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Food & Nutrition Journal
Seralini GE, et al. Food Nutr J 6: 231.
Mini Review DOI: 10.29011/2575-7091.100131
Sulfur in Wines and Vineyards: Taste and Comparative Toxicity to Pesticides
Gilles-Eric Seralini1*, Jérôme Douzelet2, Jean-Charles Halley3
1
University of Caen, Network on Risks, Quality and Sustainable Development, Esplanade de la Paix, Caen Cedex, France
2
Spark-Vie, Le Mas de Rivet, Barjac, France
3
Les Mets Chai, Caen, France
*
Corresponding author: Gilles-Eric Seralini, University of Caen, Network on Risks, Quality and Sustainable Development, Espla-
nade de la Paix, 14032 Caen Cedex, France
Citation: Seralini GE, Douzelet J, Halley JC (2021) Sulfur in Wines and Vineyards: Taste and Comparative Toxicity to Pesticides.
Food Nutr J 6: 231. DOI: 10.29011/2575-7091.100131
Received Date: 05 March, 2021; Accepted Date: 15 March, 2021; Published Date: 18 March, 2021
Abstract
Vines are among the crop plants that are the most heavily treated with pesticides. They may also be treated mainly with
copper (Cu) and sulfur (S), which are commonly used in organic cultures instead of chemical pesticides but at lower doses.
However, in common with synthetic pesticides, Cu or S may also contain petroleum residues in formulations marketed mainly
for non-organic treatments. We have already reviewed the taste and toxicity of pesticides and Cu in vineyards and wines. As a
part of this trilogy, in this paper we summarize data on the taste and potential toxicity of sulfur in wines, as well as on its use and
role. We underline here that it is protective for life at physiological levels, is produced at low levels by yeasts and raisins, and is
toxic by saturation of the capacity of biological processes.
Sulfur is used in many forms, including mineral forms, and sulfur dioxide or sulfates in vineyards, and for instance sulfites,
such as salts like potassium metabisulfite, in wines. Used at high levels (up to 450 mg/L is authorized in some countries in wines),
sulfites become major fungicides and bactericides. They kill microorganisms, for instance those that do not have sulfite oxidase.
Sulfites and Cu salts are also authorized for use, differently and in general to a lesser extent in organic wines. Today, S is the
major additive in different forms in wines.
Here we characterize the taste of sulfite additives and the sensations that they evoke in volunteer tasters in comparison
to the literature, to complete the comparative data. In the experiments, we tested sulfite additives in water and wines at similar
levels. We also compared them with synthetic pesticides and Cu. Sulfites are irritants from 10-30 mg/L in water. Tasters were
able to detect sulfites in a wine spiked in a blinded manner to a level of 30-90 mg/L. This was found to clearly modify the taste of
wine. Sulfites at high levels break the complexity of nose and mouth sensations, according to specialists, especially for red wine.
They dry and acidify the tastes of wines. As for Cu, natural sulfites cannot be considered as comparable to the petroleum-derived
synthetic pesticides present in non-organic wines from any point of view. By contrast, high levels of sulfites do have grossly
acute effects comparable to those of synthetic pesticides, taste-wise and toxicity-wise; however, the classical chemical pesticides
have more chronic toxic effects. We were able to differentiate Cu and S toxicity levels in organic and non-organic treatments,
due to the combined effects of petroleum derivatives in formulations in the latter case. The environmental impact of high sulfur
treatments in non-organic vineyards and wines today appears to affect biodiversity, drinkability, taste, and health. Some tastes
of Cu, S, or chemical pesticides may have been previously attributed to other characteristics of wines. The chronic toxicity of
chemical pesticides is not negligible in comparison to that of alcohol, it could enhance its effect. Finally, taste could serve as a
toxicity detector in wine.
