The Effect of Selected Additives on the Oil Uptake and Quality Parameters of Fried Instant Noodles - MDPI
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applied
sciences
Article
The Effect of Selected Additives on the Oil Uptake
and Quality Parameters of Fried Instant Noodles
Katarzyna Marciniak-Lukasiak 1, * , Anna Zbikowska 1 , Agata Marzec 2 and
Mariola Kozlowska 3
1 Division of Fats & Oils and Food Concentrates Technology, Department of Food Technology,
Warsaw University of Life Sciences—SGGW (WULS-SGGW), 02-787 Warsaw, Poland;
anna_zbikowska@sggw.pl
2 Department of Food Engineering and Process Management, Warsaw University of Life
Sciences—SGGW (WULS-SGGW), 02-787 Warsaw, Poland; agata_marzec@sggw.pl
3 Division of Organic and Food Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Warsaw University of Life
Sciences—SGGW (WULS-SGGW), 02-787 Warsaw, Poland; mariola_kozlowska@sggw.pl
* Correspondence: katarzyna_marciniak_lukasiak@sggw.pl
Received: 25 January 2019; Accepted: 26 February 2019; Published: 6 March 2019
Featured Application: Authors are encouraged to provide a concise description of the specific
application or a potential application of the work. This section is not mandatory.
Abstract: The scope of the paper includes the analysis of various quality parameters of fried instant
noodles depending on the type and amount of the additive added to the basic recipe. For the
analyzed instant noodles, the effect of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC), microcrystalline
cellulose (MCG), maltodextrin, and psyllium on the quality parameters (oil uptake, moisture, water
activity, color, and acoustics) were determined. Results show that the quality parameters of instant
noodles significantly depend on the type and amount of additives. The addition of HPMC and
MCG resulted in decrease absorption, while the use of maltodextrin and psyllium increased the fat
absorbed during frying. There is a significant relationship between the type of additive and the color
of instant noodles. Color brightening was observed for instant noodles with the HPMC and MCG,
while the addition of maltodextrin and psyllium contributed in the darkening of instant noodles
(reduction of the L* parameter). The type of additives significantly influenced the texture of the
instant noodles. The samples with a 3% addition of maltodextrin had a softer texture than the control
sample, while the instant noodles with the HPMC, MCG, and Psyllium were characterized by a
harder texture. For instant noodles with the addition of HPMC, MCG, and Psyllium larger number
of acoustic events and higher breaking force were observed than for the control one. The frying
temperature significantly influenced the texture of analyzed instant noodles (acoustic and mechanical
properties). Increasing frying temperature from 160–170 ◦ C caused a significant increase in acoustic
descriptors and force.
Keywords: instant noodles; oil uptake; texture; quality; acoustic
1. Introduction
Instant noodles are one of the main cereal products next to the bread and the groats. Due to
the tendency to spend less time preparing meals, the modern consumer tends to buy convenience
food products. The instant noodles belong to the most popular examples of the convenience food,
being a component of many prepared dishes. According to the World Instant Noodles Association
(WINA), in 2017, the demand for instant noodles in China and Hong Kong alone was more than 38
Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 936; doi:10.3390/app9050936 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsciAppl. Sci. 2019, 9, 936 2 of 14
trillion portions [1]. The advantage of instant noodles is to absorb the taste of sauces as well as other
additions [2–4].
Instant noodles produced by the traditional method are high-energy products, where the main
energy component, besides starch, is fat. This means that the selection of frying medium with an
appropriate quality is of great nutritional importance [5]. The quality of frying oil can be assessed on
the basis of its color, taste, the number of free fatty acids, peroxide value, iodine value, melting point,
and smoke point [6,7].
The process of the deep-frying instant noodles also affects the quality of the finished product.
The processed products tend to acquire the characteristic sensory properties desired by consumers,
but the process leads to an increase in the caloric content of food. Instant noodles subjected to the frying
process may contain nearly 20–30% of fat used for frying [8,9]. The reason comes from the features of
the frying process. The surface temperature of the instant noodles increases rapidly after being placed
in the hot oil. The water on the instant noodles surface immediately goes into a boiling state, which
causes instant noodles to dry out, and thus heat and mass exchange takes place. The process leads to
shrinkage and raises the level of porosity and roughness. The moisture contained in the gelatinized
starch granules evaporates due to the high temperature. The empty spaces previously occupied by the
moisture are next partially filled with oil [6,10].
