Compatibility of mid-level biodiesel blends in vehicles in Indonesia
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WORKING PAPER 2018-08
Compatibility of mid-level biodiesel
blends in vehicles in Indonesia
Authors: Stephanie Searle & Kristine Bitnere
Date: April 16, 2018
Keywords: biofuel, emissions, fatty acid methyl esther (FAME), policy, corrosion, sulfur
Executive summary these effects appear to differ with fuel components. The negative impacts
sulfur content; palm biodiesel tends to of corrosion are partially offset by
Indonesia strongly promotes palm
increase emissions when blended in improved lubricity with biodiesel
biodiesel consumption with a current
low-sulfur diesel (50 ppm). High-sulfur diesel degrades some types of elastomers
met, these targets would require the
use is widespread today in Indonesia. and leads to greater deposit forma-
use of high biodiesel blends, raising
Fuel sulfur content could be an indica- tion and plugging of some vehicle
concerns about compatibility with
tor of other fuel quality properties that components compared to fossil diesel.
Indonesia’s current vehicle fleet. In
could influence the effect of biodiesel Overall, studies on whole fuel/engine
this study, we review evidence on the
blends on emissions. Indonesia is and vehicle systems find that more
impact of biodiesel on emissions of
making a commendable step in moving frequent replacement of various
harmful pollutants from vehicles and
toward cleaner fuels and vehicles with components such as fuel filters, fuel
on vehicle material compatibility.
its expected adoption of Euro 4/IV injector nozzles, and seals, as well as
Previous reviews have reported that standards starting in 2021, which will potentially more costly components
soy and rapeseed biodiesel increase deliver substantial air quality benefits. central to diesel engines, is required
n i t ro g e n ox i d e ( N O X ) e m i ss i o n s However, our findings suggest that bio- when operating vehicles on bio-
compared to fossil diesel, but that diesel consumption will detract from diesel blends. Based on the available
palm biodiesel reduces NO X emis- the air quality benefits of using cleaner evidence, it thus appears likely that
sions due to its high level of saturated diesel fuel. We also find that, when meeting Indonesia’s goals to blend
compounds. These reviews also report including recent evidence from studies 20%–30% palm biodiesel in its diesel
that all types of biodiesel reduce using low-sulfur diesel, rapeseed bio- supply will result in increased vehicle
particulate matter (PM), carbon diesel worsens CO and PM emissions maintenance costs.
monoxide (CO), and unburned hydro- compared to fossil diesel, and soybean
carbon (HC) emissions compared to biodiesel does not provide any benefit
diesel. On the contrary, we find that,
Introduction
with regard to these pollutants.
on average, palm biodiesel increases The government of Indonesia has
NOX and PM emissions compared to Biodiesel also affects materials used required the blending of biodiesel in
fossil diesel when conducting a meta- in vehicle components differently diesel fuel since issuing its first set
analysis that includes evidence from than fossil diesel. Compared to diesel, of blending targets in 2008 for the
a number of recent studies. There is biodiesel causes greater corrosion in 2008–2025 time frame in its Ministry of
substantial variation in results, and several types of metals used in vehicle Energy and Mineral Resources (MEMR)
Acknowledgments: This work was generously supported by the Packard Foundation and the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation. Thanks to
Anastasia Kharina, Francisco Posada, Tim Dallman, Ray Minjares, and Felipe Rodriguez for helpful input and reviews.
© INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION, 2018 WWW.THEICCT.ORGCOMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA
Regulation No. 32/2008. The targets B20 or B100, are available, but typi- examines the interaction of fuel quality
have been revised several times, and cally at a higher price. and vehicle operation with biodiesel
Indonesia currently requires 20% bio- effects on emissions to understand
diesel blending, increasing to 30% This study reviews the likely impacts what the likely impacts are of increas-
starting in 2020, per MEMR Regulation of Indonesia’s biofuel policy on vehicle ing biodiesel blending in Indonesia
No.12/2015. Historically, these targets consumers. Whereas previous studies and how those effects may change in
have been missed by half or more, have reviewed the impacts of biodiesel the future.
and the actual biodiesel blend level in on vehicle emissions and the durability
2016 was around 11% (U.S. Department of components (Hoekman & Robbins,
of Agriculture Foreign Agricultural 2012; U.S. Environmental Protection Effect of biodiesel on
Service, 2017). In October 2017, the Agency [EPA] et al., 2002; Lapuerta, conventional pollutant
Indonesian government indicated the Armas, & Rodriguez-Fernandez, 2008; emissions from vehicles
move to 30% blending in 2020 may be Haseeb, Fazal, Jahirul, & Masjuki, 2011;
Singh, Korstad, & Sharma, 2012), most Biodiesel has several properties that
delayed (Rachman, 2017).
empirical evidence included in these influence its effect on vehicle emis-
The high biodiesel blending levels reviews is from vehicles and fuels in sions. In particular, it has a higher
targeted by t h e g ove rnme nt o f Europe and the United States, and oxygen content, cetane number,
Indonesia may raise concerns of none of these reviews have addressed density, and viscosity, and lower
compatibility in vehicles. Although vehicle impacts specifically in the sulfur than diesel (Sivaramakrishnan &
biodiesel has some positive charac- Indonesian context. Indonesia’s case Ravikumar, 2012). Review studies gen-
teristics for use in diesel vehicles, it is different from biodiesel impacts erally agree that biodiesel usage leads
reduces fuel economy, can degrade studied in Europe and the United to a decrease in emissions of CO, PM,
some vehicle components and materi- States for several reasons: and HC, and a modest increase in NOX
als, and may affect vehicle emissions. emissions (Hoekman & Robbins, 2012;
Vehicle manufacturers recommend • The vast majority of biodiesel con- EPA, 2002; Lapuerta et al., 2008).
