A bright spot analysis of inland recreational fisheries in the face of climate change: learning about adaptation from small successes - IFishMan
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Rev Fish Biol Fisheries (2021) 31:181–200
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11160-021-09638-y (0123456789().,-volV)
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REVIEWS
A bright spot analysis of inland recreational fisheries
in the face of climate change: learning about adaptation
from small successes
Amanda L. Jeanson . A. J. Lynch . J. D. Thiem . W. M. Potts .
T. Haapasalo . A. J. Danylchuk . T. D. Beard . R. Arlinghaus .
L. M. Hunt . N. Young . S. J. Cooke
Received: 21 September 2019 / Accepted: 15 January 2021 / Published online: 11 March 2021
Ó The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG part of Springer Nature 2021
Abstract Inland recreational fisheries have social, recreational fisheries management, where innovative
economic, and ecological importance worldwide but approaches are leading to increases in social and
these fisheries are increasingly challenged by the ecological well-being in the face of climate change.
diverse effects of climate change. Coupled with other Cases such as these are important sources of inspira-
anthropogenic stressors, climate change has con- tion and learning about adaptation to climate and
tributed to declines in freshwater biodiversity of environmental change. In this article, we analyze 11
greater severity than those observed across marine or examples of such ‘bright spots’ drawn from multiple
terrestrial taxa. At a macro level, inland fisheries are jurisdictions around the world from which we
experiencing declines. There are, however, a number extracted lessons that might apply to fisheries man-
of success stories, or ‘bright spots,’ in inland agement challenges beyond the region and context of
each case. Collectively, these bright spots highlight
adaptive initiatives that allow for recreational fisheries
A ‘positive future’ for inland recreational fisheries in the face
of current and future climatic change is possible! This work management to mitigate to stressors associated with
highlights potential strategies to adapt to current and future current and future climate change. Examples identified
climate changes.
A. L. Jeanson (&) S. J. Cooke T. Haapasalo
Fish Ecology and Conservation Physiology Laboratory, Department of Geographic and Historical Studies,
Department of Biology and Institute of Environmental and University of Eastern Finland/Itä-Suomen yliopisto,
Interdisciplinary Science, Carleton University, 1125 Joensuu, Finland
Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6, Canada
e-mail: Amanda.l.jeanson@gmail.com A. J. Danylchuk
Department of Environmental Conservation, University of
A. J. Lynch T. D. Beard Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, USA
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), National Climate
Adaptation Science Center, Reston, VA, USA R. Arlinghaus
Department of Biology and Ecology of Fishes, Leibniz-
J. D. Thiem Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries, and
Department of Primary Industries, Narrandera Fisheries Integrative Fisheries Management and Integrative
Centre, Narrandera, NSW, Australia Research Institute for the Transformation of Human-
Environmental Systems, Faculty of Life Sciences,
W. M. Potts Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany
Department of Ichthyology and Fisheries Science, Rhodes
University, Grahamstown, South Africa
123182 Rev Fish Biol Fisheries (2021) 31:181–200
include community-based restoration projects, collab- nature, escape, relaxing, and socializing; Driver and
orative and adaptive approaches to short-term fisheries Knopf 1976; Caltabiano 1994; Toth and Brown 1997;
closures, transdisciplinary large-scale conservation Freudenberg and Arlinghaus 2009; FAO 2018). The
projects, and conservation-minded efforts by individ- socio-psychological benefits accrued by anglers
uals and communities. By highlighting examples of encourage them to incur expenses associated with
‘small wins’ within inland recreational fisheries man- fishing trips (e.g., travel, goods, and services), which
agement, this review contributes to the idea that a in turn creates jobs and stimulates local and regional
‘positive future’ for inland recreational fisheries in the economies. In the United States of America (USA)
face of climate change is possible and highlights alone, inland recreational fisheries generate over 31
potential strategies to adapt to current and future billion USD annually in direct expenditures (Lynch
climate scenarios. et al. 2016). Globally, the recreational fishery sector
within inland waters generates over 100 billion USD
Keywords Anthropocene Recreational fisheries in revenues (Funge-Smith et al. 2018), often con-
Social-ecological systems Positive futures Inland tributing in meaningful ways to livelihoods in smaller
fisheries rural communities (Smith et al. 2005; Hoogendoorn
2014).
Current and projected climate scenarios threaten
the integrity of ecosystems supporting inland recre-
Introduction ational fisheries (Harrod et al. 2019), thus endangering
the economic and social benefits resulting from this
Inland aquatic ecosystems (lakes, rivers, brackish and sector. Inland aquatic ecosystems have experienced
coastal wetlands, marshes and swamps, reservoirs, biodiversity losses that are greater than those in
bogs, etc.; Janse et al. 2015) are facing severe habitat terrestrial and marine environments (WWF 2016;
modification and biodiversity declines in the Anthro- Reid et al. 2019). General climate-driven threats to
pocene (a time in which humans are driving ecosystem freshwater ecosystems include increased mean surface
changes; Lewis and Maslin, 2015; Reid et al. 2019), temperatures, losses in dissolved oxygen levels,
thereby causing social, economic, and ecological changes in water availability and seasonality,
losses (Fike et al. 2007). Recreational fishing (e.g., increased eutrophication (Myers et al. 2017), greater
the fishing for reasons other than obtaining sustenance frequencies of cold shock events (Szekeres et al.
or for profit from sales; FAO 2012) represents one 2016), and changes in stratification patterns (King
sector that relies on inland waters. Engagement in et al. 1999). Furthermore, changes in precipitation
recreational fishing is high, with an average of patterns (e.g., increases in drought frequency; Lennox
approximately 10% of the human population partic- et al. 2019) are shifting the distributions of fish species
ipating in the activity (Arlinghaus and Cooke 2009; (Chu et al. 2005; Perry et al. 2005), leading to thermal
Arlinghaus et al. 2015). It is estimated that up to 6.7% niche contraction or expansion promoted through
of the global population engage in inland recreational increased competition/predation from invaders (Moh-
fishing and have a combined total catch of * 11.6 seni et al. 2003; Pratchett et al. 2011).