Instant noodles produced on the basis of semolina contain more protein compared to instant
noodles from wheat flour. The dough with more protein content is evenly swollen, well-bound,
and elastic [11,12]—the blebs formed during evaporation of the dough water are smaller and fewer,
and this contributes to reducing the fat absorption during frying [6]. From the gluten contained in
flour, the denatured-disulfide bonds responsible for protein cross-linking are formed. The final protein
network combined with the gelatinized starch granules forms a rigid structure of instant noodles [13].
In order to reduce fat absorption in fried instant noodles, the basic recipe is enriched by starch or
maltodextrin. The starch fat substitutes the shape structure corresponding to the fat structure, acting as
filling factors and retaining moisture factors [14]. The addition of potato starch, as well as corn starch,
is used to decrease the fat absorption during the instant noodle frying process [15–18]. The texture
and durability of instant noodles can be improved by hydrocoloids [19,20] and antioxidants [21]
additions. Guar gum or other hydrocolloids make the instant noodles’ structures firmer, the hydration
process faster [2,22–25], and the level of oil absorption lower [17,26,27]. Carboxymethylcellulose,
microcrystalline cellulose, and hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose (among cellulose derivatives) have
been used as substances contributing to the reduction of fat absorption in the fried instant noodles [28].
The high fat content in instant noodles is unfavorable because changes occurring in fats during
storage have a negative impact on the health value and reduce the durability of the product [4]. This
encourages research aimed at the limitation of fat absorption during frying. This paper attempts to
determine the effect of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC), microcrystalline cellulose (MCG),
maltodextrin, and psyllium on the quality parameters (oil uptake, moisture, color, texture, acoustic,
water activity) of instant noodles fried in the canola oil.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
Semolina, a coarse flour milled from tetraploid durum wheat (Triricum durum), was purchased
from Bogutyn Mill (Radzyń Podlaski, Poland). Flour composition was 13% moisture, 0.62% ash,
and 11% protein content. The granulation of the flour was 100% finer than 149 µm (U.S. 100 mesh).
The maltodextrin (Glucidex® Maltodekstrin IT 21 P, Roquette Frères, Lestrem, France) samples were
provided by Barentz LLC/Roquette (Warsaw, Poland). The samples of psyllium (VITACEL® Psyllium
P95, J. RETTENMAIER & SÖHNE, Brenil, France), HPMC (HPMC K100LV VIVAPUR) and MCG
(MCG 591 F Fine VIVAPUR) were provided by J. Rettenmaier & Söhne GmbH+Co. KG (Warsaw,
Poland). All samples were in a powder state and stored in a cool and dry warehouse till use. As aAppl. Sci. 2019, 9, 936 3 of 14
frying medium, refined canola oil was used, (ZT Kruszwica S.A., Kruszwica, Poland), with the smoke
point of 204 ◦ C (400 F).
2.2. Preparation of Instant Fried Noodles
The instant noodle dough was formulated by 100% flour, 3% (kg/kg flour) salt, 3–5% (kg/kg
flour) maltodextrin, 0.8–1% (kg/kg flour) MCG, 0.4–0.5% (kg/kg flour) HPMC, 3–5% (kg/kg flour)
psyllium, and 33% (kg/kg flour) water. First, flour was mixed with appropriate additives, such as
maltodextrin, MCG, HPMC, and psyllium, and after that, the water solution of dissolved salt was
added. Finally, the dough has been formed by mixing all the ingredients. The crumbly dough was
then placed into a resealable plastic bag and rested for 30 min before further size reduction.
The dough was then passed through the roller unit attachment of a pasta machine (Kitchen Aid,
Benton Harbor, MI, USA) with the regulating knob set at the No. 1 position (2.5 mm). The resulting
sheet was folded in half and passed again through the rollers. This process was repeated several times
until the dough sheet was smoothly formed. The thickness of the sheet was reduced stepwise by
passing between the rollers of the pasta machine. The final cutting roll gap was adjusted to 1.0 mm and
the noodle sheet was cut through a cutter attachment. The noodles were then steamed in a steamer for
5 min. The final step was frying in canola oil (ZT Kruszwica S.A., Kruszwica, Poland) at temperatures
of 160, 170, and 180 ◦ C for 90 s. After the frying process, noodle strands were cooled at a room
temperature (~23 ◦ C) and packed into polyethylene bags.