the use of biodiesel blends only up sumed in Indonesia is produced
to 5% in the United States and 7% in from palm oil, rather than soy oil
EFFECT OF BIODIESEL ON NOX
Europe and Malaysia in regular diesel or rapeseed oils, which are the
EMISSIONS
vehicles, and use of higher biodiesel dominant biodiesel feedstocks in
blends may void customer warran- many other countries; Wh e re a s m o st st u d i e s m e a s u re
ties (National Biodiesel Board, 2005; increases in NOX in biodiesel blends
• Indonesia has a warm climate,
Toyota, n.d.; “Car warranty,” 2017). In compared to diesel, some studies
which has different effects on the
addition, the Worldwide Fuel Charter re p o r t t h e o p p o s i te . O ve ra l l , a
viscosity of biodiesel compared to
only allows up to 5% biodiesel blending review by EPA (2002) found that
countries in cooler climates;
in fossil diesel (European Automobile a blend of 20% biodiesel in diesel
Manufacturers’ Association [ACEA] • Indonesian vehicles tend to have (B20) increases NO X emissions by
et al., 2013). The Indonesian Trucking older technology than in Europe 2%. This finding was supported by
Association Drs Gemilang Tarigan has and the United States; and a later meta-analysis by Hoekman
stated that warranties extend to B20 • Indonesia has lower fuel quality, and Robbins (2012). The measured
for all trucks included in the association in particular higher sulfur content, impacts of palm biodiesel on NO X
(“Greater push,” 2017). However, the than fuel in Europe and the United have been mixed. Some studies have
Association of Indonesian Automotive States. reported that palm biodiesel in par-
Manufacturers (Gaikindo) has stated ticular results in a decrease in NO X,
that not all vehicles can accept B15 Here, we review the effects of bio- postulating that the high saturation
or higher biodiesel blends, and PT diesel—specifically, fatty acid methyl level and cetane number of palm bio-
Pertamina, the largest fuel distributor esther—on vehicle component dura- diesel may contribute to this ben-
in Indonesia, reports receiving com- bility and conventional pollutant eficial effect (Wirawan et al., 2008;
plaints from automotive producers emissions. We do not address other Ng et al., 2011; Kinoshita, Hamasaki,
that engines are limited to biodiesel renewable diesel substitutes such as & Jaqin, 2003). On the other hand,
blends as low as 12.5% (Cahyafitri & hydrotreated vegetable oil (HVO). others have reported that palm bio-
Yulisman, 2015). Vehicles specially This study focuses on palm biodiesel diesel increases NO X compared to
designed for higher blends, such as where information is available, and fossil diesel (Acevedo & Mantilla,
2 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION WORKING PAPER 2018-08COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA
2011; Vedaraman, Puhan, Nagarajan, & 140%
Velappan, 2011; Fattah, Masjuki, Kalam,
120%
Change in NOX compared to diesel
Mofijur, & Abedin, 2014; Karavalakis,
Bakeas, Fontaras, & Stournas, 2011). 100%
In particular, Acevedo and Mantilla
(2011) measured 30%–130% higher 80%
NOX compared to fossil diesel when 60%
combusting 100% palm biodiesel in a
heavy-duty diesel engine. We identi- 40%
fied and reviewed eight studies that
20%
specifically tested exhaust emis-
sions using palm biodiesel in light- 0%
duty vehicles or engines and one
study that tested palm biodiesel in a -20%
heavy-duty engine (references listed
-40%
in Appendix). We compared emis- 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
sions of NO X and other pollutants
Biodiesel blend
from combusting biodiesel blends to
those of pure diesel in each study, Figure 1. Effect of palm biodiesel on NOX emissions at varying blend levels compared to
fossil diesel in light-duty vehicles and engines.
and listed all combinations of blend
level, engine or vehicle, and test cycle
60%
as separate observations. The differ-
Change in NOX compared to diesel
ence in NOX between biodiesel blends 40%
and fossil diesel is shown in Figure
1. Positive values indicate the bio- 20%
diesel blend resulted in higher NO X
0%
than fossil diesel, whereas negative
values indicate biodiesel reduced NOX
-20%
compared to diesel. We perform a
linear regression with the change in Rapeseed
-40%
NO X emissions using the biodiesel Soy
blend compared to diesel and the -60% Linear (Rapeseed)
biodiesel blend level. For all similar Linear (Soy)
regressions presented in this study, -80%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
we fix the intercept at 0 and consider
significant relationships to be indi- Biodiesel blend level
cated when pCOMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA
of soy and rapeseed biodiesel on to overall higher NO X formation have been shown to exhibit higher
exhaust emissions, we do not consider compared to the more drawn adiabatic flame temperature than
our review to be exhaustive for these out combustion and softer tem- saturated compounds, but there
feedstocks. There is some evidence perature peaks that would be is little evidence showing that this
concerning emissions for biodiesel expected with delayed injection. is a significant effect in NOX emis-
produced from other feedstocks, such Supporting this theory, Monyem sions with biodiesel.
as used cooking oil and animal fats, but and Van Gerpen (2001, as cited • “Prompt NOX” formation. “Prompt
there are not sufficient data to justify in Lapuerta et al., 2008) found a NOX” is caused by the reaction of
a meta-analysis for these feedstocks. correlation between the start of HC fragments with nitrogen (N2),
injection and NOX emissions, inde- typically under fuel-rich condi-
pendent of the fuel used. In fact, tions. There is theoretical reason
POTENTIAL MECHANISMS OF
delayed injection has been used as to expect unsaturated compounds
NOX EFFECTS
a strategy for reducing NOX emis- to produce more HC radicals, and
It is not well understood why biodiesel sions in diesel vehicles (Minami, thus for biodiesel—especially that
blending affects NOX. The increase in Takeuchi, & Shimazaki, 1995; which has been produced from
NO X with biodiesel content that is Tanabe, Kohketsu, & Nakayama, feedstocks with a high proportion
observed in most studies is likely due 2005). However, Lapuerta et al. of unsaturated fats, such as soy
to a combination of effects that are (2008) report that other experi- oil—to produce more NO X from
reviewed in Lapuerta et al. (2008) ments maintaining constant injec- HC radicals. However, there is little
and Hoekman and Robbins (2012): tion timing still find higher NOx for experimental evidence to support
biodiesel, suggesting that injec- this theory. Moreover, as discussed
• Advanced fuel injection. tion timing cannot be the only
Biodiesel has lower compress- in more detail below, total HC emis-
mechanism for higher NOX. sions for biodiesel are less than
ibility and higher speed of sound
than diesel. As a result of these • Reduced radiative heat loss those of fossil diesel fuel.
factors, in mechanically operated through lower soot formation. As • Higher oxygen availability during
fuel injection systems (the most further described below, biodiesel combustion. Biodiesel contains
popular among pre-Euro 4/IV produces less particulate matter, more oxygen than diesel fuel,
systems) pressure increases more or soot, than fossil diesel. Soot which may increase the reaction
quickly with biodiesel, forcing formation absorbs heat and thus of oxygen with N2 to produce NOX.
the delivery valve to respond to some extent reduces cylinder There is some evidence, reviewed
more quickly and ejecting the temperature during and after com- in Lapuerta et al. (2008), that
fuel into the cylinder earlier than bustion. As reviewed in Hoekman enriching intake air with oxygen
with regular diesel. Because of a and Robbins (2012), there is some increases NOX. However, this rela-
slightly earlier injection, biodiesel experimental evidence to support tionship is weaker, or nonexistent,
has a longer residence time in this theory. However, Schonborn for increased oxygen contained
the cylinder before compression (2008, 2009, as cited in Hoekman within fuel molecules compared
begins and the fuel ignites. This and Robbins, 2012) found simul- to enriched oxygen content of air.
additional residence time allows taneous increases in both PM
and NO X with the combustion Understanding these mechanisms may
the fuel and air to mix more thor- help elucidate why there is so much
oughly, leading to more intense of some biodiesel species, sug-
variability in NOX emissions from palm
combustion, and thus heat release, gesting that reduced soot forma-
biodiesel. Although the available data
once ignition begins. This period tion cannot be the sole mecha-
indicate that palm biodiesel increases
of intense heat release leads to nism of increased NOX emissions.