Keywords: Copper; Pesticides; Sulfates; Sulfites; Sulfur; Wine Introduction
Abbreviations: ADI: Acceptable Daily Intake; Bw: Body Sulfur is used in many interconvertible forms, including
weight; Cu: Copper: EU: European Union; S: Sulfur mineral forms, and sulfur dioxide as a gas or sulfates in vineyards,
and for instance sulfites, such as salts like potassium metabisulfite,
1 Volume 6; Issue 01
Food Nutr J, an open access journal
ISSN: 2575-7091Citation: Seralini GE, Douzelet J, Halley JC (2021) Sulfur in Wines and Vineyards: Taste and Comparative Toxicity to Pesticides. Food Nutr J 6: 231. DOI: 10.29011/2575-
7091.100131
in wines or other drinks, fermented or not, or foods, to try to control preparations [5]. These could be polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
microorganisms. The measurements and regulations may write and heavy metals, including lead or arsenic for glyphosate and
sulfur, SO2 or sulfur dioxide, or sulfite (SO32-) in an interchangeable non-glyphosate-based herbicides [5,6]. Similarly, S made from
way. They include the free and combined forms to other molecules, petroleum has also been found to contain petroleum residues [7].
combined also in a reversible way or by contrast into more stable This fact obviously modifies the toxicity and secondary effects of the
compounds. Sulfites have been used since antiquity as a natural mixture provided to agricultural workers for application on crops,
insecticide, a biocide against parasites, a fungicide on the plant, but because these are not declared, workers are denied knowledge
or as a wine preservative and bactericide at high levels, as well as of what they may be exposed to. In organic agriculture, adjuvants
an antioxidant. Today, sulfites are among the major food and drink may be from animal or plant origins, such as oligosaccharides
additives authorized in different forms in Europe as E220-E228, from crustaceans or fruits, to add sticking molecules to the leaves.
varying from sulfur dioxide to sulfites of different salts such as
Organic vineyards that do not use synthetic petroleum-based
sodium, calcium, and potassium [1]. S is most often obtained from
pesticides are in development. S and Cu salts are authorized in
petrochemistry or gas extraction, and only rarely from minerals.
organic wines, but at lower levels in organic wines which are in
Natural S is extracted from the bases of volcanos or from mines.
fact classified in 3 categories: simply organic, biodynamic, and
It is a wettable form acting by little evaporating doses through
natural. They may be labelled or not, according to the choice of
sublimation, while synthetic sulfur forms are used with products
the wine maker. S and Cu salts are often called organic pesticides
of formulations sometimes called adjuvants, which are mostly the
because they are the most frequently used in organic production.
petroleum oily residues allowing the formulations to better stick to
These minerals may be extracted from mines, in which case they
leaves and fruits. These are not real “adjuvants” since they do not
are not petroleum-based. These forms are preferred but not always
only help or are added (etymological meaning) but can be more
used in organic agriculture.
toxic than S itself. They should rather be called formulants. Their
toxicity requires further studies; however, their full composition In this mini review, we will investigate the roles, taste,
is not public. and comparative toxicities of S, and how it compares with other
substances classified as pesticides, including Cu, because it is a
Petroleum-derived pesticides have been developed more
highly debated subject. It has long been known that S is essential
recently, from toxic chemicals developed for warfare. Vines have
for plants and animals or humans but that it is also toxic in excess.
been among the crop plants that are most heavily treated with these
Here we thus also characterize its taste, and sensations evoked in
pesticides especially since 1950, as we underlined in a previous
volunteer tasters and in the context of the literature.
study on copper (Cu) [2], which is also considered a fungicide.
Cu is also not a fungicide at low physiological levels, at which it What is the role of S and sulfites in vineyards and wines?
is essential for life. The authors previously characterized the taste
At low physiological levels in the plants (well below the
of Cu in water and wines, and two of them have also studied the
theoretical regulatory sulfites ADI of 0.7 mg/kg bw), it has long
taste of pesticides in wines [3]. In France, which is known as a
been known that S is an essential mineral element, and, in common
wine producer country, 20% of the pesticides, in tons, sprayed
with Cu, a necessary catalyst in many enzymes; it can be also
nationwide are used on vineyards, which, however, represent
coupled with molecules such as sulfates to be excreted, allowing
only 3% of all cultivated land [4]. This is probably due to an
more solubilization. It is essential in nitrogen metabolism and in
economic and symbolic belief in the protective value of pesticides
the synthesis of some amino acids, like methionine and cysteine,
in a chemically based quite stable monoculture, since no evidence
serving the protein structure and folding.
exists that pest attack is greater on vines than on other plants.