2.3. Moisture Analysis
Moisture contents were measured by slightly modifying the air oven method [29], and each
sample measurement was carried out in triplicate. These samples were dried at 100 ± 1 ◦ C. The
process of drying, cooling, and weighting was repeated until constant weight obtained.
2.4. Fat Analysis
The fat content of instant noodles was determined by automated Soxhlet extraction (Soxtec™
2050 Auto Fat Extraction System). Three repetitions were made for each measurement and the average
data collected was used for statistical analysis. The dried samples were accurately re-weighted.
2.5. Color Determination (L/, a/, b/ Parameters)
The color of instant noodles was measured using the L*, a*, b* system as described by Papadakis,
Abdul-Malek, Kamdem, and Yam [30]. L/ refers to the luminosity or lightness component, a/ (intensity
of red (+) and green (-)) and b/(intensity of yellow (+) and blue (-)) are the chromaticity coordinates.
All sampled instant noodles were analyzed in terms of the referred parameters using a Minolta CR-310
colorimeter (Konica-Minolta, Osaka, Japan) that was previously calibrated with a white standard tile.
Three repetitions were made for each measurement.
2.6. Water Activity Analysis
Water activity was measured in 3 repetitions with the precision of ±0.001 using a Hygroscope
DT2 (Rotronic AG, Bassersdorf, Switzerland)
2.7. Density Analysis
The apparent density was measured in 3 repetitions using helium pycnometer from a
stereopycnometer (Quantochrome Instruments, Boynton Beach, FL, USA).
2.8. Mechanical Properties Analysis
Compression tests were carried out using a TA-HD plus texture analyzer (Stable Micro Systems,
Godalming, UK) equipped with a 5-kg load cell and HDP/MK0-type probe. Samples of instant noodleAppl. Sci. 2019, 9, 936 4 of 14
with weight 4.5 ± 0.1 g and dimensions of 16 mm were deformed at a constant speed of 1.0 mm·s−1
and up to a compression strain of 60%. Fifteen samples were subjected to the compression test at 25 ◦ C.
The force versus deformation data were registered, and selected parameters were determined using
Exponent software (Stable Micro Systems, Godalming, UK): compression force (N); force at a strain of
60% and area under force-deformation curve until the strain 40% as compression work (mJ).
2.9. Acoustic Emission (AE) Analysis
The acoustic emission (AE) was detected by a contact method using the 4381 sensor (Brüel&
Kjær, Denmark) when sampling the instant noodle in the compression test in the Texture Analyzer
TA.HDPlus (Stable Micro Systems, Godalming, UK) was deformed. The sensor was connected with
a 2 m cable to the AE signal amplifier. The acoustic emission signal was amplified by 40 dB in the
low-noise amplifier and digitalized using an Adlink Technology Inc. type 9112 (Adlink Technology Inc.,
Taipei, Taiwan) analog-digital conversion sound card with the sampling frequency of 44.1 kHz [31].
The recorded acoustic signal generated during compression was analyzed in the frequency range of
0.1–18 kHz. The acoustic descriptors—sound amplitude, the energy of one acoustic event, and the
number of acoustic events—were all determined using a computer program, the Calculate_44kHz_auto
program (Warsaw, Poland). These analyses were conducted in 15 repetitions.
2.10. Statistical Analysis
The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted using Statistica 12 PL and the significant
differences between mean values were determined using Tukey’s Multiple Range test at a significance
level of p < 0.05. In the case of abnormal distribution, division into homogeneous groups was
performed using the non-parametric multiple comparison test (a Kruskal-Wallis test). Principal
component analysis (PCA) was performed to reduce the number of variables (from 7 to 2) and for easy
comparison of the analyzed instant noodles. This analysis allows the possibility to observe similarities
and differences between the studied instant noodles [32].
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Moisture
Moisture is an important parameter affecting food quality and storage stability [33]. According
to Hou [26], fried instant noodles are characterized by changes in moisture during the frying process
from an initial moisture level of 30—40% to a final moisture level of 2–5%.
The analysis of the obtained results showed that the level of moisture was in the range of
2.57–3.79% (Table 1), which is consistent with that reported by Kim et al. [34], 3–4%. The highest
moisture content was determined in instant noodles with the addition of HPMC and MCG, being in
the range from 3.29–3.85%. The lowest moisture (2.57%) was observed in instant noodles with 5%
addition of psyllium fried in temperature 180 ◦ C.