million tonnes (FAO 2018). Inland aquatic ecosystems supporting recreational
High participation rates in recreational fishing can fisheries are of significant conservation concern, as
be linked to the social and psychological benefits they must absorb fisheries-related stressors resulting
gained from recreational fishing (e.g., connecting with from fisher interactions with fish (e.g., fishing mortal-
ity arising from harvest or incidental mortality asso-
ciated with fishing injuries or stress encountered
L. M. Hunt
Centre for Northern Forest Ecosystem Research, Ontario during catch-and-release fishing) and climate change
Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry, Thunder Bay, driven stressors such as those listed above. For
ON, Canada example, increased water temperatures and other
climate-induced environmental changes can be phys-
N. Young
Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University of iologically challenging to species, especially when
Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canada combined with exercise-induced stress resulting from
123Rev Fish Biol Fisheries (2021) 31:181–200 183
catch-and-release fishing events (reviewed in Gale together to illustrate tangible take-home lessons, and
et al. 2011; Whitney et al. 2016). The conservation of to share successful adaptive management tools to aid
fish populations used by recreational fisheries should inland recreational fisheries management in the
therefore be a significant consideration for the fish- Anthropocene. By compiling successes in inland
eries management community to ensure the sustain- fisheries management at a global scale, this work
ability of the fisheries in the face of current and future gives fisheries managers the opportunity to adopt and
stressors. Furthermore, anglers can influence the build off of successes demonstrated in faraway
survival of angled fishes through the adaptation of fisheries to adaptively enhance their capacity to
conservation-driven behaviours. For example, when climate change.
faced with high water temperatures in Western USA,
anglers have altered behaviours to the benefit of
angled fish species (Boyd et al. 2010). Methods
The management of inland recreational fisheries in
the Anthropocene should involve multi- and trans- Collection of bright spots
disciplinary collaborations amongst social scientists
and biologists, as well as relevant stakeholders Examples of social-ecological bright spots were
(Arlinghaus et al. 2017). Human-related barriers solicited via an email and social media call (e.g., via
(e.g., public and political will) are the greatest co-author twitter accounts) to researchers and fisheries
impediments to fisheries management success (Ar- managers around the globe who work with inland
linghaus 2006; Hilborn 2007), demonstrating the recreational fisheries. Emails and social media posts
importance of viewing fisheries as part of coupled were written and shared by us authors to our contacts,
social-ecological systems (Arlinghaus et al. 2017). thus reaching others in our professional networks. As
Furthermore, inland recreational fisheries manage- our author list is comprised of experts in the field,
ment must be forward-looking and adaptive to best soliciting through our own professional networks
mitigate current and future stressors associated with enabled us to successfully reach other experts working
climate change (Pratchett et al. 2011; Szekeres et al. with inland recreational fisheries conservation and
2016; Lennox et al. 2019). To achieve a positive future management and collect insightful bright spots. Inland
for inland recreational fisheries, decision-makers can fisheries researchers and managers study or manage
draw inspiration and learn from successful initiatives fisheries facing climate change and anthropogenic
that create social-ecological bright spots (referred to stressors and are therefore well positioned to encoun-
by Bennett et al. 2016 as ‘seeds towards a good ter examples of successful initiatives that have led to
Anthropocene’) when looking for novel management social and ecological successes in an inland fisheries
strategies. These bright spots can serve as lessons for context. We received a total of 14 bright spot
adaptive conservation measures to achieve sustain- suggestions by experts in recreational fisheries man-
ability in the face of current and future climate change agement world-wide. Of those 14, 11 submissions
scenarios. were from North America. A short-list of bright spot
Here, we outline a number of bright spots found ideas was built from submissions that matched our
within inland recreational fisheries. The included criteria for a bright spot, as adopted from Bennett et al.
bright spots contain useful approaches to manage the (2016). Submissions had to be social-ecological,
impacts of climate change, and/or address other meaning that they demonstrate or show potential for
stressors (e.g., angling exploitation) in systems vul- social and ecological improvements. We define a
nerable to, or impacted by effects of climate change. successful social-ecological bright spot as: 1) promot-
The initiatives discussed here are all small-scale and ing ecological sustainability (the ability of the ecosys-
local or regional in application. However, each one has tem to withstand the needs of fishery users; Morelli
demonstrated improvements in human well-being 2011), and 2) promoting social and economic sustain-
without negatively impacting or in some cases ability (the ability of the fishery to provide well-being
improving the environment, thus creating ‘social- and economic benefits to stakeholders; Garcı́a-Llor-
ecological bright spots’ (Bennett et al. 2016). Geo- ente et al. 2006). The short list of bright spots was
graphically dispersed bright spots are analyzed comprised of 11 submissions, all of which
123184 Rev Fish Biol Fisheries (2021) 31:181–200
demonstrate these ‘three pillars of sustainability’ rationale for success is included in the bright spot
(social, economic and ecological sustainability; Purvis summaries.
et al. 2019).
The co-author list is comprised in part of recre- Temperature-based in-season closures
ational fisheries experts who submitted selected bright in the Miramichi River (Canada)
spot cases for analysis. Some information regarding
these bright spots originate from co-authors’ personal The Miramichi River in New Brunswick, Canada, is
experience. In some of the included bright spots, essential nursery habitat for wild Atlantic salmon
factual information was also sought via personal (Salmo salar) populations, which are highly valued
communications with key knowledge holders for a amongst recreational anglers in the area. However,
given fishery. climate change induced high water temperatures have
been linked to fatalities in this population of Atlantic
Analysis salmon (Lund et al. 2002; Gallant et al. 2017). In
response to resultant declines in the abundance of
The framework for analyzing the included bright spots Atlantic salmon, the province of New Brunswick
is based on criteria gleaned from two sources: Elmer implemented adaptive temperature-based in-season
et al.’s (2017) Ten commandments for sustainable fishery closures through collaboration with academics,
management for inland recreational fisheries man- Indigenous communities, recreational anglers, and
agement, and Brownscombe et al.’s (2019) The future other fishery stakeholders (Department of Fisheries
of recreational fisheries: Advances in science, moni- and Oceans Canada 2019).
