Reef Habitats in the Middle Atlantic Bight: Abundance, Distribution, Associated Biological Communities, and Fishery Resource Use
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Reef Habitats in the Middle Atlantic Bight:
Abundance, Distribution, Associated Biological
Communities, and Fishery Resource Use
FRANK W. STEIMLE and CHRISTINE ZETLIN
Introduction soft sediments, mostly sands, but grad- line jetties and groins, submerged pipe
Spatial distribution and perhaps the ing to silt-clay in deeper areas (Stumf lines, cables, artificial reefs, and similar
abundance of fishery resources are in- and Biggs, 1988; Poppe et al., 1994). objects or material placed in the marine
fluenced by physical and other habitat Except for relic sand and gravel ridges, environment by the human population.
factors. The identification of significant exposed Holocene to Pleistocene clay Some of these human additions are
marine habitats and strong or critical or sandstone in some areas (Allen et considered objectionable “litter” (Gal
associations between living marine re- al., 1969; Wigley and Theroux, 1981; gani et al., 2000), but larger objects can
sources (LMR’s) and these habitats can Stumf and Biggs, 1988; Poppe et al., function as seabed structures that de
lead to a better understanding of how 1994; NOAA National Data Center velop and support diverse and special
environmental influences affect LMR’s NGDC, 1999), and glacially exposed biological communities, even if they
and fisheries and support their manage- rock along the southern New England can be patchy in distribution. These
ment (NMFS, 1999a). coast, this habitat characterization of communities differ significantly from
The Middle Atlantic Bight (the area the Bight was basically true until Euro those of the surrounding well surveyed,
of the U.S. east coast and continental pean colonization. soft sediment seabed of the Bight.
shelf between Cape Cod, Mass., and Within the last two centuries there The expansion of this habitat type in
Cape Hatteras, N.C.) hereafter referred has been an increase in hard bottom the Bight by man’s addition of solid
to as the Bight, is characterized as or reef (“reef” is used hereafter to material has probably had an effect on
being a homogeneous habitat of rel- refer to this multi-dimensional, hard LMR distributions and fisheries (such
atively flat topography, composed of substrate, structural habitat) habitats in as American lobster, Homarus ameri
the Bight, which is not commonly rec- canus; cod, Gadus morhua; red hake,
The authors are with the Sandy Hook Labora-
ognized by marine geologists and re Urophycis chuss; ocean pout, Macro
tory, Northeast Fisheries Science Center, National source managers, e.g. shipwrecks, lost zoarces americanus; scup, Stenotomus
Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA, 74 Magruder cargos, disposed solid materials, shore- chrysops; black sea bass, Centropristis
Road, Highlands, NJ 07732.
striata; and tautog, Tautoga onitis) and
possible effect on other resources, but
these effects are not well known nor
ABSTRACT—One particular habitat type
well understood. In fact, reef habitats
tribution, abundance, use by living marine
in the Middle Atlantic Bight is not well rec- resources and associated biological commu in general seem underappreciated by
ognized among fishery scientists and man- nities (except on estuarine oyster reefs), and northeastern U.S. habitat managers or
agers, although it is well known and used fishery value or management. This poorly researchers. For example, no type of
by recreational and commercial fisheries. studied and surveyed habitat can provide fish reef habitat is even listed as a fishery
This habitat consists of a variety of hard-sur- refuge from trawls and can be a factor in
face, elevated relief “reef” or reef-like envi- studies of the distribution and abundance of habitat in recent reviews of northeast
ronments that are widely distributed across a variety of reef-associated fishery resources. fish habitat, except for boulders (Lang
the predominantly flat or undulating, sandy This review provides a preliminary summary ton et al., 1995; Auster and Langton,
areas of the Bight and include both natural of information found on relative distribution 1999), and they are not considered as
rocky areas and man-made structures, e.g. and abundance of reef habitat in the Bight, demersal fish nursery habitat in the
shipwrecks and artificial reefs. Although the living marine resources and biological
there are natural rock and shellfish reefs in communities that commonly use it, threats Bight (Steves et al., 2000). In the waters
southern New England coastal waters and to this habitat and its biological resources, south of Cape Hatteras, reef habitats
estuaries throughout the Bight, most reef and the value or potential value of artificial are recognized as important to fisher
habitats in the region appear to be man- reefs to fishery or habitat managers. The pur ies and some of the species found in
made, mostly wrecks and “obstructions,” and pose of the review is to initiate an awareness
man-made reef habitat modification/creation among resource managers about this habi the Middle Atlantic Bight are also part
may be increasing. Very little effort has been tat, its role in resource management, and the of those fisheries (Miller and Richards,
devoted to the study of this habitat’s dis- need for research. 1979; Parker and Mays, 1998).