Oil Uptake
The fat content is an important feature of the quality of fried instant noodles, a result of the
production process parameters (the temperature and the frying time), the quality of raw materials, and
the frying medium used during the instant noodles production process [3,26,34]. The frying medium
used in the instant noodles production process is not only a heat carrier, but also becomes its new
ingredient (migration into the internal structure of the instant noodles) [6,35].
Instant noodles obtained during experiments contained from 20.5–30.51% fat. The fat content
depended on the type of the additives and increased together with an increase of the amount of the
additive and an increase of frying temperature (for HPMC and MCG, the changes in the amount of
appropriate additives has not decreased the fat content along with increasing the frying temperature.
The lowest values of fat content were observed with the addition of HPMC and MCG, while theAppl. Sci. 2019, 9, 936 5 of 14
highest fat content was observed with the psyllium additive. Similar relations were observed by Rekas
and Marciniak-Lukasiak [20] using sunflower oil as a frying medium. Differences in the fat content in
the process of frying instant noodles come from the microporous structure of the instant noodles and
from the amount of water absorbed in the evaporation process [6]. In the frying process, the water
molecules contained in the food moves from the center of the product to its surface. As a result of the
evaporation of water from the instant noodles threads, a porous structure is formed [36]. Evaporating
water creates empty spaces in the microporous structure of the instant noodles being filled by fat
during frying [6].
Table 1. The effect of the addition of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC), microcrystalline cellulose
(MCG), maltodextrin, and psyllium on the moisture and oil uptake in fried instant noodles.
Sample Temperature Fat Moisture
160 21.08 a ± 1.06 3.79 d ± 0.16
Control - 170 22.67 b ± 0.93 3.56 c ± 0.13
180 24.48 c ± 1.01 3.33 c ± 0.14
160 22.51 b ± 0.99 3.46 c ± 0.20
3.0% 170 23.97 b ± 1.12 3.34 c ± 0.12
180 26.17 c ± 1.21 3.12 b ± 0.11
Maltodextrin
160 24.52 c ± 1.15 3.16 b ± 0.06
5.0% 170 26.17 c ± 1.13 2.96 b ± 0.09
180 27.85 d ± 1.26 2.82 b ± 0.12
160 20.50 a ± 1.01 3.80 d ± 0.18
0.8% 170 22.17 b ± 0.86 3.60 cd ± 0.09
180 23.86 b ± 0.99 3.37 c ± 0.21
MCG
160 20.18 a ± 1.02 3.76 d ± 0.19
1.0% 170 21.89 ab ± 0.78 3.55 c ± 0.21
180 23.53 b ± 1.11 3.40 c ± 0.17
160 20.07 a ± 1.05 3.85 d ± 0.17
0.4% 170 21.66 ab ± 1.17 3.61 cd ± 0.14
180 23.37 b ± 1.22 3.31 c ± 0.19
HPMC
160 19.86 a ± 0.87 3.77 d ± 0.13
0.5% 170 21.33 a ± 0.86 3.51 c ± 0.13
180 22.65 b ± 1.09 3.29 c ± 0.16
160 25.14 c ± 1.31 3.03 b ± 0.13
3.0% 170 26.93 c ± 1.26 2.86 b ± 0.11
Psyllium 180 29.41 d ± 1.36 2.74 b ± 0.09
160 26.56 c ± 1.23 2.80 b ± 0.11
5.0% 170 28.38 d ±1.27 2.57 a ± 0.12
180 30.51 d ±1.26 2.40 a ± 0.08
a—d —mean values denoted by different letters in columns differ statistically significantly p ≤ 0.05.
3.2. Color
Color is an important factor in food quality—it affects the food acceptance level of the consumer.
Combined with texture, the color affects the appearance of instant noodles. Color depends mainly
on the quality of the flour, the amount and the type of hydrocolloids [37], the frying process
parameters [25,38], and the content of protein (affects the formation of the characteristic yellow
color of instant noodles) [39]. According to Hatcher [35], instant noodles should be characterized by
an appropriate level of brightness, a lack of discoloration, and a typical light yellow color.
According to Park and Baik [40], L* is a critical parameter in the frying industry and is usually
treated as the first quality attribute evaluated by consumers during the determination of the acceptanceAppl. Sci. 2019, 9, 936 6 of 14
level of a product. Low L* values indicate dark color and are mainly associated with non-enzymatic
browning reactions [41]. Instant noodles made from durum wheat flour are generally characterized by
higher brightness (L* > 76.4), while instant noodles produced from wheat flour are characterized by
lower brightness (L* < 76,4). According to Chon-Sik Kang et al. [42], the brightness of instant noodles
should be in the range of 73.5–82.0.