toring, management and practice (see Table 1). To protect Atlantic salmon under climate change
Themes in Table 1 were agreed upon by co-authors and recreational angling-induced stressors, the pro-
as being central to included bright spots and echoed vince of New Brunswick implemented two exclu-
themes included in the two works mentioned above. sively catch-and-release Atlantic salmon fisheries in
Included bright spots were then analyzed to identify 1981 (Tufts et al. 2000). Fisheries remained open until
chosen themes in each. These themes were further water temperatures reached levels at which aggrega-
dissected using examples pulled from our compilation tions of salmon in cold-water refuges, mortalities, or
of bright spots and resulting ‘lessons learned’ are low water levels were observed by Fisheries and
shared below. Through this analysis, this paper Oceans Canada wardens. Decisions on closures were
provides tangible examples of fisheries management originally made on ad hoc bases after consultation
strategies and tools that can be adopted or scaled up to with governmental and academic colleagues, as well
the benefit of other inland recreational fisheries around as resource users. This allowed for input by those
the globe as we continue to experience climate working directly in the system resulting in quick
change-induced stressors, and other anthropogenic closures, but decisions were ultimately arbitrary.
stressors. During an extreme thermal event in July 2010 in
which temperatures in mainstem Miramichi River
tributaries reached as high as 30.78 C during the day
Bright spot cases (Elvidge et al. 2017), and remained above 228 C at
night over four days (Corey et al. 2017), high-density
The bright spots are presented in no particular order, aggregations of juvenile salmon parr and mortalities of
yet similar themed bright spots were placed near each adults in deep-water pools were observed. This led to
other in the body of the text (see Fig. 1 for corre- the current procedures for closures in the Miramichi
sponding themes). The bright spots described below River: fishery closures are now implemented after two
include examples of existing successes within inland consecutive 24-h periods in which water temperatures
fishery management, examples of management pro- remain above 20° C, with a one-day lag period to allow
jects yielding ongoing initiatives within inland fishery news of the closure to be disseminated to resource
management, and potential initiatives that are believed users and commercial operations. Openings occur
to bring successes in inland fisheries management. The after two consecutive days in which water tempera-
tures fall below 20° C (Fisheries and Oceans 2012a) to
123Rev Fish Biol Fisheries (2021) 31:181–200 185
Fig. 1 Map of bright spot locations categorized by theme (see Strategy (LSCCAS; Canada). 6. Mitigating smallmouth bass
Table 1). 1. Temperature-based in-season closures in the range expansions (Canada). 7. Changes in angler behaviour in
Miramichi River (Canada). 2. Water temperature and algal response to climate change (Western USA). 8. Harvest control
bloom-induced angling competition cancellations in South of walleye using special walleye licensing in Alberta (Canada).
Africa. 3. Survival projections of cisco in warming waters: 9. Resulting benefits of put-and-take fisheries formed by water
Minnesota lakes (USA). 4. Identifying climate shields for infrastructure (Australia). 10. Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture
salmon conservation in Northern Rocky Mountains (USA). 5. (USA). 11. Voluntary Longinoja Brook sea trout habitat
The Lake Simcoe Watershed Climate Change Adaptation restoration (Finland)
meet the physiological needs of Atlantic salmon, as stressors under high water temperatures. Using tem-
they demonstrate decreases in metabolic performance perature-induced closures allows for the presence of a
and increases in mortality resulting from catch-and- catch-and-release fishery to be present in the face of
release angling above this temperature (Dempson et al. temperature concerns, allowing for continued eco-
2002). nomic and social sustainability of the fishery in the
Success resulting from the Miramichi River tem- area whilst accounting for ecological sustainability of
perature closures is defined by the ability to effectively the system.
remove angling stressors during periods in which fish
cannot physiologically cope with both fishery and Water temperature and algal bloom-induced
water temperature induced physiological stressors angling competition cancellations in South Africa
(promoting ecological sustainability). The current
process in place for closures is the result of collabo- The Rock and Surf Super Pro League (RASSPL) is a
rative, and science-based management. Temperature- competitive catch and release South African shore-
induced closures based on scientific knowledge of fish based marine angling league (competitions take place
physiology and temperature trends such as those in the along the coast as well as inland in the Kei River). The
Miramichi River can result in adaptive and appropriate league operates nationwide, with six franchises (each
closures that benefit fish populations in question. By with eight different competition zones) situated in the
implementing species-specific maximum temperature cool-temperate and warm-temperate biogeographic
thresholds for closures, the chances of fish populations regions of South Africa. Climate change and other
in a system being subjected to lethal stressors from anthropogenic stressors have led to water temperature
catch-and-release fishing is reduced, mitigating the spikes and concerning algal blooms in competition
high physiological cost of recuperating from fisheries zones, threatening the survival of fish captured during
123186 Rev Fish Biol Fisheries (2021) 31:181–200
Table 1 Take home messages for management divided by themes with examples pulled from bright spots
Theme Take-home message for management Examples Bright
spots
Individual Management may recognize, foster and encourage the Decisions by anglers to adopt conservation- 7
action conservation-minded behaviours of individuals minded behaviours can lead to changes in
social norms, and ecological benefits for
targeted fish species
Shifts in angling efforts from at risk 6&9
populations can lead to ecological benefits
for wild populations at risk in light of climate
change
Community Management may recognize, foster and encourage Collective efforts by communities can lead to 11
action conservation efforts from communities conservation successes without the
involvement of management bodies
Cross-scale Management may engage in cross-scale collaborations Engagement with multi-stakeholders and 4, 5, &
collaborations to increase available resources and knowledge, and governing bodies can provide increased 8
yield management decisions supported by all resources and knowledge, favouring
stakeholders successful management decision-making
Collective support for management decisions 1, 2, &
from stakeholders can positively influence 8
the success of resulting management
strategies
Adaptive Management may include monitoring as part of Monitoring of temperature and other 1, 2, 3,
management conservation strategies in the face of climate change environmental parameters, fish population 6, &
numbers, and habitat quality can allow for 11
management to predict problematic scenarios
and act quickly, thus minimizing the
consequences of climate change-induced
stressors
Ecosystem- Management may look to adopt ecosystem-based Restoring ecosystems can help re-establish fish 5, 9, &
based approaches to management populations supporting recreational fisheries 10
management
Evidence-based Management may benefit from basing decision- Scientific findings from environmental 1, 2, 3,
management making on evidence-based scientific findings assessments and scientific experimentation 4, 5,
can aid development of management & 10
strategies that best fit with the ecological
needs of fishes and ecosystems
competitions. In response, a research team from the avoid having anglers travel and book reservations for
Department of Ichthyology and Fisheries Science postponed events, the collaborative research team is
(DIFS) at Rhodes University partnered with RASSPL working towards practical solutions to best predict
with the goal of finding strategies that allow for water conditions on competition days. To best predict
accurate and timely predictions of unfavourable water water temperature, daily sea temperature based on
conditions on which to base decisions on cancella- in situ validated satellite observations (Moderate