NOX emissions overall, compared to
higher peak temperatures in the Furthermore, across the studies
fossil diesel, some studies report a
cylinder, although the duration of analyzed here, we do not observe
NOX reduction with palm biodiesel.
heat release and high tempera- any relationship between PM and
tures is likely shorter compared NOX. A negative correlation would • Higher cetane number (CN) off-
to later injection. NOX formation be expected if reduced PM were setting advanced injection. The
increases exponentially with tem- a strong driver of increasing NOX. high CN of palm biodiesel may
perature, and thus a short period • Higher adiabatic flame temper- partially or completely mitigate
of very high temperatures leads ature. Unsaturated compounds advanced fuel injection. CN is
4 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION WORKING PAPER 2018-08COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA
defined as the inverse of the time NOX formation, are thought to be saturated than soy and rapeseed oils;
delay between the start of fuel a result of the high level of unsat- however, we find a greater increase
injection and the start of com- urated fatty acids in some feed- in NO X emissions with palm bio-
bustion; higher CN thus indicates stocks (e.g., soy). These effects diesel compared to diesel than with
a shorter delay from injection to potentially could be mitigated or soy biodiesel or rapeseed biodiesel
combustion (ignition delay). It erased with the relatively high compared to diesel, so other factors
should be understood, however, saturation level of palm oil when must be determining the relationship
that CN is not necessarily com- used as a feedstock for biodiesel. between feedstock and NOX effect.
pletely correlated with actual
ignition delay. CN is determined Regardless of the specific mecha- Other factors such as the quality of
by the chemical composition of nism involved, saturation level of bio- the base diesel fuel may affect the
fuel, and the actual ignition delay diesel feedstocks appears to be tied relationship between biodiesel and
may vary for any given CN fuel if to NO X. Several studies find higher NO X. In its 2002 review, EPA found
injection timing is changed. For NOX with lower saturation level and greater NOX increases when biodiesel
example, rapeseed, which is also shorter fatty acid chain length when was blended into “clean” diesel fuels
known as canola, or soy biodiesel testing multiple biodiesel feedstocks with lower aromatics, higher cetane
with a CN similar to diesel, per (Graboski, McCormick, Alleman, & number, lower density, and lower dis-
Sivaramakrishnan and Ravikumar Herring, 2003; McCormick, Graboski, tillation temperatures compared to
(2012), would be expected to Alleman, & Herring, 2001; Lapuerta “average” fuels. In our analysis, we
result in a longer ignition delay et al., 2008; Pala-En, Sattler, Dennis, find a particularly strong influence of
than fossil diesel because of Chen, & Muncrief, 2013). Saturation the base fuel sulfur content on the
advanced injection. Palm bio- level may be directly related to some biodiesel NOX effect: biodiesel results
diesel has a higher CN than fossil potential mechanisms of NOX effects in the greatest increase in NOX when
diesel, and so ignition would be previously discussed, such as adia- blended in low-sulfur fuels (500 ppm S)
injection, resulting in a shorter iodine number and NO X (Hoekman (Figure 3). This figure shows data only
residence time, and thus lower & Robbins, 2012). Palm oil is more from studies on heavy-duty vehicles or
temperature peaks and NOX for-
140%
mation, compared to biodiesel
Very high sulfur Linear (Very high sulfur)
produced from other feedstocks. 120%
Change in NOX in biodiesel vs. diesel
For fossil diesel fuel, higher CN High sulfur Linear (High sulfur)
has been linked with lower NO X 100%
Low sulfur Linear (Low sulfur)
formation (Lapuerta et al., 2008). 80%
Independent of other factors,
higher CN for diesel fuel should 60%
have an effect similar to delayed
40%
injection in reducing precom-
bustion residence time and thus 20%
fuel-air mixing, producing more
spread out heat release, softer 0%
temperature gradients, and lower
-20%
NOX formation.
-40%
• High saturation level. Some
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
other theoretical mechanisms for
Biodiesel blend level
increased NOX formation with bio-
diesel, including higher adiabatic Figure 3. Effect of base fuel sulfur content on the biodiesel NOX effect in heavy-duty
flame temperature and prompt vehicles and engines.
WORKING PAPER 2018-08 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION 5COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA
engines, in contrast to the data shown 1.4
High sulfur Low sulfur Linear (Low sulfur)
Change in NOX compared to diesel
in Figure 1 and Figure 2, which was for 1.2
light-duty vehicles and engines only,
because almost all studies included 1
in our light-duty dataset blended 0.8
biodiesel in very low-sulfur diesel.
0.6
We similarly find that with palm bio-
diesel specifically, biodiesel is asso- 0.4
ciated with greater NO X emissions 0.2
when compared to low-sulfur diesel,
but there is no relationship between 0
biodiesel blend level and NOX emis- -0.2
sions when compared to high-sulfur
-0.4
diesel (Figure 4). Although studies
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
using lower sulfur diesel also tend to
Biodiesel blend
use emission control technologies—
selective catalytic reduction (SCR), Figure 4. Effect of base fuel sulfur content on the biodiesel NOx effect in light- and
heavy-duty vehicles and engines with palm biodiesel.
for example—compared to studies
using higher-sulfur diesel, this did not
40%
appear to be a factor in our dataset;
Change in NOX compared to diesel
in five studies that specifically tested 35%
the effect of emission control devices
on the biodiesel NOX effect, there was 30%
no significant or consistent change in 25%
the biodiesel NOX relationship (Sharp,
1996; Sharp, Howell, & Jobe, 2000; 20%
Czerwinski, 2013; Mizushima & Takada,
15%
2014; Peterson, Taberski, Thompson,
& Chase, 2000). Diesel sulfur content 10%
could be correlated with the other
factors EPA used to identify “clean” 5%
B20 B100 Linear (B20) Linear (B100)
fuel, listed above, and could be indica- 0%
tive of other fuel quality characteristics 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
that affect NOX and other pollutants. In RPM
any case, it is not mechanistically clear
Figure 5. Effect of engine speed on the biodiesel NOx effect in Fattah et al. (2014).
why base fuel sulfur content should
affect the relationship between bio- versus diesel depends on engine (Figure 6). Kinoshita et al. (2003)
diesel and NOX. speed. Fattah et al. (2014) tested tested both palm and rapeseed bio-
20% and 100% palm biodiesel and diesel and found that palm biodiesel
There may be reason to believe that
measured increased NO X emissions had lower NOX than gas oil, which is
vehicle operation can change the
compared to diesel with both blend similar to diesel. Rapeseed biodiesel
biodiesel NO X effect, although few
studies have specifically investigated levels. The difference in NO X emis- had lower or higher NO X compared
the effect of vehicle load or test sions between biodiesel and diesel to gas oil depending on the type
cycle on the biodiesel NOX effect. In increased with engine speeds ranging of engine tested. In Kinoshita et al.