Based on the obtained results, it was found that the brightness of the instant noodles was within
the range suggested above. The highest level of the L* parameter was observed for instant noodles
with the addition of HPMC, (associated with a light color). In contrast, the use of the maltodextrin
and psyllium resulted in the darker color of instant noodles. Along with the increasing amount of
the particular additive and the increasing frying temperature, the L* parameter was found to be
decreasing (the darker color of the instant noodles). Similar trends were observed by Rekas and
Marciniak-Lukasiak [20].
Discriminants of the color of instant noodles without and with the addition of maltodextrin,
MCG, HPMC, and psyllium were fried in rapeseed oil at 160, 170 and 180 ◦ C for 90 seconds. During
the analysis of the a* parameter (corresponding to the red (+a*) and the green color (−a *)), it was
found that the majority of tested instant noodles were characterized by red saturation. Increasing the
percentage of MCG and HPMC in the original recipe resulted in decreasing the red color saturation,
while increasing the amount of psyllium and maltodextrin in the recipe increased the red saturation of
the color of the instant noodles (Table 2).
Table 2. The color characteristics of selected instant fried noodles samples.
Sample Temperature (◦ C) L* a* b*
160 76.97 ± 1.45 −1.11 ± 0.03 18.56 ± 1.43
Control - 170 76.68 ± 2.09 −0.65 ± 0.05 20.18 ± 0.74
180 74.89 ± 2.24 1.31 ± 0.03 22.47 ± 1.08
160 75.67 ± 2.50 0.41 ± 0.04 21.36 ± 0.62
3.0% 170 74.75 ± 3.03 0.92 ± 0.04 21.99 ± 0.65
180 74.64 ± 3.56 2.59 ± 0.12 23.89 ± 0.65
Maltodextrin
160 76.68 ± 2.66 −0.89 ± 0.12 18.49 ± 0.71
5.0% 170 74.77 ± 2.65 −0.03 ± 0.01 22.10 ± 1.01
180 74.11 ± 1.16 2.14 ± 0.09 24.52 ± 1.08
160 74.98 ± 1.35 −0.59 ± 0.04 19.39 ± 0.58
0.8% 170 74.34 ± 1.32 0.74 ± 0.10 21.57 ± 0.59
180 73.39 ± 1.84 0.79 ± 0.03 22.19 ± 1.48
MCG
160 76.99 ± 2.74 0.97 ± 0.08 17.95 ± 0.56
1.0% 170 76.27 ± 2.61 −0.36 ± 0.04 20.34 ± 1.20
180 75.69 ± 2.46 −1.02 ± 0.02 21.99 ± 1.13
160 80.26 ± 1.14 −1.40 ± 0.11 19.36 ± 1.45
0.4% 170 79.12 ± 2.20 −0.89 ± 0.04 19.87 ± 1.44
180 77.28 ± 1.39 −0.79 ± 0.06 20.31 ± 1.03
HPMC
160 80.13 ± 2.63 −1.38 ± 0.09 19.43 ± 1.40
0.5% 170 79.16 ± 1.60 −1.30 ± 0.11 20.44 ± 0.74
180 78.43 ± 1.97 0.05 ± 0.01 21.65 ± 0.67
160 75.12 ± 1.32 0.57 ± 0.06 18.12 ± 1.27
3.0% 170 74.21 ± 1.33 0.68 ± 0.03 18.56 ± 0.52
180 73.34 ± 2.05 1.32 ± 0.09 19.67 ± 0.98
Psyllium
160 71.27 ± 1.19 1.65 ± 0.08 18.33 ± 1.32
5.0% 170 70.85 ± 1.32 1.75 ± 0.07 19.37 ± 1.30
180 69.77 ± 1.38 1.79 ± 0.09 21.78 ± 1.07
Notes: results are presented as mean values ± standard deviation of triplicate determinations.Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 936 7 of 14
In the b* parameter (corresponding to the yellow (+b *) and the blue (−b *) color), it was observed
that regardless of the amount of the additive, instant noodles were characterized by yellow color
saturation. With the increase of the HPMC, maltodextrin and psyllium percentage in the recipe,
the values of the b* parameter increased (Table 2).