There are several simple molecules in the life cycle
Sulfates or sulfites, as well as Cu, are sometimes considered
containing S, such as SO2 which is used as an antioxidant or
to be pesticides but are authorized for use in organic agriculture.
antioxidase with antiseptic capacities. It is often used in its
However, in this work we will differentiate whether or not they are
free form and can be linked to numerous molecules. It may
produced by petrochemistry and compare their tastes and toxicities
be considered to belong to the sulfite family (SO32-). It can
for a clearer understanding.
be transformed in sulfate (SO42-) by hydration and can then
We underline that S and Cu in different chemical forms for also be combined to acetaldehydes, ketones, polyphenols, or
vineyards treatments, as well as synthetic pesticides sprayed on proteins, for instance. It is then in an inactive or less active form
the plants, have the common trait to contain petroleum formulants. regarding its pesticide properties; some of these associations are
They are present with the active declared principles, often as reversible. There are other cycles on earth of S transformation
residues of syntheses, but not declared. In different families of into different forms [8], including in anaerobic fermentation
pesticides these may constitute between 1.25 and 71.7% of the forming sulfides (H2S, HS-, S2-, for instance with metals).
2 Volume 6; Issue 01
Food Nutr J, an open access journal
ISSN: 2575-7091Citation: Seralini GE, Douzelet J, Halley JC (2021) Sulfur in Wines and Vineyards: Taste and Comparative Toxicity to Pesticides. Food Nutr J 6: 231. DOI: 10.29011/2575-
7091.100131
The molecules of sulfites can be produced and transformed and drinks in healthy humans [3] - a question addressed in the
at low levels by plants [9]; they are in fruits like raisins and are present paper.
produced also at very low natural levels by wild yeasts, present Levels of S in wines, and comparisons with other added
on all fruits in nature that are not treated by fungicides [10]. This compounds
process goes on during alcoholic fermentation. This generally
leads to a few mg/L of sulfites in natural wines [11], where Sulfates are less measured and regulated than sulfites.
sulfites may be, or not at all, artificially added in small quantities However, the International Organization of Vine and Wine proposes
in comparison to non-natural ones. Natural sulfites may therefore as maximum sulfates acceptable limits 1 or 1.5 g/L (according to
protect some aromas by their antioxidant effects [12]. On the fruits, the type of wine), and Brazil imposed that for imported wines [16],
sulfites perform the role of a bactericide against pathogens [13]. in particular for taste and toxicity reasons (see below).
Thus, they constitute also a defence mechanism for the plants or As indicated in Table 1, the maximum levels of sulfites
for yeasts. Like many compounds, they have balanced stimulating authorized in the world (450 mg/L) are reached in wines in Sri
and inhibiting effects, depending on time, dose, environment, and Lanka or Malaysia, according to Wine Australia (2020) [17]. In
sensitivity of the target (e.g., bacteria). general, higher levels of sulfites are authorized in white wines,
Used at high levels, when they can contribute up to 450 mg/L because they have fewer natural antioxidants such as polyphenols
authorized in some countries (see below) in wines, sulfites become and flavonoids than in red ones, coming from the skins in general,
then a major fungicide and bactericide. For these reasons they are and sometimes more sugar. Thus, the fermentation process may
used for their preservative capacities. In these chemically treated continue in the bottle. To control this, the sulfites are added at
vines and wines, they are generally used with other fungicides [3], microbiocidal levels. The maximum level decreases to 420 mg/L in
killing yeasts and bacteria on raisins and during the fermentation Quebec, Canada and 400 in Ontario. China, Hong Kong, Taiwan,
process. Other transformed or laboratory-prepared yeasts and and Vietnam also stipulate 400. A slightly reduced limit (350) is
bacterial strains, both in noticeable non-natural quantities, have authorized in Qatar, Peru, the Philippines, and the USA, and even
thus to be added afterwards to allow fermentation of these less (300) in Australia and South Africa.
treated wines. Microorganisms are more sensitive to sulfites than EU wines reach the lowest maximum authorized levels,
mammals, in which the process of sulfite oxidation is quite rapid in starting from 400 mg/L for liquored or late harvest wines, with
the liver, forming excreted sulfates [14]. Sulfites can be then added Botrytis, very sugared, decreasing to a maximum of 300 in sweet
to arrest the fermentation process, and to kill the bacteria added, wines, 235 in sparkling wines, and then to 200 in white wines and
after the possible malolactic fermentation. 150 in red ones. Argentine wines are comparable, with up to 210 for
It is obvious that when used at environmentally toxic levels or the same category. Even renowned wines for export or trading may
in combination with toxic compounds such as pesticides and their contain more sulfites than others. In the EU, the organic labelled
petroleum-based formulants, sulfites will progressively saturate wines contain maximum levels in general 50 mg/L less, in wines
the detoxification system of humans, including that of symbiotic of the same categories. The biodynamic wines have a maximum of
gut microbiota; therefore, they appear to work as a pesticide [15], 40 (white) to 30 (red) mg/L of sulfites, and the additive-free ones
with all the side effects possible in the environment, wines, and (“natural wines”) should have only tracesCitation: Seralini GE, Douzelet J, Halley JC (2021) Sulfur in Wines and Vineyards: Taste and Comparative Toxicity to Pesticides. Food Nutr J 6: 231. DOI: 10.29011/2575-
7091.100131
Legend: Petroleum-derived synthetic pesticides and Cu have for the different compounds. Non-organic wines always have
no maximum regulatory levels in wines, except that the first are higher levels of all kinds of pesticides, including Cu and S, and
forbidden in organic wine making, and in general are expressed as in consequence, in these the level of toxic chemicals is increased.