24 Marine Fisheries Review
Although hard bottom habitats off these varied roles involving fishery and cludes references to species, such as southern New England were explored habitat management, there is need to aquatic birds, that interact with reef briefly by naturalist dredge in the latter begin to better understand the commu associated fishes. half of the nineteenth century (Verrill, nity dynamics and fishery value of this 1872), submarine canyon and tilefish habitat type in the Bight. Characteristics of Reef habitats were examined by submarine This paper summarizes available in Habitats in the Bight (Valentine et al., 1980), and some at formation in four parts: A reef habitat can be composed of tention was given to biological fouling natural materials (such as rocks used (Redfield and Ketchum, 1952), little 1) A characterization and preliminary for shoreline rip rap jetties), sometimes other work has been done to examine assessment of the abundance and placed by man, or composed of manu this habitat type in the Bight. Reef distribution of reef habitats in the factured materials (such as sunken ves habitats in the Bight, although not Bight; sels). Some biogenic micro-structures, as wide in occurrence and coverage 2) Known or probable fishery resource e.g. coralline algae; anemone, poly as the glacially scoured, rocky areas associations with reef habitats, sev chaete, or amphipod tubes; or cobble or of the Gulf of Maine (Oldale et al., eral species of which are currently dead or fossil molluscan shell patches, 1973), or the fossil coral rock and live considered “overfished” (NMFS, have some reduced characteristics of coral patch reefs south of Cape Hat 1999b), including some endangered a reef habitat. These can support small teras (Menzies et al., 1966), may have marine species; er organisms or life stages; Auster et become common enough to warrant 3) What is known of the biological al. (1995) discusses this use of micro consideration of their role in fishery communities that are associated with habitat. After a period of submersion management in the Bight. Although various estuarine, coastal, and conti and epifaunal colonization, most reef not as common or as spectacular as in nental shelf reef habitats; and habitats have a similar appearance and the tropics, reef-like habitats (especial 4) Discusses status and trends in reef function, but there can be subtle differ ly shipwrecks) also support recreation habitats, threats to these habitats, ences between natural and man-made al diving in the Bight, and many divers some uses of man-made reefs to reef habitats; the characteristics of each harvest reef fish resources by spear manage marine resources, and infor type are reviewed separately. The basic (fish) or hand (lobsters). This recre mational or research needs. source of information on the distribu ational diving generates economic ben tion of reef habitats is NOAA’s NOS efits to nearby businesses through sales This summary is intended to create Hydrographic Surveys Division Auto and services. an awareness of this habitat in the Bight mated Wreck and Obstruction Informa The introduction of manufactured and serve the information needs of hab tion System (AWOIS, 1997), although materials as reef habitat, by both ac itat and fishery resource managers. this database only includes structures cidental and intentional depositions, is or reefs that might be of concern to expanding in the Bight. These habitats The Middle Atlantic Bight Reefs navigation, and many small “reefs” or and their associated biological commu The Bight generally is defined to in “snags” are not included in the data nities need the ecosystem/community clude estuarine and continental shelf base. This database is augmented by a level attention given similar reef habi waters and seabed between Cape Cod, summary of artificial reef construction tats in the adjacent Gulf of Maine and Mass., and Cape Hatteras, N.C. It is from sources involved in various state South Atlantic Bight areas (e.g. McCar a broad indentation in the coast line artificial reef programs, and a survey thy et al., 1979; Hulbert et al., 1982; between these boundaries with inflec of relevant literature. The very abun Wenner et al., 1983; Chester et al., tions at the mouth of Chesapeake Bay dant and widely distributed shellfish 1984; Sedberry and Van Dolah, 1984; and New York harbor (Fig. 1). Its reefs, submerged pipelines, and inter Witman, 1985; Witman and Sebens, nonreef benthic environment and as tidal man-made structures, e.g. jetties 1988; Kirby-Smith, 1989). Man-made sociated communities have been re and bulkheads, are only generally con or artificial reef habitats are also often ported by Wigley and Theroux (1981) sidered. No effort is made in this review suggested as replacement habitats for and Theroux and Wigley (1998), and to estimate the total spatial seabed cov losses of other habitats, especially in es were reviewed by Pacheco (1988), and erage of all types of reef habitats in the tuaries where in-kind mitigation oppor are characterized as being composed Bight. Some of the targets listed on the tunities are often absent (Sheehy and of sediments that range from clay to maps that seem to be inland are actu Vic, 1992; Foster et al., 1994). They gravel, with sand being the dominant ally within rivers. are also used to create new habitat, sediment (Fig. 1). But within this soft e.g. artificial reefs to enhance fishing sediment matrix, unnoted natural and Natural reefs or surrounding artificial islands (Wil man-made reef habitats occur in estu Natural reef habitats in the Bight are liams and Duane, 1975; Seaman and aries, along the coast, across the con found in some areas consisting of bio Sprague, 1991), or are segregated as tinental shelf, and in deeper waters. A genic or rock material. Biogenic reefs special fishery management areas or review of these reef habitats and bio are created by living stone coral, Astran reserves (GMFMC, 1999). Because of logical associations follows, which in gia poculata, certain shellfishes (east 62(2), 2000 25
ern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, and garis. These reef-building organisms cause they add structural complexity (or
blue mussel, Mytilus edulis), and poly- have been called “physical ecosystem micro habitats) to environments, which
chaete worms, such as Sabellaria vul- engineers” by Jones et al. (1997) be- in turn attracts and supports other organ
isms. Nonbiogenic natural reef habitats
are exposed rock outcrops or random
boulders left by retreating glaciers or
rafted from icebergs, about 12,000 years
before present (YBP), or erosion of sed
iment-covered rock or deltaic deposits
of rock, cobble, and gravel along former
river channels across a retreating shore
line since the last glacial period. There
are reports of submerged ridges of ara
gonitic sandstones, thought to be relict
beach deposits, mid-shelf off Delaware
(Allen et al. 1969). Some natural “reefs”
can be ephemeral, such as tree trunks
that are washed down rivers, become
water logged, and sink to the bottom to
provide temporary habitat until wood
borers gradually degrade them. Collec
tions of dead molluscan shells, such
as surf clam, Spisula solidissima; and
whelks, Busycon sp.; and exposed semi
fossil oyster shell can serve as micro
reef habitats.
Shellfish reef habitats (primarily
oyster and blue mussels) are primarily
known to occur in polyhaline estuaries
and coastal areas in the Bight, but mus
sels occur offshore, too. Oyster beds
and reefs are found in Chesapeake
Bay and its tributaries, Delaware Bay,
the Hudson-Raritan Estuary, in coastal
areas of Long Island Sound and South
ern New England, including bays on
Martha’s Vineyard (Ford, 1997; MacK
enzie, 1997a, b). Oyster beds were more
extensive in distribution and abundance
in the nineteenth century than current
ly, and were enhanced in many areas
in the 19th and early 20th century by
transplanting cultch and spat.
Blue mussel beds are attached to
hard surfaces in more marine and cooler
coastal waters, (e.g. Steimle and Stone,
1973; Langton et al., 1995; MacKen
zie, 1997a). They can also be found
adjacent to larger reef structures after
being sloughed off by strong currents
or storm surges and there they continue
to grow and serve as satellite, low-re
lief reef habitats. Life spans of a decade
or less, predation, and harvesting make
the presence and size of these beds
Figure 1.—The underlying dominant sediments types and distributions in the Middle somewhat dynamic, and they are not
Atlantic Bight (from Wigley and Theroux, 1981). usually mapped as reef structures.
26 Marine Fisheries Review
Rocky reefs and associated fauna
are mostly found in New York Harbor,
Long Island Sound, and along the
Southern New England coast, and out
crops of glauconitic marl (a soft sedi
mentary rock) occur off northern New
Jersey (the Shrewsbury Rocks and El
beron Grounds). The AWOIS (1997)
database represents a rough estimate
of reef habitats, including natural rock.
For example, there is evidence of ara
gonitic fossilized sandstone ridges re
ported off Delaware at about 80 m
depth (Allen et al., 1969) that do seem
to be in the AWOIS database, and there
are “rocky” areas defined by AWOIS
at the mouths of Delaware and Ches
apeake Bays (Fig. 2) that are not nat
ural, but are protective rip rap. Some
natural reef habitat is also known from
areas of the outer continental shelf and
within submarine canyons where other
outcrops of sandstone and clay occur;
the exposed clay in this area is further
enhanced as fishery habitat by the bur
rowing activities of tilefish, Lopholati
lus chamaeleonticeps, and crustaceans,
such as American lobster (Cooper et
al., 1987; Steimle et al., 1999f), and by
soft coral colonization. These deeper
reef-like habitats are not included in
the AWOIS database nor on Figure 2.