3.3. Water Activity, Density, Mechanical Properties, and Acoustic Emission
Table 3 shows the water activity, density, and texture parameters (acoustic and mechanical) of
instant noodles. The water activity of the tested instant noodles did not differ statistically (p = 0.441),
regardless of the type of additives used. However, the density of the samples depended on the type
of the additive (p = 0.030). The addition of Psyllium in the amount of 3% caused a decrease of the
density value in comparison with the control sample, but the addition of Psyllium in the amount
of 5% had no influence on the density. The smallest density was found in instant noodles with the
addition of Psyllium in the amount of 3%, while the largest was observed in instant noodles with
Maltodextrin 5%. In the sample with the addition of Psyllium in the amount of 3%, a high content of
fat and a low level of moisture was observed which caused the low density value of the instant noodle.
However, the addition of Maltodextrin in the amount of 5% caused the instant noodle to have a similar
fat and moisture content as samples with addition of Psyllium in the amount of 3%, but the density
was significantly higher.
Both ingredients: Psyllium and maltodextrin were added to the dough bind water [43], which
evaporates during frying. Differences in the density of the tested instant noodle samples may result
from the strength of water binding and the possibility of its release during frying. In addition, it can
be assumed that Psyllium has greater gas retention ability during frying than Maltodextrin. Samples
with a higher concentration of MCG (0.8%) HPMC (0.5%) in comparison with instant noodles with
maltodextrin, had a density value on the similar level, higher moisture content and the lower fat
content. One can conclude that higher concentrations of MCG and HPMC result in less moisture loss
and reduces the absorption of fat during instant noodles’ frying.
Cellulose derivatives such as CMC, HPMC, and hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) and amylose
have been evaluated as oil barriers in a deep-fat fried African cowpea paste-based food, comparing
the coatings obtained by spraying and dipping the cowpea balls [22]. This oil barrier effect was related
to the thermal gelation capacity of HPMC. Above the incipient gelation temperature, the viscosity
increases dramatically as intermolecular associations occur very rapidly, and the solutions gel at the
point which for HPMC is found lies in a temperature range of 50–90 ◦ C. The gel layer controls the
migration of water and oil during frying.
Acoustic emission (AE) is a phenomenon of generation and propagation of elastic waves in
various materials. The basis for the creation of such waves are microcracks, mutual shifts, or friction
of surfaces of materials. In order to characterize the observed AE signal, acoustic descriptors are
determined [31]. AE descriptors strongly depend on the composition of the product, the type of
structure, and mechanical properties such as hardness or tendency of the material to experience plastic
deformation [44]. Pasta textural parameters are recognized as one of the most important features for
consumers and are one of the critical aspects for quality assessment.
Statistical analysis showed that the type of additives significantly affected the acoustic parameters:
The number of AE events (p < 0.001), the amplitude of the sound (p < 0.001), and the energy of a single
AE event (p < 0.001) (Table 3). The lowest number of AE events was generated by the control sample,
while the largest number was observed in the sample with the addition of Psyllium 5% (Table 3).
Instant noodles with Maltodextrin, MCG, and HPMC generated a significantly higher number of AE
events than the control sample, but smaller than instant noodles with Psyllium. Higher density, as well
as the lower fat content of samples with maltodextrin, MCG, and HPMC addition, influenced the
generated number of AE events. The density of the instant noodle is related to the porosity, i.e., the
lower the density value, the greater the porosity value. This could have affected a large number of AE
events generated by the samples with Psyllium addition.Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 936 8 of 14
Table 3. The average values (with the standard deviations) of water activity, density, and texture parameters of the instant noodles.
Number of Energy of One Amplitude
Sample Code Temperature (◦ C) Water Activity Density (g/cm3 ) Force (N) Work (mJ)
Acoustic Event Acoustic Event (a.u.) (mV)
160 0.181 b ± 0.001 1.220 ± 0.018 2505 ± 724 b 4669 ± 199 b 1404 ± 77 b 136 ± 21 436 ± 128
Control c
0.201 ± 0.001 1.226 ± 0.035 b 4431± 168 a 1333 ± 40 a 142 ± 24 358 ± 92
170 263 ± 5675
180 a
0.172 ± 0.001 1.232 ± 0.021 935 ± 228 a 4434 ± 199 a 1478 ± 43 c 129 ± 18 394 ± 94
P-valueAppl. Sci. 2019, 9, 936 9 of 14
Table 3. Cont.