tions, reallocations, or postponements of fishing Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, i.e. MODIS
competitions. terra; Reinart and Reinhold 2008) for each of the eight
To protect targeted species under high water competitive angling zones for each franchise over the
temperatures and concerning algal blooms, and to previous 10 years is compiled and the frequency of
123Rev Fish Biol Fisheries (2021) 31:181–200 187
anomalous ‘warm water events’ is calculated based on Survival projections of cisco in warming waters:
knowledge of the thermal preference of the primary Minnesota lakes (USA)
target species for each fishing zone, by month. Data
are then used to identify high frequency warm water The USA state of Minnesota is known as the ‘Land of
zones for each month where competitions should be 10,000 Lakes’. As the most prominent lentic forage
avoided. Franchises are subsequently asked to adjust fish in Minnesota, cisco (Coregonus artedi) live within
their competition schedules accordingly. Unlike water some of these lakes (Jacobson et al. 2008), and play an
temperature, the presence of an algal bloom in a important role in sustaining populations of lake trout
fishing zone can be accurately predicted based on (Salvelinus namaycush), walleye (Sander vitreus), and
information collected the previous day. For example, northern pike (Esox lucius), that support socially and
Hu et al. (2005) recommend the use of the near-real economically important recreational fisheries. Climate
time MODIS fluorescence line height (FLH) data as a change has led to decreases in population numbers of
reliable satellite product for detecting red tides cisco in Minnesota, at the trailing edge of their species
(harmful algal blooms) in coastal waters. The next range (Jacobson et al. 2012). Such declines threaten
steps for the research team will be to identify the success of recreational fisheries in the area as
biologically relevant FLH values that could comple- angling opportunities decrease with loss of cisco. In
ment temperature indicators for the relocation or response to cisco population declines, the Minnesota
postponement of a competition (completion date by Department of Natural Resources (MNDNR) used
2020). research to determine the most effective strategy for
Success resulting from the proposed strategy to be cisco management.
used by RASSPL is defined by the ability to To protect populations vulnerable to climate
effectively remove angling stressors during periods change such as cisco, management can protect
in which fish cannot physiologically cope with high resilient habitat or, when that is no longer possible,
water temperatures and algal bloom-induced stressors engage in more intensive efforts to translocate them to
in a manner that will not greatly inconvenience suitable habitats (e.g., Winfield et al. 2012). Modeling
anglers. The proposed strategy allows for timely and the cisco thermal niche, Fang et al. (2012) identified
appropriate recommendations to relocate, or if all 176 Minnesota lakes that are deep and clear enough to
zones are negatively affected, postpone competitions. serve as refuge lakes, maintaining thermal habitat for
This strategy will allow for decisions to be made early cisco even with projected warming for Minnesota. The
enough as to not greatly inconvenience competition MNDNR then prioritized management action to
participants (anglers must book/pay for fishing-related proactively protect cisco habitat in these refuge lakes
travel and incur such expenses should a closure take and surrounding forested watersheds. Furthermore, by
place at the last minute; thus accounting for social protecting water quality and forest within these
sustainability of the fishery) and for survival of watersheds for cisco habitat and the recreational
targeted fish species during periods of elevated water fisheries cisco support, the broader landscape also
temperature and damaging algal blooms (thus pro- benefits from conservation efforts. Cisco habitat
moting ecological sustainability). Oxygen concentra- protection indirectly benefits the predatory fish feed-
tions and water temperatures are critical ing on cisco, which ultimately benefits recreational
environmental parameters to post-release survival as fisheries dependent on these predatory fishes in the
hypoxia (like during a bloom of algal biomass; area.
Hallegraeff 1993; Pick 2016) and high water temper- Success resulting from modeling cisco thermal
atures (Dempson et al. 2002) have been found to niche is defined by the ability to proactively protect
impair fish recovery from catch-and-release events valuable habitat based on scientific findings in the face
(Suski et al. 2006; Gale et al. 2013). of ecosystem alterations induced by climate change.
The strategy of using decision-support tools (e.g.,
science) to prioritize management investment allows
one to optimize the use of limited resources for current
recreational fishing goals and future ones. This
approach opens doors to additional, often non-
123188 Rev Fish Biol Fisheries (2021) 31:181–200
traditional, funding sources and builds a broad base of Success resulting from the ‘climate shield’
support with local, state, and federal governmental approach is defined by the ability to proactively
partners and non-governmental organizations. By identify (through scientific approaches) and protect
considering the suite of available management options climate shields under climate change thus aiding in the
for current and future conditions, the MNDNR and survival of salmonids (promoting ecological sustain-
others can maximize their conservation outcomes and ability). The proposed strategy to protect coldwater
ensure resiliency for cisco populations and predator salmonids can be less expensive and less intensive
populations (promoting ecological sustainability), and than other alternatives (e.g., translocation) to support-
ultimately the recreational fisheries they support ing recreational fishing for coldwater fish in the
(promoting social and economic sustainability within Northern Rocky Mountains in a changing climate
the fishery). (promoting social and economic sustainability). This
simple concept can be used to strengthen existing
Identifying climate shields for salmon collaborative approaches of natural resource agencies
conservation in Northern Rocky Mountains (USA) and recreational fishing stakeholders and foster new
partnerships with other conservation interests in the
Recreational fisheries for primarily coldwater salmo- area.
nids in the Northern Rocky Mountains of the USA are
significant cultural and economic resources; in Mon- The Lake Simcoe watershed climate change
tana, the recreational fishing industry contributes at adaptation strategy (LSCCAS; Canada)
least 1 billion USD annually to the economy (Outdoor
Industry Association 2017). The dominant hypothesis Lake Simcoe is home to lake whitefish (Coregonus
for mobile species is that they relocate to maintain clupeaformis), yellow perch (Perca flavescens), small-
their optimal thermal habitat (e.g., the cisco in the case mouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu), and one of the
study above) when faced with climate change-induced most southern natural population of interior lake trout
stressors. Conventional wisdom suggests that coldwa- in Canada, making it a destination for anglers year-
ter fish in headwater systems, such as salmonids in the round. Lake Simcoe is the most-fished lake in Ontario
Northern Rocky Mountains, are particularly vulnera- with * 1 million angler hours per year and is a
ble to angling because they are often isolated and particularly popular destination for ice fishing
constrained in their ability to move to new habitat and (Government of Ontario 2017). Climate change and
are therefore, at high risk of extirpation. other anthropogenic stressors onto Lake Simcoe have
To protect cold water salmonids in the Northern led to changes in aquatic life; emergence of invasive
Rocky Mountains, a ‘climate shield’ approach in species; changes in water quality and quantity; and
which cold waters are protected (by receiving a changes in aquatic fauna species; resulting in reduced
protected status eliminating any activity leading to opportunities for recreational activities such as
the loss of such coldwater habitats) in order to preserve angling (Government of Ontario 2017). In response,
coldwater fauna and their ecosystem services (such as the Lake Simcoe Climate Change Adaptation Strategy
recreational fishing) is suggested. Isaak et al. (LSCCAS) was developed by the Ontario government.
