An investigation of using biodiesel/marine diesel blends on the performance of a stationary diesel engine
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Biomass and Bioenergy 24 (2003) 141 – 149
An investigation of using biodiesel/marine diesel blends on the
performance of a stationary diesel engine
S. Kalligeros, F. Zannikos, S. Stournas, E. Lois∗ , G. Anastopoulos,
Ch. Teas, F. Sakellaropoulos
School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Iroon Polytechniou 9, Athens 157 80, Greece
Received 13 November 2001; received in revised form 19 June 2002; accepted 9 July 2002
Abstract
Vegetable oils are produced from numerous oil seed crops. While all vegetable oils have high-energy content, most
require some processing to assure safe use in internal combustion engines. Some of these oils already have been evaluated
as substitutes for diesel fuels. With the exception of rape seed oil which is the principal raw material for biodiesel fatty
acid methyl esters, sun7ower oil, corn oil and olive oil, which are abundant in Southern Europe, along with some wastes,
such as used frying oils, appear to be attractive candidates for biodiesel production. In this paper, fuel consumption and
exhaust emissions measurements from a single cylinder, stationary diesel engine are described. The engine was fueled with
pure marine diesel fuel and blends containing two types of biodiesel, at proportions up to 50%. The two types of biodiesel
appeared to have equal performance, and irrespective of the raw material used for their production, their addition to the
marine diesel fuel improved the particulate matter, unburned hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxide and carbon monoxide emissions.
? 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Biodiesel; Marine diesel; Emissions; Olive oil; Sun7ower oil; Alternative fuels
1. Introduction mineral diesel and can be used in conventional diesel
engines without signiEcant modiEcations. The substi-
The study of possible alternative liquid fuels de- tution of conventional diesel fuels with rapeseed oil
rived from biomass is not a new topic. Although, dur- methyl esters comprises already a commercial activ-
ing the last decade ethanol and biodiesel became the ity in many countries of Central Europe [3]. However
best-known liquid biofuels, numerous studies [1,2] the use of biodiesel has not expanded into Greece and
examine di?erent chemical structures as possible other Southern European countries, due to the lack of
biofuels and record their pros and cons. rapeseed cultivation. Some other types of vegetable
As for diesel fuel renewable substitutes, fatty acid oils, such as sun7ower oil, corn oil and olive oil, that
methyl esters (FAME) biodiesel, appear to be the are abundant in many Mediterranean areas, along with
most popular, since their properties are similar to some wastes, such as used frying oils, appear to be
attractive candidates for biodiesel production [4]. It
must be stressed that a warranty of a product of extra
∗ Corresponding author. Tel. +30-1-772-3190; fax: +30-1-
high quality through the application of adequate rel-
619-7750. evant speciEcations is of the greatest importance and
E-mail address: elois@orfeas.chemeng.ntua.gr (E. Lois). a key to scientiEcally proving its performance. The
0961-9534/03/$ - see front matter ? 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 6 1 - 9 5 3 4 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 9 2 - 2142 S. Kalligeros et al. / Biomass and Bioenergy 24 (2003) 141 – 149
European Union has set an objective of 5% of trans- Table 1
port fuels to be produced from renewable resources Stationary, Petter AV1-LAB engine
by 2005, of which a substantial portion is expected to Engine type: single cylinder, indirect injection
be biodiesel [5].
It is well known that biodiesel is non-toxic, Speed: 1500 rpm
contains no aromatics, has higher biodegradability
Compression ratio: 19=1
than fossil diesel, is less pollutant to water and soil and
does not contain sulfur [6,7]. It o?ers safer handling Total displacement: 553 cm3
in the neat form and shows reduced oral and dermal
toxicity, mutagenic and carcinogenic compounds. It Maximum output: 3:8 kW (5 hp)
is the most suitable fuel in environmentally sensitive
areas (national parks, lakes, rivers) or in conEned
areas where environmental conditions and worker
protection must meet high standards (underground surements under various loads up to 5 hp, the load
mines, quarries) [8–10]. being measured by shaft output. The volumetric fuel
In this paper, exhaust emission and fuel consump- consumption was checked as well. Two exhaust emis-
tion measurements from a single cylinder, station- sion analyzers were used: a Horiba instrument (type
ary, diesel engine are described. The engine was MEXA 574-GE, that gauges HC, CO and CO2 ex-
fuelled with fuel blends containing two di?erent haust emissions near dispersive infrared analyzer) and
types of biodiesel (sun7ower oil and olive oil), at a NO–NOX analyzer (42C NO–NO2 –NOX high level
proportions up to 50%. In general, the substitution analyzer, Thermo Environmental Instruments Inc.).
of mineral marine diesel with biodiesels produced The speciEcations of the emissions analyzers are cited
from sun7ower and olive oils, leads to a combination in Table 2. The above analyzers were supported by
of positive and negative outcomes; the four types of Exhaust Gases Transportation Heated Lines, (Signal
biodiesel tested performed in a similar way; they de- Instruments Co., model 530/540), and a PreElter
creased exhaust emission of particulate matter (PM), (Signal Instruments Co., PreElter Unit 333) that re-
resulted in a limited change of nitrogen oxide emis- strains the emitted particulates from entering the
sions and in slightly increasing the volumetric fuel Horiba and Thermo Environmental analyzers.
