweeping transformations in it took effect. In
the eight years following 1963, Pelzer travelled alone and even under ad-
verse socio-political conditions through Laos, Burma, Cambodia, Thailand,
Fig. 08 Topography Vietnam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia and the Philippines.9 She wrote
In Southeast Asia, the area covered by the that her ‘project was a book on traditional house types of Southeast Asia, to Fig. 11 Recurring symbols in the
sea is approximately four times the land house building of the Sa’dan Toraja,
area. Over 90 % (app. 2 million km2 ) of be recorded in photographs and measured drawings. The most interesting
Sulawesi, Indonesia, 1965.
the total land area is Islands, but less than of these houses everywhere were fast becoming lost – built as they were in Dorothy Pelzer
25 % of the total archipelago area (appr. perishable wood, bamboo, and thatch, in a physical climate taking heavy
8 million km2 ) is land. This disproportion of
(is)land – ocean distribution, with big islands toll on such materials, and in a mental climate fast abandoning old forms
and high altitudes, sets a regional founda- in the rush for imported “progress”’.10
tion for an extremely pronounced monsoon
climate
The principles of stilt house construction and permeability
Deciduous
comprise the two central climate-related constructional
Fig. 12 Village of the Sa’dan Toraja,
Evergreen
Mixed trees
approaches in the indigenous architecture of Southeast Asia. Sulawesi, Indonesia, 1965.
Gras- and shrub land Dorothy Pelzer
Numerous observations can be found in Pelzer’s notes that offer in-
formation on how construction − before the beginnings of modern archi-
tecture − dealt with climatic factors in the region. The tropical, hot-humid
Fig. 09 Vegetation conditions had (for reasons easily grasped) led to filigree models: air-
The tropical rainforests (TRF) is the climax permeable and elevated building structures. Indeed, the principles of stilt
vegetation of these soils. Many lianas house construction and permeability comprise the two central climate-relat-
(woody vines) and herbaceous epiphytes Fig. 13 Completion of a column
(air plants), such as orchids, are present. ed constructional approaches in the indigenous architecture of Southeast
in a village of the Sa’dan Toraja,
Monsoon forests’ evergreen forests are Asia.11 Pelzer summarises the constructional peculiarity, shaped by timber Sulawesi, Indonesia, 1965.
especially well developed all over Southeast building techniques, of this larger region as follows: ‘This whole study is a Dorothy Pelzer
Asia, and are typified by tall teak trees and
thickets of bamboo study of construction without nails. When there are nails, there is already
Western influence – except possibly Chinese influence, Chinese Nails.’ 12
Timber, bamboo and natural fibres were the materials most suited for use
under such averse conditions. Pelzer describes, for instance, how the cen-
Utisols
tral element of the ridge of the roof was chosen: to find the necessary mate-
Oxisols
rial meant having to go find it in the forest. She writes, ‘Ridge: Construction
of ridge very important. Judge quality of house by it. From djior wood
Inceptisol
(Indonesian: djuhar). One piece. Its length limits size of house. Search the
forest very long to find the best. Djior wood very long and flexible.’ 13
Climate (and with it, the tropical ecology) was a transcendent variable,
Fig. 10 Soil types to which humans were subordinate, and they had to adapt as precisely as
Similar to vegetation, the soils of the humid possible to it by means of their architecture. Yet the gods had been granted
tropics are also diverse and highly variable. the ability to manipulate the climate according to their own interests. The
The predominant soil types are the groups
of Utisols and Oxisols, soils that occur in godly Hindu king of the Batak ethnic group in Sumatra, Singa Mangaradja,
regions without a marked dry season. They for example, possessed ‘no secular power, but was seen as someone who
are primarily loaded with clay minerals with held sway over the weather’ 14 ; his power to rule the climate was an expres-
or without plinthite or laterite. Air-dried Fig. 14 Illustration of William
laterite (lat. ‘brick’) is used as brick in the sion of his godly status. Marsden’s The History of Sumatra,
regional construction industry 1784
28 Monsoon Climate: What the Climate Does Sascha Roesler, Karoline Kostka Sascha Roesler, Karoline Kostka Monsoon Climate: What the Climate Does 29Fig. 15 Section of a Toba Batak village. Drawing by Gaudenz Domenig Fig. 16 Typical Toba Batak house
M: Monsoon M: Monsoon
T: Tropical Ecology T: Tropical Ecology
A: Architecture A: Architecture
Fig. 21 Vernacular Model of Climate, Tropical Ecology and Architecture Fig. 22 Urban Model of Climate, Tropical Ecology and Architecture*
* The Age of Anthropocene
Fig. 17 Axonometric projection of Fig. 18 and interior of a shophouse in Urban traditions of natural ventilation
a shophouse in Singapore Medan (Indonesia)
The governing question of this research project is how the cultural
heritage of natural ventilation might today − under conditions of wide-
spread social and environmental change and advancing urbanisation − be
renewed and reintroduced into the urban architecture of Southeast Asia.