(2016) show that thermal habitat in headwater streams To protect the Lake Simcoe watershed from climate
is highly resilient to air temperature increases because change and other anthropogenic stressors, the
of topographic controls. The ‘slow climate velocity’ LSCCAS looks to combat the negative implications
of these systems suggests that they can serve as of climate change onto the Lake Simcoe ecosystem,
thermal refuge or ‘climate shield’ for salmonids and industries, and users (Government of Ontario 2017).
other coldwater aquatic species long after the sur- The Government of Ontario has partnered with locals,
rounding landscape may have transformed (Isaak et al. Indigenous communities, municipal governments,
2015, 2016). In the case of coldwater salmonids in the industry, developers, and other identified stakeholders
Northern Rocky Mountains, it is suggested that cold to build a comprehensive and expansive strategy for
refuges be identified by scientists, and protected to climate change management for the Lake Simcoe
ensure the longevity of such populations, allowing for system. To protect valuable Lake Simcoe fisheries, the
prosperous recreational fisheries in the area. LSCCAS suggests deviating angler efforts from areas
123Rev Fish Biol Fisheries (2021) 31:181–200 189
that are at a greater risk to climate change-driven To protect native species and ecosystems through-
stressors by promoting angling opportunities during out plausible smallmouth bass range expansions (both
different times of year or at different locations. naturally occurring, and human-driven), it is suggested
Second, it suggests diverting angler efforts away from that invasive species risk assessments be conducted to
cold water species by promoting angling for more assess potential threats to habitats with high invasive
warmwater species that may actually fare better under species vulnerability. Following the potential threat of
climate change. Third, it suggests habitat restoration smallmouth bass range expansion into Kejimkujik
and protection projects to ensure quality habitat for National Park in Nova Scotia, Canada, a risk assess-
Lake Simcoe fish species under climate change. ment comprising of a computer-based analysis of
Furthermore, the LSCCAS includes efforts to inform habitat suitability, and literature reviews of potential
visitors about the impacts of climate change, and to management techniques were conducted. The assess-
provide suggestions on how visitors can do their part ment suggested devastating effects on the ecosystem
to negate stressors (Government of Ontario 2017). following the presence of smallmouth bass, and so
Success resulting from the LSCCAS can be defined monitoring, and rapid post-detection action plans were
by its collaborative, trans-disciplinary, social-ecolog- put in place (Davis et al. 2016) to reduce the possibility
ical approach to climate change management of range expansion into the park.
(Lemieux et al. 2014), thus ensuring and considering Success resulting from risk assessments on poten-
ecological, social and economic sustainability of the tial invasive species such as smallmouth bass is
lake system. The inclusion of recreational fisheries defined by the ability to effectively predict environ-
management into an ecosystem-based, government- mental outcomes of such events, allowing for proac-
supported strategy can allow for resources and plan- tive management promoting ecological sustainability.
ning required to ensure the persistence of such Smallmouth bass expansion can be socially and
fisheries in the face of climate change and other economically beneficial to recreational fisheries
stressors. The LSCCAS strategy to fishery conserva- across Canada, yet precaution must be taken to ensure
tion includes collaborative efforts amongst stakehold- that such expansions do not carry negative ecological
ers, education for users, and scientific findings on implications. When properly managed, introductions
which to base management decision-making. as well as natural range expansions can result in
fishing opportunities of preferred species without
Mitigating smallmouth bass range expansions negative effects onto the ecosystem all while poten-
(Canada) tially removing angler pressure on other native
populations fairing less well in the face of climate
Recreational angling contributes an average of 8.8 change and other anthropogenic stressors.
billion CDN to the Canadian economy, with small-
mouth bass being a heavily targeted species (Brown- Changes in angler behaviour in response to climate
scombe et al. 2014). As a consequence of changing change (Western USA)
climate, smallmouth bass in North America are
predicted to expand their range into northern latitudes, Recreational angling can be an important economic
and into habitats previously unavailable to them activity providing employment and other benefits
(Sharma et al. 2007; Sharma and Jackson 2008) with (Ditton et al. 2002; Arlinghaus et al. 2007). To help
the help of facilitated introductions by the recreational protect targeted species and minimize the negative
fishing industry. Unfortunately, in Ontario, Canada effects of catch and release angling on species
alone, 25 000 populations of native cyprinid species threatened by climate change stressors, anglers can
may be lost as a result of direct predation by comply with regulations intended to reduce the lethal
smallmouth bass in new locations (Jackson and and sublethal effects of capture and handling on fish,
Mandrak 2002). In response to these possible threats, and/or voluntarily modify their behavior to ensure
it is suggested that introductions and invasions of impairment of targeted fish is minimized (Cooke et al.
smallmouth bass be mitigated by management fol- 2013).
lowing scientific risk assessments such as the one done In Western USA, increased water temperatures
in Kejimkujik National Park, Canada. have elicited both voluntary- and regulation-mediated
123190 Rev Fish Biol Fisheries (2021) 31:181–200
management of lotic systems supporting recreational walleye in an open-access recreational fishery (Sulli-
fisheries (Boyd et al. 2010). For example, in the state van 2003). In response to resulting reductions in
of Montana, a drought fishing closure policy is now in walleye abundance in the mid-1990s, fisheries man-
place to ‘limit the additive impact of angling mortality agers developed strategies to mitigate walleye decli-
during stressful conditions created by drought’. In nes, without removing social and economically
2018, Colorado Parks and Wildlife initiated voluntary valuable recreational walleye fisheries.
closures resulting from low river flow rates and To protect walleye populations, the government of
associated high water temperatures. Similar voluntary Alberta implemented very strict input-based regula-
requests by anglers targeting landlocked sockeye or tions (used in open-access fisheries), which produced
kokanee salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) were made in high catch rates for walleye at many lakes. However,
Wyoming in 2018, urging other anglers to stop fishing such efforts were not well received by recreational
once they had harvested their limit to reduce temper- anglers because management allowed for little oppor-
ature related mortality on fish being released. In tunity for anglers to harvest walleye (Sullivan 2003).