contaminants in μg/L. Here, all products have been expressed in
Cu levels [2] and levels of sulfites advised in drinking
mg/L to facilitate comparisons. Cu may be considered also to be
water (2 mg/L) or even directly measured [19] are indicated for
a fungicide at high levels, as well as sulfites which are considered
comparisons (Table 1). Sulfites are more strictly regulated in foods
as pesticides. At low levels, these are natural products by contrast
[20] than Cu. For instance, in France [21], the average level of Cu
to chemical pesticides. For sulfites, the maximum authorized level
in organic wines was established around 0.15 mg/L; the limit is 1
(450) is reached in Sri Lanka or Malaysia. Organic wines include
mg/L. The presence of Cu in non-organic wines is mostly linked
different categories and labels (AB and Demeter for instance in
to the number and timing of fungicide applications. In addition
France), as well as natural wines (no label, or “wines with natural
to the declared active substances, most formulations of synthetic
production method”, or SAINS for instance); the latter have no
pesticides contain heavy metals and other trace elements [18],
sulfites added. *except for sugared wines (see text). In drinking
including Cu. In treated wines in Croatia, up to 7.6 mg/L of Cu
water, the maximum regulatory level under European law is
was detected [22] and in Australia, up to 15 mg/L Cu were found in
indicated for pesticides; the maximum level to comply with a
non-organic must and raisin juice before fermentation. It has long
quality standard for Cu follows; no maximum regulatory level
been known [23] that from 10 mg/L, Cu inhibits fermentation, as
is set but the levels found are indicated. The tastes are grossly
does S and agrochemical residues at higher levels, but often this
described for comparisons here but will be detailed below. The
is compensated for in treated wines by adding significant amounts
two last lines represent the ratio between the levels in wines and
of modified or selected less diverse yeasts. This is, by the way,
drinking water, taken as a reference. A mean of 5 mg/L was taken
a common practice in wines when fungicides including S are
instead of < 10 for calculations, according to some assessments.
applied in the vineyard and detected as major pesticides in non-
References are in the text. max: maximum; min: minimum limit;
organic wines [3], since most natural microorganisms are killed
org: organic.
by fungicides. In brief, more Cu and cupric residues are found in
This comparative Table 1 indicates first that among the non-organic wines, either white or red, than in organic ones, due
chemical inputs present in wines, sulfites are the most added, then to less chemical applications in the latter, and possibly due to more
Cu, which is more sprayed in the vineyard, and then pesticides, time (40-50 days) between the last application and the harvest. It
with the latter being around 1000 times less in quantity. However, is a similar case for sulfites.
their comparative toxicities at levels at which they are found, Similarly, concerning other microbial or chemical inputs, if
overall, in the long term, can be in the reverse order, based on the we consider laboratory yeast strains authorized for making non-
levels authorized in tap or drinking water by international safety organic wines, these are above 300 in number, while there are a lot
agencies. This is indicated by the ratios in the last two lines and is less, and normally not genetically modified, for organic cultures.
detailed below. None of these are normally used in natural wines, and there is no
While petroleum-based synthetic pesticides are forbidden need, because organic vineyards are colonized by abundant natural
in organic agriculture, it is admitted that Cu and S are the major and more diverse yeast strains. Authorized additives are in the
chemical components authorized for treatments of organic cultures order of 50 in non-organic wines, and between 40 and 0 in organic
and corresponding wines. They are also used generally and at ones, depending on the described subclasses, according to Raisin
higher rates in non-organic agriculture, as evidenced in Table 1. (2020) and www.dicoduvin.com (2021) [24,25].