There are anecdotal reports by com
mercial fishermen of cobbles and loose
rock patches associated with gravelly Figure 2.—Distribution of submerged rocky reef areas (●) in the Middle Atlantic
areas in coastal areas, these could rep Bight, based on NOAA NOS’s AWOIS (1997). The targets that appear inland are in
the AWOIS database for rivers.
resent river deltaic deposits during peri
ods of lower sea levels; but some could
be ballast stones from old wooden ship line, they added objects or structures is also created by epifauna colonizing
wrecks. Off coastal Delaware and south that functioned as reefs to estuaries, the system of coastal navigation aids,
these rocky patch are also associated coasts, and the shelf by building piers, such as buoys and their anchor chains
with “live bottom,” i.e. the rocks are docks, bulkheads, and leaving wooden and the submerged supports of light
colonized by sea whips, stone coral, shipwrecks. These structures had hab towers; there are presently no oil or
and other biogenic structural enhancers itat value similar to submerged trees gas rigs in the Bight which would add
(see below). washed down river into estuarine waters to this type of habitat. Human activi
by storms, and in some ways they miti ties have introduced rocks, as protec
Man-made reefs gated the loss of other structured, veg tive structures (jetties, groins, breakwa
Although native Americans used etated habitats (coastal marshes and eel ters, and ice blockers) along or within
brush and stone weirs to trap fish in grass beds) that were covered or de most coastal areas or bays, or as former
estuaries and rivers, which might be graded by shoreline development, al waste material as off the mouth of New
considered a form of artificial habitat though the hard structures did not fully York Harbor, i.e. the Subway Rocks,
which sheltered some fish as well as mitigate lost primary productivity. In which are material removed while con
aggregating them for collection, most approximately the last century and a structing the New York City subway
man-made contributions to Bight reef half, metal vessels have gradually re system.
habitat have occurred since European placed large wooden vessels and cre Shipwrecks constitute one of the most
colonization in the seventeenth cen ated more enduring sunken structures. abundant types of man-made reef hab
tury. As settlers developed the shore- Mid-depth to surface “reef-like” habitat itat in the Bight. A summary plot of
62(2), 2000 27
wrecks from the AWOIS (1997) data
base suggest that they are most common
near the mouths of major estuaries or
ports (Fig. 3), as might be expected
from the volume of shipping traffic in
and out of these ports. However, many
smaller or older, partially degraded or
buried wrecks are not in the database
or shown on these charts, and their dis
tribution is likely to be similar to the
plotted shipwrecks. Many of the ship
wrecks on the outer continental shelf are
products of WW II submarine attacks.
As shipwrecks degrade, their structural
complexity changes and this affects
their habitat value for fishery resources.
Another type of “reef” habitat noted
on NOS charts and in the AWOIS (1997)
database, is “Obstructions.” These are
objects on the seabed of unknown com
position, and many are probably small
or degraded shipwrecks, lost anchors
or deck cargo, a few airplane wrecks,
and similar objects. The most notable
of these are summarized on Figure 4,
and, like shipwrecks, the plot focuses
on larger targets of potential concern to
navigation.
In the last half century or so, fish
ermen and fishery managers have rec
ognized the value of “reef” and wreck
habitats to fisheries, and they have been
constructing artificial reefs in coastal
waters. The use of artificial reefs for
fishery enhancement has continued to Figure 3.—Distribution of Middle Atlantic Bight shipwrecks (●) in the NOAA
expand, although they are a relatively NOS’s AWOIS (1997) considered to be a concern for navigation. The targets that
appear inland are in the AWOIS database for rivers.
small part of the plotted man-made or
overall reef habitat available in the Bight
(Fig. 5), in comparison with wrecks and militarized combat vehicles and a va abundance of this habitat in the Bight,
obstructions (Fig. 3, 4). Areas where ar riety of ships as available at a reason because of the reasons previously men
tificial reefs have been constructed are able cost (Steimle, 1982; Joint Artificial tioned. The term, “non-biogenic” is used
noted by an older term, “fish havens,” Reef Technical Committee, 1998). In on this figure to note that live coral,
on NOS navigation charts but are not in the last decade, prefabricated artificial mussels, and oyster beds/reefs are not
cluded in the AWOIS (1997) database. reef units that are specifically designed included.
Artificial reefs placed on the seabed spe and constructed as habitat for fishery re The concept of a reef habitat is
cifically for fishery enhancement tend to sources are increasingly being deployed more complex than being either nat
be found in coastal and estuarine waters (Sheehy and Vic, 1992). The contribu ural or man-made and involves a vari
(Fig. 5) and serve primarily the rec tion of artificial reefs to reef-fish pro ety of conditions under which a reef or
reational fishery. They have been built ductivity has been controversial and the reef-like conditions exists in the Bight.
and developed in the Bight since the debate continues and fish or fishery pro Some characteristics of different reef
1920’s or 1930’s, and especially since ductivity may vary among reef locality or reef-like habitats found in the Bight
the 1960’s. Initially they were devel and other factors (American Fisheries are summarized in Table 1.
oped with a variety of recycled materi Society, 1997).
als, ranging from Christmas trees stuck A summary of all reef or reef-like Reef-associated Fishery
in concrete bases, wooden beer cases habitats, i.e. Fig. 2–5, is shown on Fig. 6, Resources in the Bight
half filled with concrete, rubber auto which should be considered a minimum Reef habitats of all types within the
mobile tires, to the recent use of de- estimate of the distribution and relative Bight are used by a wide variety of fish
28 Marine Fisheries Reviewery resources (Hildebrand and Schro
eder, 1928; Bigelow and Schroeder,
1953) and a few threatened or endan
gered species (Lutz and Musick, 1996).
Table 2 summarizes most of these spe
cies and notes their known or suspect
ed reef habitat associations; however,
it should be noted that very little in
formation is available on the inverte
brate or fish fauna on reef habitats in
the Bight, especially in relatively deep
(>30 m) waters.
Although many fishery species are
closely associated with reef habitats,
the reef may not adequately supply all
of their needs, especially food, and the
availability of non-reef resources can be
important to these species. For example,
black sea bass, which is a common reef
habitat-associated fish mostly found
during the warmer months in the Bight,
may obtain much of its food from the
sandy bottom or water column around
a coastal artificial reef habitat (Steimle
and Figley, 1996). Thus, the near-reef,
open bottom/water habitat and its bio
logical resources are linked to the fish
ery resource production function of a
reef habitat. The open sandy bottom
fauna near reef habitat, conversely, can
be affected by the presence of a reef
and its predatory fauna.