general, NOX increases with both load from 1000 to 4000 rpm (Figure 5). (2003), the NOX benefit of palm bio-
and engine speed. Here, we discuss Like other studies, Fattah et al. (2014) diesel declined with increasing load;
whether these relationships change measured a decrease in CO and HC palm biodiesel performed worse in
with biodiesel blends compared to with biodiesel compared to diesel. terms of NOX emissions at high loads
fossil diesel. Both Fattah et al. (2014) Acevedo and Mantilla (2011) also compared to low loads. However,
and Acevedo and Mantilla (2011) found measured the greatest biodiesel NOX Vedaraman et al. (2011) also tested
that the change in NOX with biodiesel effect at the highest engine speed palm biodiesel at varying loads and
6 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION WORKING PAPER 2018-08COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA
did not measure a change in the NOX 140%
effect with load. Similarly, load did not
have a clear effect on the biodiesel 120%
Change in NOX compared to diesel
NO X effect in Acevedo and Mantilla
(2011). Thus, although the biodiesel
100%
NO X effect appears to worsen with
increasing engine speed, it does not
80%
appear to depend on load.
These findings may be relevant for 60%
two reasons. NOX emissions in general
increase with both load and engine 40% 10% load
speed, and this problem could be exac-
25% load
erbated if biodiesel NO X emissions
20% 50% load
worsen in particular at high engine
speed. Secondly, real-world drivers 75% load
tend to experience higher engine 0%
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
speeds overall than in commonly used
test cycles such as the New European RPM
Driving Cycle (NEDC). Karavalakis, Figure 6. Effect of engine speed on the biodiesel NOx effect in Acevedo and Mantilla (2011).
A l va n o u , S to u r n a s , a n d B a ke a s
(2009) measured the effect of bio- 150%
diesel produced from a blend of palm
and coconut oils on NO X emissions
Change in HC compared to diesel
100%
under two different driving cycles: the
NEDC and the Athens Driving Cycle,
which much more closely approxi- 50%
mates real-world driving conditions
(Tzirakis, Pitsas, Zannikos, & Stournas,
2006). In most cases in Karavalakis et 0%
al. (2009), NOX emissions were higher
with biodiesel blends compared to -50%
diesel, and this effect was greater
when using the Athens Driving Cycle
compared to the NEDC. This result -100%
suggests that biodiesel NO X effects Palm Rapeseed Soy
could be worse under real-world Linear (Palm) Linear (Rapeseed) Linear (Soy)
-150%
driving conditions compared to labo-
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
ratory tests, but there is not enough
Biodiesel blend
evidence available on the effect of
driving cycle to draw conclusions. Figure 7. Effect of palm, soy, and rapeseed biodiesel on HC emissions at varying blend
levels compared to diesel in light-duty and heavy-duty vehicles and engines.
PM, CO, AND HC including data from both light- and likely explanation for the reduction
Biodiesel also has been known to heavy-duty vehicles, we find a more in HC emissions with biodiesel is that
affect other types of pollutant emis- modest but still statistically significant the higher oxygen content of bio-
sions (EPA, 2002; Lapuerta et al., reduction in HC of around 20%–40% diesel compared to diesel enables
2008; Hoekman & Robbins, 2012). for biodiesel produced from palm, more complete combustion of the fuel
In its review, EPA (2002) found soy, and rapeseed oils when outliers (Lapuerta et al., 2008).
that 100% biodiesel (B100) reduces are excluded (Figure 7), although as
HC emissions by around 60%–70% for NO X emissions, there is consid- We also find that CO decreases with
compared to diesel. In our analysis, erable variability among studies. A palm biodiesel compared to diesel
WORKING PAPER 2018-08 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION 7COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA
(Figure 8). However, contrary to 250%
Palm Rapeseed Soy
previous findings, we find no statisti-
Linear (Palm) Linear (Rapeseed)
cally significant response of CO to 200%
Change in CO compared to diesel
soy biodiesel blends and detect a sig-
150%
nificant increase in CO with rapeseed
biodiesel compared to diesel. In its 100%
2002 review, EPA found that biodiesel
reduces CO emissions by around 50%
40%–50% compared to diesel. The
dataset used in that study included 0%
results mainly from soy and rapeseed
biodiesel. We note that almost all of -50%
the observations finding an increase
-100%
i n CO e m i ss i o n s w i t h b i o d i e s e l
compared to diesel in our dataset
-150%
are included in papers published 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
after EPA’s review. Our analysis thus Biodiesel blend
suggests that, taking recent data into
account, it is not clear that soy and Figure 8. Effect of palm, soy, and rapeseed biodiesel on CO emissions at varying blend
rapeseed biodiesel decrease CO, and levels compared to diesel in light-duty and heavy-duty vehicles and engines
in some cases may actually increase
1400%
CO. Palm biodiesel, on the other hand, Palm Rapeseed Soy
almost uniformly results in lower CO Linear (Palm) Linear (Rapeseed)
1200%
compared to diesel, although this
Change in PM compared to diesel
overall effect is rather modest, on the
1000%
order of a 20%–30% reduction.
PM has also been reported to decrease 800%
with biodiesel blends in previous
reviews. In a meta-analysis of results 600%
from several studies using mostly
soy and rapeseed biodiesel, EPA 400%
(2002) had also reported a 40%–50%
decrease in PM emissions with bio- 200%
diesel compared to diesel. Biodiesel
has been thought to reduce PM in 0%
part due to its low sulfur content
and also because its higher oxygen -200%
content enables more complete com- 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
bustion of the fuel (Lapuerta et al., Biodiesel blend
2008). However, we find a statistically Figure 9. Effect of palm, soy, and rapeseed biodiesel on PM emissions at varying blend
significant increase in PM emissions levels compared to diesel in light-duty and heavy-duty vehicles and engines.
with palm biodiesel and, to a lesser
extent, rapeseed biodiesel. We find no Lapuerta et al. 2008 review, which and with around a 500% increase with
relationship between biodiesel blend supported EPA’s conclusion that bio- palm biodiesel. These results for palm
and PM with soy biodiesel (Figure 9). diesel reduces PM. Although there is biodiesel are heavily influenced by the
Again, almost all of the positive very high variability in results on PM data presented in Acevedo and Mantilla
responses we saw of PM to biodiesel emissions, the increase in PM with (2011), who report far higher PM emis-
were reported in studies more recent rapeseed and palm biodiesel appears sions with palm biodiesel compared
than EPA’s 2002 review. Most of these to be rather high, with B100 associ- to diesel. The authors believe that this
results are also more recent than the ated with around a 50% increase in PM is because of incomplete combustion
8 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION WORKING PAPER 2018-08COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA
with palm biodiesel, and speculate 1500%
high sulfur low sulfur
that other studies may have found
Linear (high sulfur) Linear (low sulfur)
PM reductions with palm biodiesel 1300%
Change in PM compared to diesel
because they may have used filters
that only capture larger particles (>2.5 1100%
or 10 μm). Palm biodiesel has been
found to produce high amounts of 900%
particles in a diesel generator in the
range 0.056–0.31 μm, but produced 700%
lower PM than diesel if only particles
larger than 0.18 μm are considered 500%
(Lin, Lee, Wu, & Wang, 2006). If early
studies used filters that only captured 300%
larger particles, this could explain
why EPA (2002) and Lapuerta et al. 100%
(2008) found that biodiesel reduces
PM overall. -100%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
In fact, when we narrow our analysis
Biodiesel blend
for rapeseed and soy biodiesel to
include only studies published after Figure 10. Effect of biodiesel on PM emissions at varying blend levels when compared to
EPA’s 2002 review, we observe very high- or low-sulfur diesel in light- and heavy-duty vehicles and engines.