How to gear, for instance, the (horizontal) vernacular architecture of the
shophouse towards the (vertical) high-rise building? Beside the indigenous
filigree construction techniques of the villages (stilt buildings), the urban
heritage of the Chinese massive construction (shophouses), and the colo-
nial and postcolonial style known as Tropical Architecture are the histori-
cal points of contact for today’s concepts of natural ventilation. An urban
practice of climate control, familiar throughout Southeast Asia since the
11th century, was established by Chinese settlers. Shophouses are courtyard
houses in a hot-humid climatic zone, which fundamentally influenced ur-
banisation in Southeast Asia.15 We can distinguish two basic principles of
natural ventilation at work in courtyard houses; both kinds are also of the
greatest relevance for the natural ventilation of high-rise buildings today:
‘The architectural design can ensure such natural air movement through
two principles. In the first, differences in wind velocity produce a pres-
Fig. 19 Front elevation of the former Deli Maastschappji headquarter building, Medan's largest Fig. 20 The two-storey masonry building is sure differential that results in air flowing from the higher to the lower air
tobacco company at the time, at Jalan Tembakau Deli. Designed by Dutch architect D. Berendse elevated from the ground mainly for reasons pressure region. In the second, air is warmed, causing convection, with the
in 1910 in a British-colonial classicistic style, the building incorporates some typical tropical of flooding and natural ventilation. The base warm air rising and being replaced by cooler air.’ 16
climate architecture features opening below the balustrade brings in fresh
air to the inner laying rooms
30 Monsoon Climate: What the Climate Does Sascha Roesler, Karoline Kostka Sascha Roesler, Karoline Kostka Monsoon Climate: What the Climate Does 31Medan Singapore Medan and Singapore
Population (urban: city of Medan, not the metropolitan area) Population (total) An urban culture of natural ventilation brings together the aforemen-
6 Mio.
tioned heritage and the demands of modernisation. For reasons of sus-
tainability and cost, the question arises today as to how natural forms of
5,469,700
5 ventilation could once again be considered an option more often for the
Southeast Asian housing sector. The two case studies following address
4 Mio. 4,000,000? 4
the underlying mechanisms of ‘man-made weather’ in the cities of Medan
3.5
3
(Indonesia) and Singapore, and also explore how the city’s macroclimate
3
2.5
and the individual microclimate interact. To reconsider natural ventilation
2
2,046,973 2 in these cities means to acknowledge the interdependency of the various
1,898,093
1.5 Population (metropolitan) scales. In contrast to (horizontal) Medan, with its unregulated mass hous-
1
4,144,583 1 ing sector, (vertical) Singapore is strongly regulated. Singapore’s hous-
0.5 568,000
200 17,500 80,000
ing agency HDB is responsible for 85 % of all housing units on the island,
0 0
1823 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 while in Medan, almost two-thirds of all buildings are erected without any
governmental regulation. In the Indonesian city’s residential sector, this
is largely attributable to informal building industries and profit-orientied
Area (urban) Area (metropolitan) Area developers. Medan’s urban mass housing is economy-driven, whereas
265 km2 2739 km2 718.3 km2 Singapore’s urban mass housing is based on a rigid political program that
was set up as early as in the 1960s.
Density (urban) Density (metropolitan) Density
7912/km2 1500/km2 7615/km2 While the monsoon climate in the two cities is almost identical, their
urban developments and − relative to that − their urban climates are dissim-
Pollution (Annual mean PM 10 ug/m³) Pollution (Annual mean PM 10 ug/m³)
ilar. Medan and Singapore each attach a different status and connotation
111 27 to natural ventilation. A comparison of the two locations, in fact, reveals
fundamental differences in the dynamics of their climate, culture and
Average salaries Medan (in USD): Average salaries Singapore (in USD):
methods of construction. While natural ventilation in Medan is challenged
by the conditions of poverty and high air pollution, natural ventilation in
maximum 2286 maximum 63,092 Singapore is confronted by the unprecedented victory of air-conditioning
average 1088 average 5574 and the abundance of sheer energy. Whereas Singapore’s energy-intensive
modern lifestyle dictates a new housing policy of diversified cooling con-
median 571 median 4194
cepts, Medan’s response has been simply to ensure a basic demand of com-
minimum 304 minimum 751 fort for large parts of the population.
Average monthly rainfall in mm Mean annual rainfall Average monthly rainfall in mm Mean annual rainfall
350
300
2125 mm 350
300
2340 mm
250 250
200 200
150 150
100
Days of rain/year 100
Days of rain/year
50 50
0
J F M A M J J A S O N D 146 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D 179
wet days wet days
dry days dry days
Mean max. and min. NW SE winds Mean max. and min. NNE SSW winds
temperatures in °C temperatures in °C Singapore (Changi)
August
N
NNW NNE
J F M A M J J A S O N D July J F M A M J J A S O N D
NW NE
10
33 33
32 32 32 32 32 32 32 32 WNW ENE
31 31 31 31 31 31 31 31
30 30 30 30
29 29 W 0
E
January
WSW ESE
December
25
24 24 24 24 24 24 24 24
23 23 23 23 SW SE
22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 SSW SSE
S
Wind direction distribution in (%)
32 Monsoon Climate: What the Climate Does Sascha Roesler, Karoline Kostka Sascha Roesler, Karoline Kostka Monsoon Climate: What the Climate Does 33References Endnotes Image Credits
Brown, S, A J R Gillespie, and A E Lugo, 1989. 1
Fleming, James R/Jankovic, Vladimir Fig. 01, 03, 05, 16: Sascha Roesler.