The habitat needs of reef-associated
fishery resources often shift during on
togenetic development. Many reef spe Figure 4.—Distribution of “obstructions” (●) in the NOAA NOS navigational chart
cies use the marine water column as database. The targets that appear inland are in the AWOIS database for rivers.
larvae, estuarine structures as juveniles,
Table 1.—Summary of physical and biological characteristics of natural and man-made reef or reef-like habitats in
and gradually return to deeper and more the Middle Atlantic Bight.
marine habitats at the end of their first
Natural: These are submerged rocks and other hard materials or solid structures made by living organisms (biogenic materials).
season. In the Bight there can also be Estuarine: Reefs in this environment consist of oysters, mussel, sponge, and tube worm beds: exposed stiff clay, peat,
a seasonal shift in habitat use among or rocky outcrops; waterlogged trees; or boulder or cobble fields. Oyster and mussels are fishery resource species in
their own right, and these estuarine biogenic and non-biogenic habitats provide shelter and food for a variety of juvenile
subadults and adults of certain species, to adult fish (see below).
i.e. winter and summer habitat use can Coastal (< 12 miles): Mussel and stone coral beds form biogenic reefs here, and other reefs consist of rocky outcrops,
such as soft marl off northern N.J. and harder rock from N.Y. Harbor east along the southern New England coast
also differ significantly (Steimle et al., (Fig. 2); glacial erratic boulders or cobble accumulations from eastern Long Island to Cape Cod with other submerged
1999 b-f; Steimle and Shaheen, 1999; cobble/ gravel banks reported off New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland1; relict shell fields; exposed stiff clay or peat
deposits; and kelp beds are found along southern New England.
NMFS, 1999a). Shelf: Reef habitats are scarcer in deeper water but glacial erratic boulders; exposed rock or stiff clay at or near the
edge of the continental shelf or at the shelf edge heads of submarine canyons; relict clay or peat deposits; and shell
Other Potential or Transient fields provide patches or bands of reef-like habitat.
Reef-associated LMR’s in the Bight Man-made: These types of structured habitats have been available since the 17th century, and a good part of this habitat
is from shoreline construction, such as piers and jetties, but also include the remains of shipwrecks and various materials
deposited to provide an artificial reef-type habitat, as per Fig. 3-5.
Some reef associated taxa or species, Estuarine: This type of habitat is often formed by shoreline development, including functional and decaying bulkheads,
that are not included in Table 2 and are bridge abutements, piers and docks, protective rip rap, groins and jetties; navigational aids such as lighthouses and
buoys; clay or rock exposed by dredging; submerged natural gas, storm water, processed sewage effluent pipelines;
not presently considered a “living re exposed communication cables; sunk or abandoned vessels (including ballast rock piles); and other small to medium
source” in a fishery management sense, sized materials ranging from beverage containers to vehicles; waterlogged timber; and artificial reefs build of various
reused and some specifically designed materials to support shell- and finfisheries.
might be of greater value in the future, Coastal (< 12 miles) and Shelf: Man-made structured habitats in this broad marine zone consist of basically many of
e.g. for biomedical-pharmaceutical re the same materials or structures as are found in estuaries, although some structures are larger in size, e.g. shipwrecks
and artificial reefs, but can include lost ship cargos, and exposed exploratory oil and gas pipe heads in deeper waters.
search and industry (Faulkner, 1984).
Reef-associated taxa known to have 1 Monty Hawkins, partyboat captain, Ocean City Md, personal commun., 2000.
62(2), 2000 29niidae). Below is an overview of the
communities known to be commonly
found on subtidal reef structures in the
Bight. The type of reef surface, i.e.
rock, wood, metal, or other, has a vari
able effect on the community formed
on that surface, but this effect is only
briefly discussed here because of the
limited available information. Intertid
al, semi-hard surface communities (e.g.
peat banks) and submerged aquatic veg
etation also provide some of the hab
itat characteristics of reefs, and these
functions are becoming better known
(Able et al., 1988) and are also not
discussed here. Ducks and other verte
brates are included in the habitat use
synopsis below, when appropriate, as a
reminder of their possible predatory or
competitive interactions with reef fish
and other reef-associated LMR’s. Sci
entific names are included only for spe
cies not found in Table 2.
Estuarine Reef Communities
Epibenthic and Epibiotic
(Organisms Attached to Reef
or Shellfish Surfaces)
Several types of polyhaline estua
rine reef epibenthic communities exist
in the Bight. These communities in
clude oyster beds; blue mussel beds;
communities attached to nonbiogenic
Figure 5.—Distribution of artificial reefs, or fish havens, (●) in the Middle Atlantic hard surfaces such as rock, wood, and
Bight, based on individual state artificial reef program data. metal; and those using semi-hard sur
faces such as stiff clay and peat.
such potential qualities include: algae many reefs inhibit the use of towed Oyster reefs The shells of oysters
species, sponges, coelenterates, nudi fishing gear, or the reefs provide shelter support a diverse epibiotic community
branch mollusks, and tunicates (Lustig when this gear passes over a low pro that can include barnacles, Balanus
man et al., 1992). file structure; however, lobster and fish sp.; ribbed mussels, Geukensia demis
Other fishery resources commonly traps and gill nets are often effective sa; and blue mussels depending on sa
caught or observed above or near high on or near reefs. Most reefs are heav linity, algae, sponge, tube worms (Spi
profile reef habitats are bluefish, Poma ily used by recreational fishermen and robis sp., Polydora sp., and other spe
tomus saltatrix; mackerels and tunas, divers. cies), anemones, hydroids (Obelia sp.