different trends from those reported
in EPA (2002). For both rapeseed 14
Change in PM compared to diesel
and soy biodiesel, we find no sig- high sulfur low sulfur
12
nificant change in HC with biodiesel Linear (high sulfur) Linear (low sulfur)
compared to diesel, and significant 10
positive responses of CO and PM, as
8
well as NOX, with biodiesel compared
to diesel. The increases in CO and PM 6
observed across these more recent
4
studies is non-negligible, with emis-
sions on the order of 50% greater for 2
B100 compared to diesel.
0
We hypothesize that the change in -2
results for soy and rapeseed biodiesel 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
from earlier studies to later studies Biodiesel blend
stems from improvements in fuel
Figure 11. Effect of palm biodiesel on PM emissions at varying blend levels when
quality and vehicle technology over compared to high- or low-sulfur diesel in light-duty vehicles and engines.
time. For example, biodiesel provides
a PM benefit compared to low-quality biodiesel blend and PM compared to We observe a similar effect when
diesel with high sulfur content, because diesel when biodiesel is compared to examining only results using palm
fuel sulfur content is strongly linked to high-sulfur fuels (>50ppm), and a sta- biodiesel. A PM reduction is observed
PM generation. Because biodiesel has tistically significant positive relation- when palm biodiesel is compared to
a very low sulfur content, biodiesel ship when biodiesel is compared to high-sulfur diesel, but a PM increase
would be expected to produce less low-sulfur fuels (COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA
that the diesel used in studies con- Furthermore, there is reason to expect moves toward more advanced vehicle
ducted in Malaysia and India had the effect of palm biodiesel on exhaust technology, the effect of palm bio-
sulfur content >50ppm, because at emissions to worsen in the future as diesel on NO X compared to fossil
the time the research was likely done, Indonesia moves toward cleaner fuel diesel may worsen.
the fuel standards in these countries and vehicles. Indonesia has estab-
specified a maximum of 350 or 500 lished a schedule to reduce fuel sulfur It is important to note that conven-
ppm sulfur in diesel (Platts, 2017; over time, with a goal to limit sulfur tional pollutant emissions in general
India: Fuels: Diesel and gasoline, n.d.). in diesel to 50 ppm starting in 2025. will substantially decline as Indonesia
(Indonesia: Fuels: Diesel and gasoline, moves to the Euro 4 standard and
n.d.) Our analysis finds that the effect lower sulfur fuel. It is very likely that
IMPLICATIONS OF EMISSION Indonesia will benefit from a reduction
of palm biodiesel and biodiesel more
TESTING RESULTS FOR in transportation pollution regardless
generally on NOX and PM emissions
INDONESIA
worsens considerably with lower sulfur of biodiesel. Increased use of palm
W h e n co n s i d e r i n g a l l ava i l a b l e fuel, and we would expect emissions of biodiesel, though, could potentially
evidence, palm biodiesel has mixed these pollutants to worsen with palm reduce those air quality gains.
effects on harmful pollutant emis- biodiesel blends compared to fossil
sions from vehicles, increasing NO X diesel as Indonesia moves toward
and PM but decreasing CO and HC cleaner fuel. The NO X increase with Compatibility of biodiesel
emissions compared to diesel. At biodiesel blends is likely to be more with vehicle components
present, palm biodiesel may offer pol- pronounced in vehicles with older In addition to affecting vehicle fuel
lution benefits in Indonesia specifi- technology compared to vehicles with consumption and exhaust emissions,
cally due to the high sulfur content of newer technology, because emission biodiesel can directly affect com-
diesel fuel in that country. However, control systems may help mitigate
ponents of the vehicle that come in
there are several reasons to believe higher NOX emissions with biodiesel;
contact with the fuel. These compo-
that the harmful effect of palm bio- this may thus remain a significant
nents include: the fuel tank, fuel feed
diesel on emissions may be under- problem for a number of years as
pump, fuel lines, fuel filter, fuel pump,
stated in the studies we analyzed and Indonesia’s fleet gradually turns over
fuel injector, piston, and exhaust
may worsen compared to fossil diesel to Euro 4/IV-compliant vehicles.
system. Many of these components are
as Indonesia moves toward cleaner
However, there is also reason to made of metal and elastomers. In this
fuels and vehicles.
believe that the relative emissions section, we review how biodiesel can
There is some reason to believe that performance of biodiesel compared affect vehicle components through
the emissions benefits conferred by to fossil diesel also may worsen as corrosion, changes in mechanical
palm biodiesel may be lower under Indonesia’s fleet transitions to more wear, elastomer degradation, and
real-world conditions compared to modern vehicle technology. Indonesia deposits. It is important to note that in
the studies reviewed here, which for is scheduled to move to Euro 4 stan- all the studies reviewed here, the bio-
the most part conducted measure- dards for both light-duty and heavy- diesel tested met commonly used fuel
ments in the laboratory. The biodiesel duty diesel vehicles starting in 2021. quality specifications, such as ASTM
NOX effect in particular appears to be (Indonesia: Light-Duty: Emissions, D6751 and EN 14214, and that impacts
worse when vehicles are operating at n.d.) Some studies find that higher on materials could be worse if poor-
high engine speeds or in test cycles saturation of biodiesel feedstocks is quality biodiesel is used.
that better represent the real world. associated with a reduction in NO X,
Not enough evidence is available at so the relatively high saturation level
FUEL PROPERTIES AND
present to draw conclusions on this of palm biodiesel may blunt its effect
STABILITY
hypothesis, but it raises an important on NOX emissions. McCormick et al.