These two compounds may also be included in formulations of Taste of sulfites in water and wines
synthetic pesticides, increasing the levels in non-organic wines
[6,18]. Many variables can change the tastes of wines - including
the variety, maturation, soil, leaf removal during growth or time of
In organic wines, pesticides are not found or are only found harvest, chemical treatments, seeding by aromatic yeasts, or aging
in traces [3], even when the cultures are in neighbourhood of and processing by methods chosen by the winemaker. It is also the
non-organic wines. This is probably because the contaminations case for sulfites, we will study that below. Even sulfates are to be
are hundreds of times less when the chemicals are not sprayed considered for their impact on the taste of wines and waters: they
intentionally, also possibly because some detoxifying plants are participate to dryness [16]. The final composition and taste result
growing spontaneously, such as dandelion [2]. In chemically from a combination of all these factors. Among those, we have
treated vineyards these plants are generally removed to facilitate demonstrated that pesticides [3] and Cu [2] play a role in the final
mechanical chemical spraying and harvesting. All this is reflected taste.
by the comparative ratio “not organic/organic” (Table 1), indicated
4 Volume 6; Issue 01
Food Nutr J, an open access journal
ISSN: 2575-7091Citation: Seralini GE, Douzelet J, Halley JC (2021) Sulfur in Wines and Vineyards: Taste and Comparative Toxicity to Pesticides. Food Nutr J 6: 231. DOI: 10.29011/2575-
7091.100131
We came to question the taste of sulfites in water and how Taste in wine
they can additionally modify the taste of wines. We examined
S was then spiked at 90 mg/L in an organic natural wine where
whether they could be detected when present in water, in isolation,
no sulfites were used (Citation: Seralini GE, Douzelet J, Halley JC (2021) Sulfur in Wines and Vineyards: Taste and Comparative Toxicity to Pesticides. Food Nutr J 6: 231. DOI: 10.29011/2575-
7091.100131
Body discomforts linked to S detection 10 μg/L. For both classes of substances these levels are realistic, as
they are found in chemically treated wines. For sulfites, there is a
In this work, we provide evidence that S concentrations not
general heat in the head, heating of the temples, odour, and taste of
only influence the taste of wine, but also cause discomfort in the
a lit match, also resembling aspirin taste, drying acridity at the top
head or rest of the body, from 10-30 mg/L in the water or wine.
and the back of the palate; and in comparison, to pesticides: more
This could also explain, at least in part, why natural wines with
volatile sensations with the sulfur, which reaches the postnasal
less S may be preferred to wines with synthetic pesticides or
area, also more irritation to the respiratory tract in water. In wine
containing more S or Cu. In non-organic wines, formulants made
a similar comparison can be made with pesticides: sulfites spoil
with petroleum residues and heavy metals may be added to S, Cu,
the taste of wine to a greater degree, by diminishing and blocking
and pesticides, and some will be absorbed through the leaves [28],
perfumes.
and then will be driven to the grapes and may bioaccumulate in
wines, also distorting the taste. By contrast, the pesticides at levels from 10 μg/L in water or
wines provoke generally in sensitive or already initiated persons:
One of us (JD) has discovered the taste of pesticides, which
dryness of the tongue on the sides at the rear, and tingling at the
was then characterized in detail by 71 specialists in 195 tests [3].
tip of the tongue, burning tongue and blockade of the taste buds,
He compares in more detail here the sensations of sulfites in water
a sticky sensation less volatile than sulfur, and a slight headache
or wines at levels over 10 mg/L to those of pesticides at levels over
which is more concentrated on the forehead at the beginning.
Summary of SO2 smell or
In water from 30 mg/L and 90 mg/L In wines when spiked at 90 mg/L
taste
30/30 from 30 mg/L
Detected by tasters 28/30
1 professional from 10 mg/L
Drying
Like aspirin Drying
Smell of lit matches Acidic
Acidic Decrease or shut down of the nose and tongue capacities
Slight anaesthesia in mouth Covers, breaks, flattens, closes, blocks, crushes, hides, or cuts
Description of tastes by
Tongue irritation aromas (according to different tasters)
frequency
Stripping of tongue Causes the fruits aromas to be lost
Bitter Disrupt freshness Astringent
Astringent Less perfume
Mineral Lacks life
Rotten egg
Table 2: Summary of sulfites’ smell or taste.