Scombridae; jacks, Carangidae; and and other species), bryozoa ( Membra
some benthic species such as summer Reef Communities in the Bight nipora sp. and other species), and other
flounder, Paralichthys dentata. These Reef habitats support biological com taxa (Watling and Maurer, 1972; Maurer
fish predators take advantage of aggre munities (used here to mean organ and Watling, 1973; Kinner and Maurer,
gations of prey on the reef or may be isms that are commonly found togeth 1977; Larsen, 1985; Zimmerman et al.,
behaviorally attracted to the reef struc er with some degree of interaction) that 1989, Coen et al., 1999). Silt accumu
ture or the flow refuge effects of struc are dependent upon or which signifi lated between the oyster shells can sup
ture (Westman, 1958; Figley, 1996). cantly benefit from this habitat type. port benthic invertebrates that are also
The fish that frequent reef habitats These communities range from micro found on the soft bottoms of the area.
are often less subject to commercial scopic algae and large kelp (in cooler Blue mussel beds Many organisms
fishing pressure, because the relatively waters) growing on reef surfaces to are found epibiotically on mussel shells;
high relief and complex structure of fishes and possibly sea turtles (Chelo these can include many of the same epi
30 Marine Fisheries Reviewbiotic organisms found on oyster beds:
barnacles, algae, sponge, the same types
of tube worms, hydroids, anemones,
bryozoa, and slipper shells Crepidula
sp.(Kinner and Maurer, 1977; Newell,
1989). Additional, nonepibiotic macro
fauna (mainly a diversity of polychaetes
and amphipods) also benefit from the
mussels and live within the interstitial
spaces among the mussel shells and
byssus threads.
Other hard surfaces (including a
diversity of natural and man-made
submerged materials) These surfac
es, like that of oysters and mussels, can
support algae where light is sufficient,
barnacles, sponge, tube worms (includ
ing Sabellaria vulgaris and others), hy
droids, anemones, encrusting bryozo
ans, oysters, blue mussels, the jingle
shell Anomia sp., northern stone coral,
Astrangia poculata (in more marine
waters), sea whips Leptogorgia sp. (in
Chesapeake Bay), tunicates Molgula
sp., and caprellid amphipods (Malo
ney, 1958; Westman, 1958; Watling
and Maurer, 1972; Dean, 1977; Otsuka
and Dauer, 1982). Wooden structures
within estuaries can also be infested
with destructive borers such as Teredo
navalis, and gribbles, Limnoria ligno
rum (Nigrelli and Ricciuti, 1970) and
weathered creosoted or other antiborer
treated pilings can become substrates
for some epifaunal colonization, even Figure 6.—Summary of all reef habitats (except biogenic, such as mussel or oyster
though borers and others may be tem beds) (●), Figs. 2-5, in the Middle Atlantic Bight. The targets that appear inland are
in the AWOIS database for rivers.
porarily inhibited by the chemical treat
ment (Stewart, 1983).
Semi-hard clay and Spartina peat Motile Epibenthic Invertebrates clude adults and juveniles, and species
“reefs” These softer surfaces can sup that can be prey (e.g. gobies, Gobiso
These mostly include decapod crus ma sp.), predators (e.g. toadfish, Opsa
port burrowing mollusks (piddocks
taceans, such as mud (xanthid) crabs; nus tau), or competitors (e.g. cunner)
such as Pholus sp.,Cyrtopleura costata,
blue crabs, Callinectes sapidus; rock with resource species (Breitburg, 1999).
Barnea truncata, Zirfaea crispata) and
crabs; spider crabs, Libinia emargina There is a gradual shift in the fish spe
epibenthic algae (Able et al., 1988);
ta; and juvenile American lobsters (al cies assemblages that are commonly
motile organisms, such as juvenile
though this species is scarce south of associated with reef habitats from the
American lobsters and American eels,
Delaware Bay, except in deeper waters), warmer waters off Virginia to the cooler
also occur in this habitat and are dis
and sea stars, Asterias sp. and Henri waters off southern Massachusetts, and
cussed below.
cia sp. (Jeffries, 1966; Briggs, 1975; they are thus discussed by subregions.
Of note and potential interest to
Leathem and Maurer, 1980; Able et al., Chesapeake Bight (Delaware–North
fish recruitment success is that the
1988; Barshaw et al., 1994; Wilk et al., Carolina) Gobies, spot, striped bass,
larvae of certain epibenthic (reef) or
1998). black sea bass, white perch, Morone
ganisms can be very abundant at times
in the meroplankton, e.g. barnacle cy americanus; toadfish, scup, drum,
prids and mussel larvae, and be a sig Fish croaker, spot, sheepshead porgy, pinfish,
nificant source of planktonic food for A number of fishes are commonly tautog, and northern puffer, Sphaer
some larval fishery resources (Rich or seasonally found on estuarine reef oides maculatus; have been reported
ards, 1963). or reef-like estuarine habitats. They in common on reef habitats in this area
62(2), 2000 31Table 2.—List of fishery species that are commonly found on reef or reef-like habitats in the Middle Atlantic Bight.
Species Life stage/reef habitat use Notes
Algae All stage grow attached to estaurine/ Grows on inter/subtidal surfaces along southern New England coast as deep as light penetration
(kelp, Laminaria sp., dulse, etc.) marine hard surfaces. allow and provides shelter; some are harvested.
Invertebrates
Mollusks
Blue mussel All stages grow attached to hard surfaces Colonizes intertidal/subtidal surfaces but becomes scarcer towards N.C.; important prey for many reef
Mytilus edilis in polyhaline-marine waters. fishery resources; harvested as adults; increases habitat structural complexity and biodiversity.
Eastern oyster All stages grow attached to hard surfaces Colonizes hard surfaces and/or creates low profile reefs; harvested as juveniles (spat for transplanting)
Crassostrea virginica in polyhaline-estuarine waters. and adults; increases habitat structural complexity and biodiversity.
Longfin squid Eggs are attached to hard objects in Hard surfaces of all sizes seem important for egg mass attachment. Eggs and larvae can be prey.
Loligo pealei marine waters.
Crustaceans
American lobster All post-larval stages use shelter in Lobsters are common reef habitat dwellers but are less common south of Delaware Bay; maintain
Homarus americanus polyhaline-marine waters. reef habitat structural complexity by clearing burrows.
Jonah crab All post-larval stages use shelter in This larger crab is common to reef habitats; claws are harvested.
Cancer borealis polyhaline-marine waters.
Rock crab All post-larval stages use shelter in Common on reef habitats as well as on most other habitats; juveniles or smaller sizes important prey
Cancer irroratus polyhaline-marine waters. for fish and lobsters; claws are harvested.
Fish
American eel Adults found in estuarine to coastal marine This eel is found seasonally in estuarine areas, including holes in peat banks; harvested by trap and
Anguilla rostrata reefs as well as elsewhere. by recreational fishery.
Conger eel Juveniles and adults common in This larger eel preys on smaller reef fish; hard to catch but desirable.
Conger oceanicus polyhaline-marine structures.
Atlantic cod Juveniles and adults common on This species feeds on reef organisms; uses structure for shelter; but only found during cooler seasons
Gadus morhua polyhaline-marine reefs. south of Long Island, N.Y. to about Delaware.