question. If the biodiesel NO X effect (2001) found that the benefit of feed- Biodiesel differs from fossil diesel in
is indeed systematically worse in the stock saturation on NOX emissions was several ways that affect its impact on
real world compared to laboratory less significant when using common vehicle components: It is more able
tests, then consuming palm biodiesel rail fuel injectors—which would be to absorb water from the air; has
may exacerbate NO X emissions in necessary to comply with the Euro 4 higher viscosity, electrical conductiv-
Indonesia even when compared to vehicle emission standard—than with ity, polarity and solvency; has lower
high-sulfur diesel. older vehicle technology. As Indonesia stability; and is more sensitive to light,
10 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION WORKING PAPER 2018-08COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA
temperature, and metal ions compared metals in biodiesel. Stainless steel biodiesel, leading to copper ions in the
to fossil diesel (Haseeb, Fazal, et al., and carbon steel have been found fuel and an increase in the total acid
2011; Fazal, Haseeb, & Masjuki, 2011, to experience little to no corrosion in number, whereas these effects were
2014; Jakeria, Fasal, & Haseeb, 2014). biodiesel (Haseeb, Fazal, et al., 2011; not observed with fossil diesel. The
Fazal, Haseeb, & Masjuki, 2011, 2014; presence of metal also can accelerate
Biodiesel tends to degrade through Singh et al., 2012). Although many water contamination, as water con-
oxidation over a period of days to studies test the effects of 20% or denses on metal components and thus
months. When biodiesel is exposed 100% biodiesel, increased corrosion enters the fuel (Fazal et al., 2010).
to oxygen, oxygen attaches to bio- has been detected with as low a bio-
diesel molecules at sites adjacent to diesel concentration as 2%, compared The possibility of adding corro-
double bonds, leading to oxidation to diesel (Tsuchiya, Shiotani, Goto, sion inhibitors to biodiesel has been
products including peroxides, alde- Sugiyama, & Maeda, 2006). explored, although further research
hydes, alcohols, carboxylic acids, and is needed in this area (Haseeb, Fazal,
sediments (Jakeria et al., 2014). These Palm biodiesel has been found to lead et al., 2011; Fazal et al., 2011; Singh et
oxidation products can lead to corro- to corrosion in copper and aluminum al., 2012). It does not appear that any
sion and deposit formation. Because at roughly double the rate of fossil particular corrosion inhibitor has been
unsaturated vegetable oils have more diesel, while also increasing corrosion widely recommended for use.
double bonds compared to saturated in brass and cast iron, but not stainless
vegetable oils, biodiesel produced steel, compared to fossil diesel (Fazal
from feedstocks such as soy, rapeseed,
WEAR
et al., 2010, 2012).
and sunflower oils are thought to be Wear is the removal of metal from
less stable, whereas palm biodiesel is Biodiesel is thought to be more cor- surfaces due to mechanical rubbing.
thought to be relatively more stable rosive than fossil diesel because of Although wear is typically thought
because it is produced from a more several of its properties: It is more of as distinct from corrosion, which
saturated oil. However, in laboratory prone to absorb water, has higher is caused by chemical reactions, in
tests palm biodiesel has been found to polarity and solvency, and contains reality wear and corrosion often occur
degrade at a similar rate as biodiesel more impurities than fossil diesel. simultaneously. Wear typically is
produced from other feedstocks, and Water itself is corrosive, but it also can measured using laboratory tests that
a one-month storage time limit has allow the growth of micro-organisms, simulate mechanical rubbing (e.g., the
been suggested for palm biodiesel which can further contribute to corro- four-ball wear test) and by testing
(Jakeria et al., 2014). sion (Haseeb, Fazal, et al., 2011; Fazal metal concentrations in lube oil, which
et al., 2014; Jakeria et al., 2014). The is thought to indicate the degree of
higher solvency of biodiesel allows metal removal through wear.
CORROSION
it to dissolve paints and coatings on
Metals always have a tendency to pass vehicle components, which can bring Biodiesel tends to provide better
into solution, but this effect can be the metal underneath into direct lubricity than fossil diesel, which in
exacerbated by fuel type. Corrosion is contact with the fuel, accelerating cor- turn should reduce wear. The lubric-
typically tested by immersing materi- rosion (Fazal et al., 2011). Some of the ity benefit of biodiesel is thought
als in fuel for a period of time and impurities common in biodiesel also to occur because the fatty acids in
measuring weight change, the degree can react with metals, including unre- biodiesel form a soap film against
of tarnish, or by visual inspection. acted methanol, catalytic sodium or metal surfaces (Masjuki & Maleque,
Biodiesel is almost universally found potassium, and free glycerol (Haseeb, 1996). Several studies have found that
to be more corrosive than fossil diesel. Fazal, et al., 2011). Furthermore, the wear decreases with increasing bio-
A significantly greater degree of cor- presence of water can hydrolyze bio- diesel blend when using laboratory
rosion has been tested and found diesel, resulting in the presence of tests such as the four-ball wear test
in copper, copper alloys (brass and free fatty acids, which cause corrosion (Haseeb, Fazal, et al., 2011; Fazal et al.,
bronze), lead, tin, zinc, aluminum, and (Singh et al., 2012). 2011, 2014). Wear has been found to
cast iron when soaked in biodiesel be greater when biodiesel is oxidized
compared to fossil diesel. Copper and Corrosion also accelerates fuel deg- (Haseeb, Fazal, et al., 2011; Fazal et al.,
its alloys have generally been found radation, creating a positive feedback 2011). This finding highlights the inter-
to be the least resistant to corrosion; l o o p. Fo r exa m p l e, co p p e r h a s action that can occur between wear
cast iron is the most resistant of these been found to enhance oxidation of and corrosion, as oxidation can cause
WORKING PAPER 2018-08 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION 11COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA
corrosion, which accelerates metal loss; not appear to affect metal concentra- nitrile rubber and polychloroprene,
in addition, corrosion can increase oxi- tions in lube oil differently than bio- weight loss in polytetrafluoroethyl-
dation of biodiesel. Results for metal diesel produced from other feedstocks ene, and no change in ethylene pro-
concentrations in lube oil, which likely (Haseeb, Fazal, et al., 2011). pylene diene monomer and silicone
reflects to some extent the combined rubber. As with corrosion, oxidation
effects of wear and corrosion, are In a review, Fazal et al., (2011) found that of biodiesel appears to worsen elas-
mixed, with various studies finding studies reporting lubricity benefits of tomer degradation: Greater dimen-
lower or higher metal concentrations biodiesel are generally very short term, sional changes have been observed
in biodiesel and biodiesel blends such as one hour, but that lubricity with oxidized biodiesel compared
benefits appear to disappear in long- to biodiesel that meets specifica-
compared to fossil diesel. In agreement
term field trials, which are discussed tions (Terry, 2005). It has generally
with the results reviewed on corrosion,
below. One potential explanation is been concluded that nitrile, natural
concentrations of copper and copper
that biodiesel leads to more deposits rubber, chloroprene, neoprene, poly-
alloys in particular tend to be higher
than fossil diesel, which would reduce propylene, polyethylene, and some
in biodiesel compared to fossil diesel.
lubricity over time (Fazal et al., 2014). other materials are not compatible
In contrast, iron concentrations are
generally lower in biodiesel compared with biodiesel, although fluorinated
to fossil diesel (Haseeb, Fazal, et al., ELASTOMER DEGRADATION elastomers, Viton, and Teflon are not
2011). These results suggest that the significantly affected by biodiesel
Elastomers are polymers with viscos- (Haseeb, Fazal, et al., 2011; Singh
combined effects of wear and corro-
ity and elasticity that often are used et al., 2012; Mofijur et al., 2013). It
sion are complex, and that the lubric-
to manufacture seals and hoses found is thought that biodiesel leads to
ity benefits of biodiesel may offset to in vehicles. Common elastomers used
some extent the increased corrosion elastomer degradation because of
in vehicle components include nitrile its increased polarity and solvency
potential of biodiesel. rubber, natural rubber, neoprene, compared to fossil diesel (Fazal et
Viton®, silicone, and other materials. al., 2011).