consumption. To measure PM emitted from the stationary diesel
The strong advantage of the use of FAME Petter engine, equipment recommended by the West-
(biodiesel) is the fact that independently on the raw ern Precipitation Division, Joy Manufacturing Com-
material used for their production, the addition of pany was used. According to this method, exhaust
biodiesel in the traditional marine diesel fuel [11], gases pass through a Eber glass Elter, while the
improves the emissions of PM [12] which comprise a 7ue gas volume is recorded by using a gas meter.
serious disadvantage of the diesel engine, especially PM weight results were obtained by subtracting the
in polluted areas like the Mediterranean Sea. weight of the clean Eber glass Elter from its weight
at the end of the experiment, after drying. The pro-
cedure followed is depicted in Fig. 1 [13]. The El-
2. Experimental procedure ters used were glass microEber by Whatman, Grade
934-AH.
For this study, a stationary diesel powered Petter Fuel was supplied to the Petter engine by an out-
engine, model AV1-LAB was employed. The engine side tank of about 3-l capacity, which could easily be
characteristics are cited in Table 1. The engine was drained for fuel changes; a glass burette of known vol-
fuelled with pure marine diesel and mixtures contain- ume was also attached in parallel to this tank and was
ing 10%, 20%, and 50% of two types of biodiesel. used for fuel consumption measurements. For every
The two types of biodiesel were methyl esters pro- fuel change, the fuel lines were cleaned, and the en-
duced from sun7ower oil and olive oil. The emission gine was left to run for at least 60 min to stabilize on
tests included HC, CO, NOX and PM emission mea- the new conditions.S. Kalligeros et al. / Biomass and Bioenergy 24 (2003) 141 – 149 143
Table 2
SpeciEcations of the exhaust emission analyzers
Thermo Environmental Instruments Inc. Horiba MEXA 574-GE
NOX analyzer
Emission NO (ppm) NOX (ppm) HC (ppm) CO (%) CO2 (%)
Vol. Vol.
Method Chemiluminencence Chemiluminencence NDIR NDIR NDIR
Operation 0 –5000 0 –5000 0 –10000 0 –10.00 0 –20.00
Range
Accuracy 0.050 0.050 2 0.01 0.02
Precision ±1% ±1% ±20 ±0:05 ±0:1
Fig. 1. The sampling procedure for measuring PM.
3. Test fuels proportions. The fuels tested were typical Greek ma-
rine diesel and mixtures containing 10%, 20%, 50%,
The marine diesel fuel was a representative fuel by volume sun7ower oil and olive oil biodiesel. The
used by the large 7eet of Greek vessel boats and sup- emission levels of the base fuel are cited in Table 4;
plied by the Hellenic Aspropyrgos ReEnery. Its speci- the mean values of four individual measurements
Ecations are presented in Table 3. The Italian company along with their standard deviations are included.
Florys Spa supplied the fatty methyl esters used in the The NOX emissions were reduced in all cases when
currently described tests and their properties were in the two biodiesel containing fuels were used, Fig. 2.
complete accordance with the Italian speciEcations for The reason for the decrease in NOX , was that the
biodiesel (CUNA speciEcations). The fuel properties cetane numbers of the biodiesels were higher than
of the two types of biodiesel are given in Table 3. that for the marine diesel fuel, and this is usually as-
sociated with lower NOX emissions [14]. Increasing
cetane number reduces the size of the premixed com-
4. Results and discussion bustion by reducing the ignition delay. This results in
lower NOX formation rates since the combustion pres-
The experiments in the stationary Petter engine sure rises more slowly, giving more time for cooling
included emission and consumption measurements, through heat transfer and dilution and leading to lower
under various loads. The engine was fuelled with ma- localized gas temperatures [15]. Research work has
rine diesel fuel, and two types of biodiesel in various broken the intercorrelations of aromatic content with144 S. Kalligeros et al. / Biomass and Bioenergy 24 (2003) 141 – 149
Table 3
Marine diesel fuel properties
Properties Value Test method
Marine diesel Sun7ower oil Olive oil
methyl ester methyl ester
Density at 15◦ C (kg l−1 ) 0.860 0.885 0.880 ASTM D 1298
Distillation curve (%v v−1 ) ASTM D 86
Recovered at 250◦ C 12
Recovered at 350◦ C 76
Recovered at 370◦ C 86
Sulfur (wt%) 0.22 0.0047 0.0010 ASTM D 4294
Copper strip corrosion 1A 1A 1A ASTM D 130
Flash point (◦ C) 73 110 ¿ 110 ASTM D 93
Kin. viscosity at 40◦ C (cSt) 3.8 4.391 4.700 ASTM D 445
Water (mg kg−1 ) 100 518 243 ASTM D 1744
Cetane index 46 ASTM D 4737
Cetane number 58 61 DIN 51773
Ash (wt%) 0.12 0.0007 0.0054 ASTM D 482
Conradson carbon residue (wt%) 0.2 0.98 0.22 ISO 10370
CFPP (◦ C) −6 −2 −6 IP 309