Montana, so called ‘hoot owl’ closures have been Continued angling dissatisfaction with strict input-
instituted at warm temperatures. This involves daily based regulations led fisheries managers to implement
closures that extend from 2:00 pm until midnight so as a special harvest license (SHL) in 2006 in lakes where
to protect fish from the hottest period of the day (see a sustainable surplus of walleye was available for
Mahoney 2016). Although this can be done formally harvest (Government of Alberta 2018). SHL directly
with regulations (e.g., as in western Montana), it can controls harvest by requiring anglers to obtain and use
also be achieved through voluntary means. a tag when harvesting walleye (Government of
Success resulting from angler engagement in policy Alberta 2017). These tags are now allocated to anglers
and/or voluntary pro-environmental changes in beha- through lottery draws where anglers apply for tags for
viour are defined by decreased angler-induced stres- specific lakes and sizes of walleye. This lottery was
sors onto targeted fishes (promoting ecological based on the same principles for managing the hunting
sustainability). Species facing stressors from recre- of big game wildlife species, including increased
ational fishing and climate change are at greater risk, selection odds for anglers who applied but were not
yet anglers can minimize these risks whilst continuing successful in the previous year’s lottery. The SHL
to socially benefit from the fishery by altering their permits fisheries managers to move away from
behaviours on the water. Decisions to practice such limiting access through lake closures and catch and
behaviours is linked to knowledge on how capture and release regulations. While no evaluation of angler
handling affects fish (Brownscombe et al. 2017) and satisfaction with the program exists, the demand for
also social norms within the recreational angling the program has increased faster than the availability
community (Danylchuk et al. 2018; Guckian et al. of tags from 1815 applications in 2006 to 46,727
2018). Although the effectiveness of respected manda- applications in 2018 (Government of Alberta 2019).
tory closures and calls for voluntary action has yet to Success resulting from SHL permits is defined by
be directly quantified for recreationally targeted fish resulting benefits onto walleye populations (promot-
stocks, the precautionary nature of these potential ing ecological sustainability), and potential increases
changes in angler behavior can mitigate the com- in angler satisfaction with the fishery. Importantly,
pounding effect of climate change-induced stressors SHL internalizes the cost of overfishing by letting
and those that result from catch and release fishing. those anglers benefiting from harvest to pay (Arling-
haus et al. 2019). The use of SHL permits appears to
Harvest control of walleye using special walleye have increased angler satisfaction as proxied by the
licensing in Alberta (Canada) increased number of applicants and is a successful
method to manage population numbers of walleye in
Walleye are the most often caught species by Alberta Alberta. By recognizing the desires of stakeholders (in
anglers (Fisheries and Oceans 2012). Alberta is this case, anglers), managers can develop strategies
characterized by a low abundance of lakes with that fit not only the ecological needs of the fishery
walleye (n = 177), and a high abundance of walleye ecosystem, but rather the desires of fishery users, thus
anglers, resulting in troublesome efforts to manage allowing for a socially, ecologically and economically
123Rev Fish Biol Fisheries (2021) 31:181–200 191
sustainable fishery. In areas where climate change Success resulting from put-and-take fisheries situ-
restricts the availability of walleye such as in ated in catchment headwaters in Australia is defined by
Wisconsin where increased water temperatures favour the potential to remove angling stress from wild at-risk
largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) recruitment populations, increasing ecological sustainability of at-
over walleye (Hansen et al. 2017), greater use of SHL risk systems. This assumption is made based on
may pay large dividends over open access manage- previous examples in which put-and-take fisheries
ment using annual licensing with unlimited individual have resulted in shifted angler efforts away from wild
landings. stocks (see Howe et al. 2001). Habitat created by
impounding rivers has also resulted in opportunities for
Resulting benefits of put-and-take fisheries formed the creation of unique recreational fisheries, providing
by water infrastructure (Australia) novel opportunities for anglers to fish recreationally
and for subsistence, yielding health and wellbeing
Human development along waterways has increased benefits for anglers (thus promoting social and eco-
exponentially over the past few centuries, with the nomic sustainability; Eigenschenk et al. 2019; Korpela
construction of large dams for water storage and et al. 2014). For example, Forbes et al. (2016) identified
hydropower substantially altering river systems glob- that Murray cod (Maccullochella peelii), a popular
ally (Dynesius and Nilsson 1994; Nilsson et al. 2005), recreational angling target, were not completing their
including those in Australia (e.g. Thoms and Sheldon life-cycle within an Australian impoundment and
2000). This in conjunction with other factors including populations were reliant upon stocking. This informa-
climate change-induced stressors such as drought, has tion led to a regulation change whereby the species is
led to severe declines in several native Australian fish able to be targeted, and harvested year round in this
species, and damage to ecosystems, leaving many waterbody (Copeton Dam) during what would other-
species at risk of extirpation or extinction (Crook et al. wise be a closed season to protect the species during the
2010; Koehn and Lintermans 2012). While the key breeding season (https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/
negative impacts of large dams are indisputable, put- fishing/closures/summary-fw-closures). Interestingly,
and-take fisheries have been created in many of the growth rates are often found to be greater in fish living
resulting water reservoirs which provide an additional in the artificial habitats created by dams when com-
angling opportunity and help to reduce angling pared to natural rivers and streams (Russell et al. 2015;
pressure on wild riverine populations (Howe et al. Forbes et al. 2016). Although human-made water
2001). barriers pose major threats to aquatic ecosystems,
Australia has an estimated 446 large dams ([ 10 m using novel put-and-take fisheries resulting from
in height), the majority of which are situated in Eastern existing dams with no likelihood for removal to alle-
Australia (Kingsford 2000). The presence of these viate angler efforts on stressed wild stocks can lead to
dams has greatly altered (generally negatively) water- positive environmental outcomes for wild fish.