The degree of saturation in biodiesel
Biodiesel can affect elastomers by dis-
has been negatively correlated with
solving them; some elastomers also Elastomer swelling has been shown to
lubricity (Geller & Goodrum, 2004),
swell as a result of absorbing liquid be slowed by the addition of peroxide
so in theory the lubricity benefits of
(Singh et al., 2012). The compatibility (van Duin et al., 2010). However,
palm biodiesel may be lower than for
of elastomers with biodiesel usually is peroxide contributes to corrosion of
rapeseed or soy biodiesel, although
tested by soaking these materials in metals, as previously discussed.
this effect has not been clearly demon-
biodiesel for a period of time and mea-
strated for palm biodiesel specifically.
suring weight change, tensile strength,
To the best of our knowledge, wear has DEPOSIT FORMATION
elongation, and hardness.
not been directly compared in palm Biodiesel has been found to result in
biodiesel versus biodiesel produced Studies have found various elas- higher rates of deposit formation on
from other feedstocks in the same tomers to decrease, increase, or vehicle components compared to fossil
study. Masjuki and Maleque (1996) maintain weight when exposed to diesel. Several studies have reported
measured reduced wear with 5% palm biodiesel. In addition, dimensional fuel filter plugging with biodiesel. In
biodiesel compared to fossil diesel changes and a reduction in tensile addition, trucking associations and
in a mechanical sliding test on cast strength have been observed in state transportation agencies in the
iron, but higher wear in 7%–10% palm some types of elastomers. One study United States have reported problems
biodiesel compared to fossil diesel. measured significantly lower tensile with fuel filter plugging when using
The authors hypothesized that higher strength, elongation, and hardness biodiesel or biodiesel blends (often
oxidation in the higher palm biodiesel for nitrile rubber and polychloro- 20%) in surveys. Other problems asso-
blends may have increased corrosion, prene when soaked in palm biodiesel ciated with deposit formation include
which in turn increased wear. Similarly, compared to fossil diesel, but did fuel injector plugging, piston ring
Terry (2005) measured significantly not find an effect of biodiesel on flu- sticking, and injector cocking (Fazal et
higher wear using B20 produced from oro-viton (Haseeb, Masjuki, Ann, & al., 2011; Mofijur et al., 2013). Potential
soy and rapeseed compared to fossil Fazal, 2010). In another study using mechanisms for increased deposit
diesel, but no effect comparing B5 palm biodiesel, Haseeb, Jun, Fazal, formation with biodiesel include the
to fossil diesel. Palm biodiesel does and Masjuki (2011) found swelling in higher viscosity of biodiesel (Knothe,
12 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION WORKING PAPER 2018-08COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA
2005) and dissolved elastomers in the ($0.05/mile) due to required replace- Biodiesel generally has better lubric-
fuel (Fazal et al., 2011). ment of components including fuel ity than fossil diesel, but the beneficial
injectors and cylinder heads in the effect this property has on wear in
biodiesel-run vehicles toward the end the short term appears to be offset
ENGINE DURABILITY AND
of the experiment. by the effects of increased corrosion
FIELD TESTS
and deposit formation in the longer
A number of studies have tested the Rig tests and road tests have been term. Studies on whole engine/fuel
effects of biodiesel on entire engine performed in Indonesia, presumably systems and vehicles have found
systems (rig tests) or vehicles (road all using palm biodiesel. Across these overall negative effects of B20 on
tests), sometimes over several years. studies, some material compatibil- vehicle components. It is not clear
The National Biodiesel Board com- ity issues were found. In a road test, that palm biodiesel will differentially
missioned two 1,000-hour laboratory fuel filter clogging occurred in an affect vehicles compared to biodiesel
studies on the effects of B20 on heavy- “older” vehicle fueled with B20 after produced from other feedstocks. Due
duty engines. In one 1995 study by 7,500 km. The only other problem to its relatively high level of satura-
Ortech Corporation, cited in Fazal et detected in this 40,000 km road tion, there are theoretical reasons to
al. (2011), the fuel lines, fuel filters, and test was swelling of a rubber ring expect palm biodiesel to affect cor-
fuel transfer pump had to be replaced on the fuel filter (Gaikindo, 2015). rosion and wear less than biodiesel
after 700 hours due to deposits. At the However, in a rig test, no deposits produced from other feedstocks,
end of the experiment, the researchers were detected on the sliding injector, when compared to fossil diesel.
found substantial deposits on many the sliding pump supply, or the However, measurements of corrosion
components, deteriorated seals, broken inside of the common rail (Ministry and wear with palm biodiesel have
rings, and severe degradation of the of Energy and Mineral Resources of generally produced similar results as
fuel injector. In the other study from the Republic of Indonesia [KESDM], for other types of biodiesel. Studies
1995 by Fosseen, again as cited in Fazal 2015). In another test, zinc from the using B20 in Indonesia specifically
et al. (2011), the test was terminated fuel tank eluted with use of B20, have observed several of the same
after 650 hours due to failure of the leading to injector deposits and problems reported from studies in
engine pump caused by a buildup of reduced jet volume (Komatsu, 2015). other regions. There are not sufficient
residue in the pump. The fuel filter also Komatsu noted zinc-coated fuels data available to draw firm conclusions
was plugged in this test. tanks may need to be replaced to be on the maximum blend of biodiesel
compatible with B20, and that there that can be tolerated by conventional
Long-term field trials have had varied are more than 30,000 such tanks in vehicle components. Negative effects
results. Chase et al. (2000) found no Indonesian vehicles. Komatsu (2015) of biodiesel on corrosion have been
significant changes except higher NOx also observed degradation of several observed with biodiesel blends as
and PM emissions when performing a elastomers with use of B20, including low as 2%. Some studies have found
322,000 km long-haul test using B50 nitrile rubber and chlorosulfonated greater damage with biodiesel blends
produced from used cooking oil in a polyethylene rubber. higher than 5% compared to B5.
heavy-duty truck. On the other hand,
in a long-term 4-year study, Fraer et Based on the available evidence, it thus
al. (2005) found a higher frequency of IMPLICATIONS OF MATERIAL appears likely that meeting Indonesia’s
fuel filter plugging and injector nozzle COMPATIBILITY RESULTS FOR goals to blend 20%–30% palm bio-
replacement in vans and tractors oper- INDONESIA diesel in its diesel supply will result
ating on B20 compared to fossil diesel. Biodiesel affects vehicle compo- in increased vehicle maintenance
In a 2-year study, Proc, Barnitt, Hayes, nents differently than fossil diesel costs, with more frequent replacement
Ratcliff, and McCormick (2006) expe- in several ways. Biodiesel leads to needed of various components such
rienced overall greater maintenance increased corrosion and deposit for- as fuel filters, fuel injector nozzles, and
costs with buses operating on B20 mation and degrades some types of seals, as well as potentially more costly
($0.07/mile) compared to fossil diesel elastomers compared to fossil diesel. components central to diesel engines.