Number of Energy of One Amplitude
Sample Code Temperature (◦ C) Water Activity Density (g/cm3 ) Force (N) Work (mJ)
Acoustic Event Acoustic Event (a.u.) (mV)
160 0.202 ± 0.006 c 1.215 ± 0.023 1979 ± 417 a 4527 ± 120 1355 ± 29 183 ± 30 a 431 ± 93 a
HPMC 0.50% 170 0.190 ± 0.001 b 1.225 ±0.019 3412 ± 623 c 4468 ±118 1351 ± 29 250 ± 50 b 662 ± 154 b
180 0.185 ± 0.001 a 1.258 ± 0.033 2837 ± 382 b 4484 ±151 1352 ± 36 206 ± 33 a 529 ± 125 a
P-value 0.032 * 0.349Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 936 10 of 14
During amplitude analysis, an inverse relationship was found. The control sample during the
compression phase generated the sound with the highest amplitude, while the samples with Psyllium
contents of 3% and 5% generated the sound with the lowest amplitude. Samples with Psylium contents
of 3% and 5% generated sounds with the highest energy (Table 3). It was observed that the increase in
the additional amounts of maltodextrin, MCG, HPMC, and Psyllium caused a significant increase in
the number of AE events, but the amplitude and energy of a single EA event were similar to the other
samples (Table 3). The reason for such results may be due to the high fat content in the samples with
Psyllium additions. Moreover, the addition of carboxymethyl cellulose improved the gluten structure
and formed a matrix with the gluten proteins where starch granules became embedded and decreased
the solid loss in cooking [45].
The high number of AE events registered in the case of the tested instant noodles acted not only
due to the breaking of the instant noodles’ ribbons, but also due to their mutual friction during the
compression test. The smallest sound amplitude was recorded for the hardest samples of instant
noodles (with Psyllium). The amplitude depends on the structure of the material—the more anisotropic
the structure, the higher the amplitude of the sound [46]. Acoustic emission is strongly dependent
on the formulation of the product. A small sound amplitude indicates a low crispness of the instant
noodle, which may be related to an increase of the moisture in the instant noodle [47], an increase in
fat content together with structural changes [44], or a high inulin content [48].
Mechanical parameters such as the force (p < 0.001) and the work (p < 0.001) significantly depend
on the type of additive (Table 3). The hardness is a measure of the compression force of the noodles.
Work is the energy needed to compress samples to 40% of the original height. The control and HPMC
samples were characterized by the lowest hardness value, while the samples with Psyllium 3 and
5% were characterized by the highest hardness value. The hardness, like acoustic emission, strongly
depends on the density of the material and its chemical composition [31,44,49]. Therefore, the samples
from Psyllium were the hardest because they had high densities and the lowest water contents. Both
the hardness and the compression work were characterized by high variability, as evidenced by the
value of the standard deviation. This is due to the uniformity of the samples.
3.4. Temperature
The frying temperature did not significantly affect water activity (p = 0.269) of the instant noodles.
The instant noodles densities varied considerably due to the frying temperature (p = 0.023). One has
observed a significant dependency between the type of additive and the frying temperature (p = 0.005).
Increasing the frying temperature from 160–170 ◦ C caused an increase in the density of the material
with Maltodextrin addition in the amount of 3.00%, MCG in the amount of 1.00%, and HPMC in the
amount of 0.40% (Table 3). The amount and access to water are limited in pasta. Therefore, when
frying begins, there is a competition between starch, proteins, and added hydrocolloids with water
molecules. Morris [1990] reported that the interaction of protein and hydrocolloid fills the cracks of
the combination of the soy protein-gluten interaction and makes a protein matrix which has higher
moisture holding capacity [50].
The instant noodles’ properties such as the number of AE events (p = 0.023) and the energy of one
AE event were significantly influenced by the frying temperature (p < 0.001). There was no effect of
frying temperature only on the amplitude of the sound (p = 0.621). Also, the mechanical parameters
such as force (p < 0.001) and work (p < 0.001) depended on the instant noodles’ frying temperature.
The principal component analysis (PCA) with the classification allowed for the interpretation of
the results of the instant noodles’ texture evaluation. Simultaneous presentation of the projection of
the evaluated parameters and the tested samples of instant noodles allowed us to determine features
differentiated in the samples (Figure 1).15.8%. In total, the first two main components contained 77.2% of the total information. Amplitude,
single-event energy of AE, force, work, and fat content formed the first component (PC1), while the
second component (PC2) was formed by the number of AE events and the density (Figure 1). The
close position of force, work, the number of AE events, and fat content indicated a positive
Appl. correlation of these features (Figure 1, Table 4). Strong positive correlations also occurred11between
Sci. 2019, 9, 936 of 14
the amplitude of sound and the density of the instant noodles (Table 4).