Pollack Juveniles and adults common on Uses structure for shelter or for feeding; but only found during cooler seasons south of Long Island,
Pollachius virens polyhaline-marine reefs. N.Y. to about Delaware.
Red hake Juveniles and adults common on Common reef habitat dweller; preys on small crabs and other organisms found on or near reefs;
Urophycis chuss polyhaline-marine reefs. commercially and recreationally harvested.
Striped bass Juveniles and adults common on Juveniles use estuarine structures for shelter; adults find prey near estuarine and coastal structures.
Morone saxitilus estuarine and coastal reefs.
Black sea bass Juveniles and adults common on Juveniles use estuarine and coastal structures, and adults mostly use coastal and midshelf structures
Centropristis striata estuarine and coastal reefs. during warmer seasons.
Gag grouper Juveniles and adults common on southern Important but variably available fishery species off Virginia and North Carolina.
Mycteroperca microlepis Bight reef habitats.
Scup (porgy) Juveniles and adults common on Small schools of this species visit coastal reefs for prey and shelter during warmer seasons; found
Stenotomus chrysops estuarine and coastal reefs. offshore and to the south in the winter.
Spot Juveniles and adults common on A warm season user of reef habitats north on Chesapeake Bay.
Leiostomus xanthurus estuarine and coastal reefs.
Sheepshead (porgy) Juveniles and adults common on southern Common on estuarine (including oyster beds) and coastal reefs, mostly south of Delaware Bay.
Archosargus probatocephalus Bight reef habitats.
Atlantic croaker Juveniles and adults common on Common on estuarine (including oyster beds) and coastal reefs, mostly south of Delaware Bay.
Micropogonias undulatus estuarine and coastal reefs.
Black drum Juveniles and adults common on Common on estuarine (including oyster beds) and coastal reefs, mostly south of Delaware Bay.
Pogonias cromis estuarine and coastal reefs.
Tilefish Juveniles /adults use rocky areas or holes This species contributes to the creation and persistence of the rough bottom habitat and associated
Lopholatilus chamaeleonticeps in stiff clay at the edge of continental shelf biological community found in certain areas of the outer shelf and upper slope.
and upper slope.
Cunner All post-larval stages are associated with A very common small reef fish, especially in the northern Bight; prey for other fish found on or visiting
Tautogolabrus adspersus marine-polyhaline reef habitats. reefs. Hibernates on reefs in cold winters.
Tautog All post-larval stages are associated with A common larger reef fish that prey heavily upon mussels; youngest juvenile found in estuaries; may
Tautoga onitis marine-polyhaline reef habitats. hibernate during cold winters off New England.
Gray triggerfish Juveniles/adults are warm-season reef Found on marine reefs and preys on reef dwellers; growing in popularity as food fish.
Balistes capriscus dwellers.
Ocean pout All life stages found on reef habitat, Adults make and possibly guard egg nests within reef structures during the winter.
Macrozoarces americanus including eggs which are nested.
Reptilia
Sea turtles Juveniles and adults of several species Sea turtles are common summer visitors to the Bight and are known to use reef structures as
Eucheloniodea are associated with reefs. sheltered resting areas and can prey on reef crabs.
Mammalia
Harbor seal Juveniles and adults use the above water Harbor seals are winter visitors to the northern Bight and are commonly observed on dry parts of
Phoca vitulina parts of reefs as resting areas. submerged structures and may prey on associated reef fish.
32 Marine Fisheries ReviewAn assemblage of resident Tau
tog, Tautoga onitis, and cunner,
Tautogolabrus adspersus, on
some concrete pipe artificial
reef material off New York.
Photographer: Christopher J.
LaPorta.
Tautog are common at the inter
face between the predominant
open sandy bottom of the Middle
Atlantic Bight and reef-like struc
tures. Photographer: Christopher
J. LaPorta.
A tautog, Tautoga onitis, that
sometimes seeks shellfish prey
on nearby sandy habitats, always
returns to a reef structure.
(Arve, 1960; Richards and Castagna, can eel, ocean pout, red hake, white histrionicus; other species can feed on
1970; Feigenbaum et al., 1985; Breit hake, cod, juvenile pollack, and various small fish they find on shallow reefs,
burg, 1999; Coen et al., 1999). nonfishery species have been reported e.g. wintering loons,Gavia sp.; and
New York Bight (New Jersey–south on mostly rocky estuarine reefs in this mergansers, Mergus sp.; and cormo
ern Long Island, N.Y.) Cunner, toad area (Nichols and Breder, 1927; Able et rants, Phalacrocorax sp.; most of the
fish, spot, gobies, striped bass, sculpins, al., 1988). year (Martin et al., 1951). In the winter,
juvenile Atlantic cod, juvenile tautog, harbor seals, Phoca vitulina, visit the
black sea bass, scup, rock gunnel, Other Vertebrates (Diving birds, seals) Bight, to at least New Jersey, and may
Pholis gunnellus; conger eel, American Several species of diving ducks and find prey around reef habitats near their
eel, red hake, and northern puffer have geese (Anatidae) feed seasonally upon haul out, resting places.
been reported on reef habitats in estau submerged algae, mussels, and other
ries of this area (Briggs, 1975; Auster, organisms growing upon shallow reef Coastal (to depths of ~25 m)
1989; Able et al., 1998). habitats, e.g. brant, Branta branta;
Southern New England (Long Island scaup, Aythya sp.; goldeneye, Bucepha- Epibenthic
Sound–Cape Cod) Cunner, toadfish, la sp., scoters, Melanitta sp., old squaw, Exposed rock–soft marl (e.g. Shrews-
striped bass, scup, tautog, black sea Clangula hyemalis; eiders, Somateria bury Rocks off northern N.J.) Certain
bass, rock gunnel, conger eel, Ameri sp.; and Harlequin ducks, Histrionicus boring mollusks (piddocks such as Cyr
62(2), 2000 33Sea anemones, Metridium senile,
and other epifauna that are typi
cal of a well-established hard sur
face epifauna community in the
Middle Atlantic Bight. Photogra
pher: Christopher J. LaPorta.
White frilly patches of northern stone coral,
Astrangia poculanta; anemones, Metridium
senile; and various hydroids often dominate
reef habitat epifaunal communities, when
blue mussels, Mytilus edulis, are absent. Pho
tographer: Christopher J. LaPorta.
Dense epifaunal growth on ex
posed hard structure or rocks pro
vides abundant opportunities for
juvenile or large fishery resources
to find shelter.
Small American lobsters,
Homarus americanus, are
common within the shelter
provided by reef habitats in
the Middle Atlantic Bight,
and come out at night to
feed on or near this habitat.