WORKING PAPER 2018-08 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION 13COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA
Appendix
The studies used in this analysis are listed below, grouped by general vehicle classification.
STUDIES ON LIGHT-DUTY (PASSENGER) VEHICLES AND ENGINES
Study FAME feedstock Pollutants measured
Jansen et al. (2014) Rapeseed HC, CO, NOx, PM
Serrano et al. (2015) 84% soybean and 16% palm oil NOx
Bielaczyc et al. (2009) Rapeseed HC, CO, NOx, PM
Kinoshita et al. (2003) Palm oil and rapeseed HC, CO, NOx
Karavalakis et al. (2009) Palm oil and coconut oil blend HC, CO, NOx, PM
Karavalakis et al. (2011) Palm oil, soybean, rapeseed HC, CO, NOx, PM
Bakeas, Karavalakis, & Stournas
Oxidized used cooking oil HC, CO, NOx, PM
(2011)
Rapeseed, a blend of soybean and
Martini et al. (2007) HC, CO, NOx, PM
sunflower (50/50), palm oil
Rapeseed/ soybean (75/25),
rapeseed, rapeseed/ palm oil
Krahl et al. (2005) HC, CO, NOx, PM
(45/55), rapeseed, soybean, palm
oil (60/12.5/27.5)
Bakeas, Karavalakis, Fontaras, & Palm oil, soybean and oxidized
HC, CO, NOx, PM
Stournas (2011) UCO
Macor, Avella, & Faedo (2011) Rapeseed HC, CO, NOx, PM
Fontaras et al. (2009) Soybean HC, CO, NOx, PM
Tatur, Nanjundaswamy, Tomazic,
Soybean NOx
& Thornton (2008)
Prokopowicz, Zaciera, Sobczak,
Not indicated HC, CO, NOx, PM
Bielaczyc, & Woodburn (2015)
Soybean, canola, waste cooking oil
Pala-En et al., 2013 HC, CO, NOx, PM
and animal fat
Wirawan et al. (2008) Palm oil HC, CO, NOx, PM
Vedaraman et al. (2011) Palm oil HC, CO, NOx
Fattah et al. (2014) Palm oil HC, CO, NOx
Ng et al. (2011) Palm oil HC, CO, NOx
14 INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL ON CLEAN TRANSPORTATION WORKING PAPER 2018-08COMPATIBILITY OF MID-LEVEL BIODIESEL BLENDS IN VEHICLES IN INDONESIA
STUDIES ON HEAVY-DUTY VEHICLES AND ENGINES
Study FAME feedstock Pollutants measured
Nikanjam, Rutherford, Byrne,
Soybean HC, CO, NOx
Lyford-Pike, & Bartoli (2009)
Soybean, LFFAG (low free fatty acid grease), inedible
tallow, methyl linolenate, methyl oleate, ethly oleate,
methyl linoleate, methyl laurate, methyl soy (soyagold),
Graboski et al. (2003) oxidized methyl soy ester, ethyl linoleate HC, CO, NOx, PM
ethyl linseed, 2:1 methyl stearate: methyl linseed, 1:2
methyl stearate: methyl linseed, ethyl stearate, methyl
palmitate, ethyl soy ester
Olatunji et al. (2010) Animal fat and soybean oil HC, CO, NOx, PM
Czerwinski et al. (2013) Rapeseed HC, NOx, PM
Methyl-lard, methyl-soy, methyl-canola, methyl inedible-
tallow, methyl edible-tallow, methyl-low free fatty acid
grease, methyl-high free acid grease, methyl-laurate
(C12:0), methyl-palmitate (C16:0), methyl-stearate (C18:0),
McCormick et al. (2001) methyl-oleate (C18:1), methyl-linoleate C18:2), methyl- NOx, PM
linolenate (C18:3), methyl soy (soyagold), 1:2 M-terate:
M-linseed, methyl-hydrogenated soy, ethyl-stearate
(C18:0), ethyl-linoleate (C18:2), ethyl-linseed, ethyl-soy,
ethyl-hydrogenated soy
Methyl soyate (commercial biodiesel), methyl oleate,
Knothe, Sharp, & Ryan (2006) HC, CO, NOx, PM
methyl pamitate, methyl laurate (technical biodiesel)
Lopez, Jimenez, Aparicio, & Flores (2009) Not indicated HC, CO, NOx, PM
Wang, Lyons, Clark, Gautam, & Norton (2000) Soybean HC, CO, NOx, PM
Schumacher, Borgelt, Hires, Wetherell, & Nevils
Soybean oil HC, CO, NOx, PM
(1996)
Marshall, Schumacher, & Howell (1995) Transesterified soybean oil HC, CO, NOx, PM
Sharp et al. (2000) Soybean oil HC, CO, NOx, PM
Starr (1997) Soybean oil HC, CO, NOx, PM
Graboski, Ross, & McCormick (1996) Soybean oil HC, CO, NOx, PM
Hansen & Jensen (1997) Rapeseed oil HC, CO, NOx, PM
Clark, Atkinson, Thompson, & Nine (1999) Soybean oil HC, CO, NOx, PM
Manicom, Green, & Goetz (1993) Soybean oil HC, CO, NOx
Schumacher, Borgelt, & Hires (1995) Soybean oil HC, CO, NOx, PM
Sharp (1996) Rapeseed oil HC, CO, NOx, PM
Mizushima & Takada (2014) Used cooking oil NOx, PM
Colorado Institute for Fuels and High Altitude
Soybean oil HC, CO, NOx, PM
Engine Research (1994)
Ullman, Hare, & Baines (1983) Once refined soybean oil heated 145 °C HC, CO, NOx, PM
Rantanen et al. (1993) Rapeseed oil HC, CO, NOx, PM
Acevedo & Mantilla (2011) Palm oil HC, CO, NOx, PM
McCormick et al. (1997) Soybean oil HC, CO, NOx, PM
Sharp (1994) Not indicated HC, CO, NOx, PM
Peterson, Taberski, Thompson, & Chase (2000) Rapeseed oil HC, CO, NOx, PM
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