dependent biota (Walker and Thoms 1993; Gehrke
and Harris 2001). The change from lotic to lentic Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture (USA)
habitats has also altered fish community structure and
resulted in some species being unable to complete Brook trout (S. fontinalis) have been traditionally
their lifecycles (e.g., Pelicice and Agostinho 2008). distributed throughout the Eastern USA (Appalachi-
Other species, however, have been able to exploit and ans and eastward) from northern Georgia, along the
thrive in these altered habitats, in some instances to the spines of the Appalachians into northern Maine
benefit of recreational anglers. To aid efforts to protect (MacCrimmon and Campbell 1969). Climate
native wild populations of targeted fishes, unique change-induced stressors threaten the survival of
recreational fisheries with widespread stocking pro- brook trout in the Eastern USA. In response, the
grams have been developed in habitats created by Eastern Brook Trout Joint Venture (EBTJV) was
dams impounding Australian rivers (in which fish are developed as a data-centric approach for protecting,
stocked for the purpose of being caught and in some enhancing, and restoring brook trout throughout their
cases, kept by anglers; Hunt and Jones 2018). eastern range under climate change-induced stressors
(www.easternbrooktrout.org).
123192 Rev Fish Biol Fisheries (2021) 31:181–200
To respond to climate change-induced stressors on result of partial channelization, and poor water quality
brook trout in their eastern range, the EBTJV (Lähitieto 2017). For example; electrofishing efforts in
conducted a range-wide assessment of the status of 1998 yielded zero juvenile trout (LUKE 2018) in the
brook trout, showing that indeed decline had occurred Longinoja Brook.
(Hudy et al. 2008). Perhaps a more disconcerting In response to losses of sea trout in Finland, the
finding was that in some parts of the range, very little Longinoja Brook restoration project was created to
was known about current distribution and population restore a sea trout population in the Longinoja Brook
status making management very difficult (Hudy et al. (an urban brook). Longinoja brook is a tributary to the
2008). A second assessment, built upon a more robust Vantaa River in the Malmi suburb of Helsinki,
data set than the first assessment, was performed in Finland. Gravel, rocks, and woody debris were
2013 that lead to the identification of patches of reintroduced to the riverbed, creating natural habitats
remaining brook trout habitat that present discrete for spawning and juvenile trout (Longinoja 2019a, b).
populations (Whiteley et al. 2013). Data from these In addition, juvenile trout from a Vantaa River
analyses have been used to both focus limited habitat population were stocked into Longinoja Brook in
funding around the primary goals of protection, 1998, 2001, and 2002. The resulting onset of natural
enhancement, and restoration and has spurred man- spawning events in Longinoja Brook was reported to
agement agencies to develop a more systematic be in 2001 and resulting naturally spawned juvenile
approach to monitoring brook trout throughout the trout in Longinoja Brook were documented in 2005
range. (Pellikka et al. 2015) at a density of 30 juvenile trout
Success resulting from EBTJV is defined by the per 100 m of brook length (LUKE 2018). In 2012, the
ability to quantify the status of brook trout populations number of naturally spawned juvenile trout grew to
to best develop management strategies in the face of 238 juveniles per 100 m of brook and in 2015, a record
climate change. Primary mechanisms for conservation year, 343 naturally spawned juvenile trout were
of brook trout in their eastern range are now numerical observed per 100 m of brook (LUKE 2018). Between
targets from the scientific assessment and will focus 2001, when restoration efforts began, to 2019, the
habitat efforts around reconnecting isolated patches of brook has slowly restored into suitable sea trout
existing brook trout habitat. The science-based habitat through long-term co-operation amongst vol-
approach to identifying management priorities since untarily involved locals. As a result of working
2006 has led to an overall total investment of directly with Longinoja Brook, people have demon-
approximately 18 million USD in conserving and strated pro-environmental behaviours towards the
restoring brook trout habitat. By efficiently distribut- brook. For instance, illegal fishing has not manifested
ing funds based on scientific knowledge, the potential into a problem even through the brook is accessible
for ecological benefits and sustainability of the fishery and located around populated areas, as locals are quick
increases. to sanction others trying to engage in illegal fishing
practices (Maaseudun Tulevaisuus 2018).
Voluntary Longinoja Brook sea trout habitat Success resulting from the Longinoja Brook
restoration (Finland) restoration project is defined by the ability of the
community to independently restore a once native sea
Sea trout (Salmo trutta) historically spawn naturally in trout population by restoring habitat and introducing
several coastal rivers in Finland. In response to sea trout back into the ecosystem (thus promoting
anthropogenic stressors, most natural stocks have ecological sustainability). By fostering this population
been extirpated (Pellikka et al. 2015), decreasing the of sea trout, angling opportunities along Finland’s
available sea trout that catch and release recreational coast are likely to increase, thus providing opportuni-
anglers can target along Finland’s coastline. Losses ties for social and economic gains through coastal
are specifically attributed to decreased available recreational sea trout fisheries. The idea of protecting
spawning habitat, loss of water quality (in part due the brook lives on and has become a year-round public
to climate change), and overfishing (Koljonen et al. activity. Now, spawning sites, erosion of riparian areas
2014; Erkinaro et al. 2011). Population numbers of and number of salmonid juveniles are annually
fishes in rivers and brooks decreased significantly as a monitored by locals and Luonnonvarakeskus (LUKE;
123Rev Fish Biol Fisheries (2021) 31:181–200 193
Natural Resources Institute Finland) allowing for USA)’ bright spot, anglers voluntarily advocated
more adaptive management of the brook. Longinoja against continued fishing once catch limits were
Brook now holds the title as the most famous brook in reached, to ensure that fish did not experience excess
Finland, and in 2019 it won the Biodiversity Award handling stress as a result of catch and release fishing.
from the Finnish National Broadcaster (YLE 2019). By creating social norms on the water through angler
to angler sanctioning against said behaviours, and
through the promotion of alternative behaviours,
Findings and discussion individual anglers can minimize the effects of angling
on fish physiology.