1 0.8MCG180
0.8MCG160
3MAL160
0.4HPMC180
5MAL160
C180
3MAL180
0.4HPMC160 C170
3PSYL180
PC2: 15.77%
C160 5PSYL160 3PSYL170
MCG1 160 Fat
0
5MAL180 5PSYL180
Amplitude 3PSYL160 Work
0.5HPMC170
0.8MCG170
3MAL170
5MAL170 Force
0.4HPMC170
Energy of one acoustic event
Number of acoustic event
0.5HPMC160
Density
MCG1 170 5PSYL170
0.5HPMC180
MCG1 180
-1
-1 0 1
PC: 61.36%
Figure 1. The principal component analysis (PCA) of instant noodles’ texture properties.
Figure 1. The principal component analysis (PCA) of instant noodles’ texture properties.
The first two components (PC1 and PC2) were selected for analysis using the Kaiser criterion [30].
Table 4. The
The first one (PC1) explained correlations
61.4% between
of the total texture properties,
variance, while the density,
second and fat. accounted for
(PC2)
15.8%. In total, the first two main components
Parameters Forcecontained
(N) 77.2%
Workof(mJ)
the totalDensity
information.
(g/cm3Amplitude,
) Fat (%)
single-event energy of AE,
Number of acoustic event force, work, and fat content
0.581* formed the
0.575* first component
−0.061(PC1), while the
0.459*
second component (PC2) was formed by the number of AE events and the density (Figure 1). The
Energy of one acoustic event (a.u.) −0.510* −0.542* 0.613* −0.653*
close position of force, work, the number of AE events, and fat content indicated a positive correlation
Amplitude (mV) −0.560* −0.564* 0.520* −0.614*
of these features (Figure 1, Table 4). Strong positive correlations also occurred between the amplitude
Force (N) 1.000 0.976* −0.441* 0.545*
of sound and the density of the instant noodles (Table 4).
Work (mJ) 0.976* 1.000 −0.499* 0.570*
Table 4. The correlations between texture properties, density, and fat.
4. Conclusions
Parameters Force (N) Work (mJ) Density (g/cm3 ) Fat (%)
HPMC and MCG decrease the fat absorptions in instant noodles, while the use of maltodextrin
andNumber of acoustic
psyllium event
increased 0.581during
the fat absorbed * 0.575 * There is a−significant
frying. 0.061 0.459 *
relationship between
Energy of one acoustic event (a.u.) −0.510 * −0.542 * 0.613 * −0.653 *
Amplitude (mV) −0.560 * −0.564 * 0.520 * −0.614 *
Force (N) 1.000 0.976 * −0.441 * 0.545 *
Work (mJ) 0.976 * 1.000 −0.499 * 0.570 *
4. Conclusions
HPMC and MCG decrease the fat absorptions in instant noodles, while the use of maltodextrin
and psyllium increased the fat absorbed during frying. There is a significant relationship between
the type of additive and the color of instant noodles. Color brightening was observed for instant
noodles with the HPMC and MCG, while the addition of maltodextrin and psyllium contributed in
the darkening of instant noodles (reduction of the L* parameter).Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 936 12 of 14
The type of additives significantly influenced the texture of the instant noodles. The samples with
a 3% addition of maltodextrin had a softer texture than the control sample, while the instant noodles
with the HPMC, MCG, and Psyllium were characterized by a harder texture. For instant noodles with
the addition of HPMC, MCG, and Psyllium, a larger number of events and a higher breaking force
were observed than for the control.
The frying temperature significantly influenced the texture of the analyzed instant noodles
(acoustic and mechanical properties). Increasing frying temperature from 160–170 ◦ C caused a
significant increase in acoustic descriptors and force.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.M.-L.; data curation, A.Z. and A.M.; formal analysis, K.M.-L.;
investigation, A.Z. and A.M.; methodology, K.M.-L. and A.M.; validation, K.M.-L.; visualization, K.M.-L.;
writing—original draft, K.M.-L. and A.M.; writing—review & editing, K.M.-L., A.Z., and M.K.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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