Photographer: Christopher
J. LaPorta.
34 Marine Fisheries ReviewIn the southern Middle Atlantic
Bight large sheepshead porgy,
Archosargus probatocephalus, are
common residents of reef struc
tures and feed on epifauna.
Juvenile and adult cunner, Tauto
golabrus adspersus, are perma
nent residents of reef habitats in
the Middle Atlantic Bight. Photog
rapher: Christopher J. LaPorta.
Blue mussels, Mytilus edulis, commonly dominate the epifaunal
community on reef structures in the Middle Atlantic Bight and are
readily eaten by a variety of fish and crustacean shellfish, including
the cunner, Tautogolabrus adspersus, that is present in this photo.
topleura costata and Zirfaea crispata) anemones (Metridium senile, Tealia sp., modiolus in deeper and cooler waters
add complexity as they gradually de or Stomphia careola); various hydroids off southern New England; the jingle
grade this substrate. The epifauna on (Tubularia sp., Obelia sp., Campan- shell Anomia simplex; bryozoans, in
this substrate also includes that noted ularis sp.); northern stone coral, soft cluding Bugula sp.; skeleton (caprel
below for harder substrate (Westman, coral (Alcyonaria sp.) off New England, lid) and tubiculous amphipods, such
1958). and sea whips (Leptogorgia sp.) south as Jassa falcata; and tubiculous poly
Harder rock When available, this of New Jersey where it becomes part of chaetes, such as Sabellaria vulgaris and
rock can be colonized by red algae a “live bottom” community that is most Hydroides dianthus. Much hard rock
(Phyllophora sp.); sponges such as Ha common south of Virginia; barnacles; reef structure has been added to the
lichondria sp. and Polymastia sp.; large blue mussels, horse mussels Modiolus shoreline of the Bight in the form of
62(2), 2000 35jetties, groins, rip rap, and groins that genbaum et al., 1985; Lavalli and Bar most of the species noted in the above
abut the shoreline as beach and other shaw, 1986; Karnofsky et al., 1989a, b; Coastal section. The epifaunal coloni
protection; these can support less sta Figley and Dixon, 1994; Mercaldo-Al zation of the exposed outer shelf sand
bile communities because of the great len and Kuropat, 1994; Chee1). Mass stone ridges, reported by Allen et al.
er environmental extremes and stresses aggregations of Jonah and rock crabs (1969), is unreported.
that occur in this littoral zone, although were reported on Southern New England Wrecks and artificial reefs Size,
fishery resources frequent them when rocky ledges (Auster and DeGoursey, composition, location, and age affect
the rocks are covered by water. 1983). Loligo squid usually attach their the structure and habitat value of these
Wrecks and artificial reefs (of various egg clusters to a hard object, such as a reefs. These factors also affect the hab
compositions) Wood: When exposed, reef surface, or shells, gravel, or other itat value of artificial reefs that were
this provides a substrate similar to soft hard surfaces on the seabed (Griswold specifically constructed to support fish
rock, but can include wood borers (e.g. and Prezioso, 1981; Roper et al., 1984). ing. Few scientific studies are known of
Teredo sp. and Xylophaga atlantica) the epibenthic fauna of wrecks and arti
that also degrade this type of reef mate Fish ficial reefs on the Bight shelf, and those
rial, which is why they do not usually Chesapeake Bight Black sea bass, that are known are mostly within the
persist as significant three-dimensional pinfish, Lagodon rhomboides; scup, coastal zone (Figley, 1989; Figley and
structures or habitat for more that a cunner, red hake, gray triggerfish, black Dixon, 1994); or are not quantitative or
few decades, unless periodically cov grouper, Mycteroperca bonaci; smooth are anecdotal (Bulloch, 1965).
ered and protected by sediment. dogfish, Mustelus canis; summer floun Other solid substrates Exposed sub
Metal: As per hard rock, but the ten der, scads, Decapterus sp.; bluefish, and marine communication cables can be
dency of sheets of rust to slough off amberjack, Seriola dumerili, have been colonized by borers and epifauna (Snoke,
the wreck surface creates a less stabile reported as common over these reefs 1957), and can serve as limited reef hab
community; these surfaces are often (Feigenbaum et al., 1985; Chee1). itat for organisms of suitable size.
colonized by hydroids, like Tubularia New York Bight Atlantic cod, gray
crocea; anemones, mostly Metridium trigger fish, scup, black sea bass, tau Motile Invertebrates
senile; northern stone coral; blue mus tog, ocean pout, red hake, conger eel, Most of the motile organisms noted
sels; barnacles; sea stars; and related cunner, sea raven, Hemitripterus amer above for the coastal areas are also com
fauna (Bulloch, 1965; Feigenbaum et icanus; and rock gunnel have been re monly found on the shelf, although at the
al., 1985: Chee1). ported on reefs in this area (Westman, shelf edge, some deepwater taxa occur
Kelp Laminaria sp. beds occur in 1958; Briggs, 1975; Steimle and Ogren, (Cooper and Uzmann, 1971; Wigley and
Long Island Sound and north and are 1982; Woodhead et al., 1985; Figley Theroux, 1981; Theroux and Wigley,
noted separately from the seaweeds and Dixon, 1994). 1998).
listed elsewhere. Kelp grows only on Southern New England Scup, black
hard reef-like surfaces and adds verti sea bass, tautog, Atlantic cod, ocean pout, Fish
cal relief and more complexity to reef red hake, conger eel, cunner, sea raven, Chesapeake Bight Reef fish include
habitats, as well as contributing to pri and radiated shanny, Ulvaria subbifurca resident species (black sea bass, scup,
mary and detrital production (Alfieri, ta, have been reported on these reefs (Al tautog, and cunner), seasonal residents
1975). fieri, 1975; Carr and Amaral, 1981). (gag, sheepshead porgy, round herring,
Other materials (such as various and sardines), or transients (amber
plastics and synthetic materials, such as Other Vertebrates (Diving birds, seals) jack, spadefish, gray triggerfish, vari
rubber and concrete) These epiben These use shallow coastal or shore ous mackerels and small tunas, and the
thic communities can be similar to that line reefs, e.g. jetties, as per estuarine spot-tailed pinfish, Diplodus holbroo
found on rock and metal reefs (Alfieri, reefs, above. ki) (Eklund and Targett, 1991; Adams,
1975; McCullough, 1975; Woodhead 1993).
and Jacobson, 1985; Figley, 1989). Shelf (generally depths >25 m) New York Bight Gray triggerfish,
scup, black sea bass, tautog, Atlantic
Motile invertebrates Epibenthic cod, ocean pout, red hake, conger eel,
American lobsters, rock crabs, Jonah Rocks and boulders Few rocky cunner, sea raven, rock gunnel, pollack,
crabs, spider crabs, sea stars, and ur ledges are found on the Bight’s conti and white hake have been commonly
chins, Arbacia punctulata, are found nental shelf (these occur off southern reported on these deeper reefs (Bulloch,
on these reefs (Westman, 1958; Cobb, New England), and most rocky habitat 1965; Woodhead et al., 1985).