Cloud point (◦ C) −6 1.5 −2:0 ASTM D 2500
Pour point (◦ C) −3 −3 ASTM D 97
Suspended matter (mg kg−1 ) ¡ 24 DIN 51419
Oxidation stability (g m−3 ) ¡ 25 36 16 ASTM D 2274
Low heating value (kJ kg−1 ) 42191 38466 32781 ASTM D 2015
Table 4
Emissions measurements from the stationary Petter engine when marine diesel fuel was used (base fuel measurements)
Engine load (kW) 0.01 0.95 1.90 2.85 3.80
NOX emissions of marine diesel base fuel (ppm)
Mean Value 367 590 793 823 1014
Std. deviation 23 12 13 36 35
PM emissions of the marine diesel base fuel (mg m−3 )
Mean Value 29 33 60 125 138
Std. deviation 2.6 1.7 3.6 2.8 3.1
HC emissions of the marine diesel base fuel (ppm)
Mean Value 45 44 46 50 53
Std. deviation 14 16 13 15 18
CO emissions of the marine diesel base fuel (vol%)
Mean Value 0.93 1.03 1.55 1.45 2.00
Std. deviation 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
other fuel properties [16–21], proving that aromatic higher 7ame temperatures associated with aromatic
and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (HCs) are responsible compounds. By reducing aromatics the 7ame temper-
for high NOX emissions. This is probably due to the ature will drop, leading to a lower NOX productionS. Kalligeros et al. / Biomass and Bioenergy 24 (2003) 141 – 149 145 Fig. 2. Percentage change of the total nitrogen oxide emissions (ppm) due to the addition of sun7ower oil and olive oil biodiesel. rate. As a result, the addition of biodiesel which does associated with these e?ects could be at least partially not contain the above classes of compounds, reduces responsible for the decrease in NOX emissions. The the NOX emissions from the engines. The aromatics cetane number of olive oil being higher than for the have high carbon–hydrogen ratios and thus fuels with sun7ower oil, resulted in greater reduction of NOX lower aromatics will lead to a smaller amount of CO2 emissions, when olive oil biodiesel was used. and larger amount of H2 O being formed compared to The literature review [25–27] shows that PM emis- high aromatic fuels. Since H2 O has a lower tendency sions are generally reduced by the addition of biodiesel to dissociate at high temperatures (compared to CO2 ), in the traditional diesel fuel, due to the oxygen con- this will lead to low aromatic fuels having lower con- tained in the biodiesel molecules and the low levels centrations of O• radical (and O2 from radical–radical of sulfur content. Some studies however showed a big recombination) which will further reduce the kinetic increase in PM emissions in transient cycles [28]. In production of NO. Furthermore, if the Enal yield of this study, biodiesel addition reduced particulate emis- NOX is determined by the high-temperature equilib- sions in all cases, Fig. 4. At maximum load the re- rium between oxygen, nitrogen vs. NOX , the lower duction was low, whereas the most beneEcial reduc- high temperature O2 concentrations will lead to lower tions appeared for the 75% load. The reason for this equilibrium concentrations of NOX . However, the dif- behavior, is the di?erent amount of sulfur between ferent physical properties of biodiesel, cause an ad- the marine diesel (0:22 wt%) and the marine biodiesel vance in the injection timing of biodiesel-fueled en- blends (0:0047 wt% for sun7ower oil methyl ester and gines. Rotary injection pumps like that on the engine 0:0010 wt% for olive oil methyl ester). The literature used in this study can also cause the injection tim- veriEes that PM emissions generally increase or de- ing to change if the quantity of fuel delivered changes crease in relation to the sulfur concentration. Sulfur [22–24]. As depicted in Fig. 3 no greater quantity into the fuel, results in sulfates that are absorbed on of biodiesel was injected in these tests in order to soot particles and increase the PM emitted from diesel deliver the same engine torque. The timing advance engines. In addition, the increase of oxygen content in
146 S. Kalligeros et al. / Biomass and Bioenergy 24 (2003) 141 – 149 Fig. 3. Fuel consumption for conventional marine diesel fuel and fuel blends containing up to 50% sun7ower oil and olive oil biodiesel. Fig. 4. Percentage change of the particulate matter emissions (mg m−3 ) due to the addition of sun7ower oil and olive oil biodiesel.
S. Kalligeros et al. / Biomass and Bioenergy 24 (2003) 141 – 149 147 Fig. 5. Percentage change of the HC emissions (ppm) due to the addition of sun7ower oil and olive oil biodiesel. Fig. 6. Percentage change of the CO emissions (vol%) due to the addition of sun7ower oil and olive oil biodiesel.
148 S. Kalligeros et al. / Biomass and Bioenergy 24 (2003) 141 – 149
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