While the bright spot cases described above are Individual anglers can also make significant con-
disparate, they exhibit common themes linked to tributions to the sustainability of inland recreational
successes in recreational fisheries management iden- fisheries by engaging in ecologically beneficial fishing
tified in past works (Elmer et al. 2017; Brownscombe practices. For example, in the bright spots ‘Mitigating
et al. 2019). We can derive lessons from these cases for smallmouth bass range expansions (Canada)’ and
reforming inland fisheries management to enhance ‘Resulting benefits of put-and-take fisheries formed by
adaptive capacity to climate change. In the discussion water infrastructure (Australia)’, anglers altered their
below, we describe these themes extracted under the efforts to focus on non-threatened populations of
following titles (see Table 1): (a) individual actions, fishes, thus decreasing pressure on species at risk
(b) community efforts, (c) cross-scale collaborations, under current or future climate change scenarios. The
(d) adaptive and ecosystem-based decision-making decision made by anglers to shift angling efforts away
strategies, and finally, (e) evidence-based decision- from at risk populations is not always a conscious pro-
making strategies. By defining and analyzing the cases ecological act, yet it benefits previously targeted, at
above using a framework of existing themes linked to risk native populations of fishes just the same.
recreational fisheries management successes, we hope Consultation with resource users may be beneficial
to provide insight for fisheries management to aid in to natural resource management, as users often have
the implementation of successful management strate- creative solutions to issues that potentially limit
gies. By embracing the lessons presented here, we can fishing opportunities, and monitoring their actions
reform inland fisheries management practices, making may capture potential bright spots.
them more adaptive and enabling management strate-
gies that better mitigate climate change and other Community efforts
anthropogenic stressors.
Community efforts can lead to inland fisheries success
Individual actions by raising the visibility of conservation concerns to
higher levels of management, thus accruing resources
Efforts by individuals can have long lasting, positive for conservation. Also, community engagement in
environmental impacts, and can greatly increase the conservation efforts can mobilize long-term volunteer
likelihood of success of management policies and labour that can inspire long-term commitment to
strategies for recreational inland fisheries facing conservation activities. These activities can help to
climate change-induced stressors (Bennett et al. sustain conservation efforts whilst climate change
2018; Chapmin III et al. 2015). In the bright spots continues to alter landscapes and ecosystems. Fur-
presented above, the actions of individuals often had a thermore, support by resource user communities can
direct impact on the ecosystem in which they fished. also improve the likelihood of successful implemen-
Individual anglers on the water positively impact tation of policies and management strategies.
outcomes by setting social norms through the promo- The resulting successes of the bright spot ‘Volun-
tion of best practices (e.g., in relation to catch-and- tary Longinoja Brook sea trout habitat restoration
release), and by educating and sanctioning others to (Finland)’ demonstrates that achievements can be
engage in conservation-minded behaviour out on the obtained through long-term voluntary-based commu-
water (Stensland et al. 2013). In the ‘Changes in angler nity work. The restoration of Longinoja Brook is a
behaviour in response to climate change (Western prime example of the power of the general public’s
123194 Rev Fish Biol Fisheries (2021) 31:181–200
interest in local ecosystems, and the potential of Canada)’, ‘Identifying climate shields for salmon
collective stewardship. Collectives of individuals can conservation in Northern Rocky Mountains (USA)’,
identify a concern, rally for support for a cause, and and ‘Temperature-based in-season closures in the
engage in conservation efforts (Granek et al. 2008). Miramichi River (Canada)’ co-management occurs
The Longinoja Brook project began out of the desire of amongst varying levels of government, stakeholders
local anglers and community members to once again and resource users, including anglers, Indigenous
enjoy a brook that supports sea trout. A small communities, and NGOs. In these cases, decision-
community of actors was able to get others involved, making followed engagement with stakeholders,
including the Natural Resources Institute Finland allowing for management decision-making to align
(LUKE 2018), expanding community involvement to with the desires and needs of all stakeholders.
include a government organization, which provided Continued, long-term engagement with stakehold-
additional support and resources. ers is prominent amongst many bright spots. The
Support from angling communities can also greatly bright spot ‘Voluntary Longinoja Brook sea trout
increase the likelihood of success following novel habitat restoration (Finland)’ still receives volunteer
policies or management strategies implemented in efforts from the community, and continued monitoring
response to climate change-induced declines in fish efforts from LUKE, allowing for continued success,
populations supporting fisheries. For example, the regardless of potentially changing threats to the
‘Harvest control of walleye using special walleye system. Bright spots ‘Temperature-based in-season
licensing in Alberta (Canada)’ bright spot demon- closures in the Miramichi River (Canada)’ and ‘Water
strates the importance of the accordance between the temperature and algal bloom-induced angling compe-
desires of fishery user communities and implemented tition cancellations in South Africa’ continuously rely
policies. As walleye anglers in Alberta value the on successful channels of communication between
ability to harvest, angler effort following implemented scientists, fishery managers, and resource users to
fishing regulations imposing no harvest was extremely successfully implement adaptive and appropriate
low, resulting in social and economic losses for the fishery closures. Furthermore, the bright spot ‘Harvest
fishery. When regulations were altered to allow for control of walleye using special walleye licensing in
sustainable and regulated levels of harvest, angler Alberta (Canada)’ relies on continuous communica-
effort increased suggesting that social and economic tion amongst anglers and management to ensure that
benefits of the walleye fishery also increased. Man- management strategies match the needs and wants of
agement may therefore look to recognize, foster and anglers, and the ecological needs of the targeted fishes
encourage conservation efforts from communities. under current and future climate change, allowing for
a sustainable fishery (defined here as a fishery that can
Cross-scale collaborations persist and mitigate the social-ecological stressors in
today and tomorrow’s world).
Inland recreational fisheries often cross human-made
boundaries such as political jurisdictions and are often Ecosystem-based management
comprised of numerous stakeholders with differing
agendas, making inland fisheries co-management Inland recreational fisheries are not found in isolation,
complex (Yandle 2003). Humans, however, are the as they rely on ecosystems in which they are estab-
primary determinants of management successes of lished. To achieve sustainable fisheries, ecosystems
inland fisheries (Arlinghaus 2006), and so incorporat- must also thrive, and so an ecosystem-based approach
ing the opinions and suggestions from all stakeholders to inland recreational fishery management may help
is needed. This incorporation includes stakeholders (Beard et al. 2011; Pajak 2011). Many of the bright
that are often neglected from fisheries management spots described herein include consideration for the
decision-making in the face of climate change, such as ecosystems in which fisheries are situated. For exam-
anglers or Indigenous communities (Ranger et al. ple, the central focus of the bright spot ‘Voluntary
2016). Longinoja Brook sea trout habitat restoration (Fin-
In the bright spots ‘The Lake Simcoe Watershed land)’ was to restore a brook ecosystem to allow for
Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (LSCCAS; the return of sea trout. In the bright spot ‘Eastern
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