Biomass estimation methods for tropical (2011), p. 3.
forest with applications to forest inventory Fig. 02, 04, 06–10: Karoline Kostka.
data. Forest Science. 2
Fleming, James R/Jankovic, Vladimir
(2011), p. 4. Fig. 11–13: Dorothy Pelzer Collection,
FAO (1992), Forest Resource Assessment Institute for Southeast Asian Studies,
1990 Project. Third Interim Report of the 3
Fleming, James R/Jankovic, Vladimir Singapore.
State of Tropical Forests. (Tenth World (2011), p. 2.
Forestry Congress), 17–26 September 1991. Fig. 14: Unknown.
Paris, France. 4
Wallace was no mere traveller, but rather
one of the most important naturalists of Fig. 15: Gaudenz Domenig.
Fathy, Hassan (1986) Natural Energy and the 19th century, independently conceiving
Vernacular Architecture, Chicago. the theory of evolution alongside Charles Fig. 17: Urban Redevelopment Authority
Darwin. See Wallace, Alfred Russel (2010 (URA) of Singapore.
Feriadi, Henry (1999). Natural Ventilation [1869]), p. 20.
Characteristics of Courtyard Buildings in Fig. 18, 20: Marcel Jäggi.
Tropical Climate, Dissertation National 5
Wallace, Alfred Russel (2010 [1869]),
University of Singapore. p. 23. Fig. 19: Sumatran Heritage Trust, Medan.
Fleming, James R/Jankovic, Vladimir (2011), 6
Holdridge, 1967; Lanly, 1982; Whitmore, Fig 21, 22: Sascha Roesler.
Revisiting Klima, in: Osiris, Vol. 26. 1984; Brown et al., 1989; Grainger, 1991)
Page 32: Ani Vihervaara. Sources: About
Grainger, A (1991), The Tropical Rain Forests 7
(Holdridge, 1967) Medan – The advent of a North Sumatran
and Man. New York: Columbia University Modern City, Johannes Vidodo, 2011;
Press. 8
The TRF vegetation as characterised Ensiklopedi Umum, Penerbitan Jajasan Kanisius,
by the report of the Forest Resource 1973; NEA, Records of Climate Station
Holdridge L R (1967), Life Zone Ecology, San Assessment Project (FAO, 1992) with refer- Mean; Singapore Ministry of Environment
Jose, Costa Rica: Tropical Science Center. ence to Grainger (1991), Holdridge (1967), and Resources, Key Environment Statistics,
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Southeast Asian Cultural Heritage – Images of 9
According to: Institute for Southeast Asian www.salaryexplorer.com
Traditional Communities. Singapore. Studies (1986), p. 17.
Fig 23: Aulia Nasution.
Lanly, J P (1982), Tropical Forest Resources. 10
Pelzer, Dorothy (1982), p. 2.
Forestry Paper No. 30. Rome: Food and Fig 24: Ani Vihervaara.
Agriculture Organization of the United 11
Or with words of the early British-colonial
Nations. orientalist William Marsden: ‘In their
buildings neither stone, brick, nor clay, are
Marsden, William (1784) The History ever made use of, which is the case in most
of Sumatra: Containing an Account of the countries where timber abounds, and where
Government, Laws, Customs and Manners of the warmth of the climate renders the free
the Native Inhabitants, with a Description of admission of air, a matter rather to be de-
the Natural Productions, and a Relation of the sired, than guarded against.’ See: Marsden,
Ancient Political State of That, London. William (1784).
Pelzer, Dorothy (1982) Trek Across Indonessia, 12
Institute for Southeast Asian Studies:
Singapore. Dorothy Pelzer Collection, DP 1b, Common
Factors.
Villiers, John (1984 [1965]) Südostasien vor
der Kolonialzeit, Fischer Weltgeschichte Vol. 13
Institute for Southeast Asian Studies:
18, Frankfurt am Main, Dorothy Pelzer Collection, DP 1b, Common
Factors.
Wallace, Alfred Russel (2010 [1869]) The
Malay Archipelago, Beaufoy Books, Oxford. 14
Villiers, John (1984 [1965]), p. 89.
Translation by Sascha Roesler.
Whitmore, T C (1984), Tropical Rain Forests
of the Far East. Oxford: Oxford University 15
See: Feriadi, Henry (1999).
Press.
16
Fathy, Hassan (1986), p. 52.
Fig. 24 Singapore
34 Monsoon Climate: What the Climate Does Sascha Roesler, Karoline Kostka Sascha Roesler, Karoline Kostka Monsoon Climate: What the Climate Does 35You can also read