Legend: Tasters were asked to describe the nose or mouth detection in primary and preliminary testing at low levels found in organic
wines, which were then spiked with S. The results were clear. Further sensory tests could be organized.
Toxicity of sulfites and comparison with pesticides and added to some foods for the industrial preservation process.
In this work, we have not directly considered sulfates By contrast at very low levels, a very few mg/L, the balance
since these are not generally measured in wines. These could of sulfur regulates homeostasis. The toxicity of sulfites in mammals
have laxative effects at high doses in water (over 600 mg/L) and thus humans by overdose is due, among other possible
[29], and include body discomforts depending on the metals mechanisms, to the inhibition of crucial enzymes and reactions
or salts they bind to. Also depending on the sensitivity of the of the immune system, as well as direct toxic effects on the gut
person, and essentially in an acute manner, sulfites may induce microbiota [32], as with pesticides such as Roundup [15]. Any
headaches, skin redness, hives, stomach pain, diarrhea, allergic enzymatic or hormonal reaction exhibits a bell curve in the presence
intolerance like swellings, and asthma [30]. We found burning of of increasing doses of its ligand or substrate. Moreover, sulfites
the oesophagus in addition. The vapours of free sulfites can be can saturate the detoxification system of any living organism.
detected from 1 mg/L, and thus S may enhance alcohol toxicity
If we consider the ADI for humans of 0.7 mg/kg bw/day [33],
[31]. This may be amplified by the high levels of sulfites present
6 Volume 6; Issue 01
Food Nutr J, an open access journal
ISSN: 2575-7091Citation: Seralini GE, Douzelet J, Halley JC (2021) Sulfur in Wines and Vineyards: Taste and Comparative Toxicity to Pesticides. Food Nutr J 6: 231. DOI: 10.29011/2575- 7091.100131 an 80 kg person can ingest 56 mg of soluble sulfites (interconvertible the pesticide content. This also represents 146 μg/L (or ppb), two forms) per day. For a minimum of
Citation: Seralini GE, Douzelet J, Halley JC (2021) Sulfur in Wines and Vineyards: Taste and Comparative Toxicity to Pesticides. Food Nutr J 6: 231. DOI: 10.29011/2575-
7091.100131
period have been confirmed by multi-omics techniques [42,43]. In was performed on this basis. Still, glyphosate in formulation is 12-
general, 10-11 ppb (110 times more than the level previously shown 33 times less toxic than fungicides in formulation. Cu or S are not
to be chronically toxic for the whole formulation) of glyphosate toxic on the same scale at all.
were discovered in several wines [3]. The calculation in Table 3
Quantity of the compound needed (for a
In organic In non-organic Long-term toxicity in
Compounds 80 kg body) to reach toxicity, in ml of wine
wines μg/ L wines μg /L formulations μg/kg/day
hypothetically consumed/dayCitation: Seralini GE, Douzelet J, Halley JC (2021) Sulfur in Wines and Vineyards: Taste and Comparative Toxicity to Pesticides. Food Nutr J 6: 231. DOI: 10.29011/2575- 7091.100131 Figure 1: A new concept: Taste as a toxicity detector. (A) Toxicity and (B) taste in wine according to the chemicals added. Legend: First, Cu is often added in vineyards of organic or non-organic wines, either directly or in the formulations of pesticides for non- organic ones. It is not toxic at 1.5 mg/L but breaks the complexity of the taste, according to our experiments. Then S in different forms may be added to vines or wines at fungicidal levels: at 150 mg/L, or even far below for sensitive persons, an acute immune reaction or headaches are possible; in addition, these compounds are detectable by irritation in the mouth or nose and cover aromas. Synthetic pesticides, at 293 μg/L on average in chemically treated wines, are drying, and provoke a papilla blockade. They have serious chronic toxicity in addition to the toxicity of alcohol. This pesticide level (μg/L range) is a thousand times less than average levels for Cu and S (mg/L). S is by far the most present additive in quantity. Taste could serve as a toxicity detector in wine. The large and small glasses are symbols of what could be chronically absorbed taking the chemicals toxicities into account. 9 Volume 6; Issue 01 Food Nutr J, an open access journal ISSN: 2575-7091
Citation: Seralini GE, Douzelet J, Halley JC (2021) Sulfur in Wines and Vineyards: Taste and Comparative Toxicity to Pesticides. Food Nutr J 6: 231. DOI: 10.29011/2575-
7091.100131
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