1971; Briggs and Zawacki, 1974; Briggs, consists of boulder and cobble residue Southern New England Scup, black
1975; Alfieri, 1975; Sheehy, 1976; Fei from periods when glaciers covered sea bass, tautog, Atlantic cod, ocean
New England and icebergs drifted in pout, red hake, conger eel, and cunner
1 Chee, P. K. 1976. The ichthyofauna of the Ches
the Bight, the last glacial period being occur here (Auster, 1984), as well as
apeake Light Tower. Old Dominion Univ., Nor about 12,000 YBP. Reports of the epi other species that are found in the New
folk, Va., Unpubl. Rep., 26 p. fauna in this Bight substrate include York Bight.
36 Marine Fisheries ReviewOuter shelf reefs and clay burrows Island Sound, and along the Southern Wooden shipwrecks and other sub
(and the “pueblo village community” New England coast, and may be fairly merged wooden structures can be res
along southern Georges Bank) Tile static, although some rock reefs have ervoirs and sources of the nuisance
fish, white hake, and conger eel are been removed or reduced because of borers, noted above, which can attack
reported using this habitat, as well as their hazard to deep-draft ship naviga wooden (and some concrete and plas
smaller species (Valentine et al., 1980; tion, or been covered by shoreline de tic-coated) pilings within harbors (Ni
Cooper et al., 1987). velopment or silt. The reports of sand grelli and Riccuiti, 1970). All man
stone outcrops on the continental shelf made artificial reefs are subject to deg
Other Vertebrates off New Jersey and Maryland need fur radation processes to variable degrees
This habitat is too deep for those bird ther investigation as to their significance (depending on the material used and
or seal species that could use estuarine as fishery habitat. Oyster reef habitats the severity on environmental condi
and coastal reefs. in many estuaries are greatly reduced, tions they are exposed to) and some
especially since the 1950’s (MacKen types were formerly subject to move
Significance, Status, and Trends zie, 1997a, b). Made-man “reefs” of all ment of certain reef material out of per
of Bight Reef Habitats and LMR’s sizes are continuing to add this type of mitted reef sites, such as automobile
The reef habitats in the Bight are sig habitat to the environment in all areas tires, which interfered with other uses
nificant to fisheries because they expand via accidental, careless, and intention of the coastal zone, e.g. trawling and
the range of some reef-associated spe al means. South of Long Island Sound, bathing. This problem mostly occurred
cies and perhaps their population abun man-made reef habitats probably con in the early formative and experimental
dance, possibly beyond the apparent tribute significantly to the wider distri phases of artificial reef development,
extent of seabed area the reefs cover, bution of reef-associated species. although some old artificial reefs are
as per Figure 6. The growing array or Although there have been studies still the source of material lost from the
network of reef habitats (all types), that of epibenthic fouling (Maloney, 1958) reef sites.
occur or have become established or and fishery use of reef habitats in the Another aspect of the creation of
specifically placed along the coast and Bight (Figley, 1996), reef habitats in reef habitat (accidental or intentional)
across the shelf, can also provide corri this area have not been well studied or on open bottom is that the reef and its
dors of supporting habitat for some reef examined holistically, with all biologi associated community displaces previ
associated species, such as black sea cal components and their interactions ous open bottom communities (Shipp,
bass, to use during seasonal migrations defined. Questions remain about how 1999). It is normally assumed that open
(Fig. 6). As more fine-scale, side-scan man-made reef habitats have compen bottom habitat is not limited, at least
sonar seabed mapping becomes avail sated for functional losses in natural in the Bight, and that open habitat loss
able, more low profile hard bottom and reef habitats or other sheltering habi caused by the development of new reef
reefs will undoubtedly become known tats, such as eel grass beds, caused by habitats will not significantly effect the
or identified, including many of the man-made alterations, such as exces function of this habitat to support desired
objects classified as “obstructions” by sive nutrient and silt inputs, and toxic population levels of other managed de
NOS or known as “snags” by fisher pollution. mersal species. It is also a value judge
men. Table 2 shows that a variety of Not all reef-associated organisms are ment of whether the reef habitat fishery
important commercial and recreational benign or beneficial. Some “reef” spe resource community is of equal or great
fishery resources are known to be as cies can be nuisances or cause human er value as a harvestable or economic re
sociated or depend on reef habitats for interaction problems, e.g. wood-de source, than to that of the soft-bottom
some or most of their life history, and stroying Teredo “shipworms,” gribbles, community it replaces. These issues are
reef structures can serve as refuges from and other borers that attack wooden not easy to resolve, and little informa
trawling for some species. Certain com pilings and vessels; fouling organisms tion is available for such comparisons.
mercial fisheries, such as American lob that inhibit vessel use efficiency, weigh Several reef-associated fishery spe
ster or fish trapping and gill netting, down navigational aids, and fill pipe cies are presently considered over- or
favor reef habitats, and recreational fish lines that cycle estuarine or marine fully exploited; these include Atlantic
ermen have long valued wrecks and waters. Other species can be a source cod, haddock, pollack, scup, black sea
reefs as fishing grounds. It is also be of larval resource species predators, bass, ocean pout, tilefish, striped bass,
coming evident that several forms of es e.g. carnivorous coelenterates such as and American lobster (Clark, 1998;
tuarine and coastal reef habitats serve as anemones, or support the sessile stages NMFS, 1999b). Oysters (as a fishery
juvenile fish nurseries in the Bight, e.g. of “jellyfish,” such as Chrysaora quin resource in this region) persist in de
oyster and mussel beds, and artificial quecirrha and Cyanea capillata. clining natural beds and under cul
reefs can increase this function (Heise Besides these nuisance organisms, ture; but the profitability of labor-in
and Bortone, 1999). the obvious hazards to vessel naviga tensive culture is declining because of
Natural reef habitats occur primarily tion and safety, and causing the loss increasing costs and stagnant prices
in the Bight from within and just out of towed fishing gear and anchors, per bushel, and continued investment
side New York Harbor, through Long reefs have other negative side effects. in maintaining these beds is in ques
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