Lightning Protection, Cost Analysis and Improved Efficiency of Solar Power Plant for Irrigation System
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
sustainability
Article
Lightning Protection, Cost Analysis and Improved Efficiency of
Solar Power Plant for Irrigation System
Waqas Rahim 1, * , Irshad Ullah 1, *, Nasim Ullah 2 and Ahmad Aziz Alahmadi 2
1 Department of Electrical Engineering, CECOS University of IT & Emerging Sciences,
Peshawar 25000, Pakistan
2 Department of Electrical Engineering, Taif University of KSA, Taif 21944, Saudi Arabia;
nasimullah@tu.edu.sa (N.U.); aziz@tu.edu.sa (A.A.A.)
* Correspondence: engr_waqasrahim@hotmail.com (W.R.); irshadullah95@yahoo.com (I.U.)
Abstract: The constraints in the path of sustainable, cost-effective, and efficient photovoltaic power
supply to the irrigation system in remote areas are addressed in this work. The intrinsic thermal losses
in the PV system due to high working temperature and shading losses that are caused by dirt are
mitigated through water cleaning mechanisms. Moreover, the protection against lightning strikes and
surges is assimilated in the system to ensure the durability of the PV system. Lastly, cost analysis of
0.4 MW PV plant for the Area of 7444.69 m2 has been performed by the Homer Pro, and comparison
is made with the same size of a Hydro power plant to estimate the economic feasibility of power
generation for the purpose of irrigation through the pump house. The water-cooling mechanism
resulted in the gain of one volt per panel of 260 W, which is a significant improvement with regard to
collective PV plant generation. As the water cleaning mechanism for dust removal is accompanied
with the cooling process, it results in the two volts rise per panel. Additionally, a cost analysis of
0.4 MW PV system provided a significant budget saving estimating USD ~2 million as compared to
Citation: Rahim, W.; Ullah, I.; Ullah, that of a Hydel power plant of the same size.
N.; Alahmadi, A.A. Lightning
Protection, Cost Analysis and Keywords: active water cooling; lightning strikes; photovoltaic panel; centrifugal pumps; homer pro;
Improved Efficiency of Solar Power lighting protection zone
Plant for Irrigation System.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 6235. https://
doi.org/10.3390/su14106235
Academic Editors: Salvatore Vasta, 1. Introduction
Sotirios Karellas, Marina Bonomolo, As electricity is one of the major factors that has an impact on the future of developing
Alessio Sapienza and Uli Jakob nation, so it is the area of concern for the development of mankind. It is seen that the
Received: 23 February 2022
development of one nation is dependent upon the usage of energy by that nation. The
Accepted: 11 May 2022
increase in the energy generation capacity of one country has direct impact on the growth of
Published: 20 May 2022
economy and social dimension of that country. For this reason, it is mandatory to generate
power by other sources as well along with the conventional ways, as it is the significant
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
way that can help in the development of nation. There are two diverse ways by which solar
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
energy can be utilized: the first is by solar thermal and the second is by solar photovoltaic
published maps and institutional affil-
(PV) framework. Water has been used to create steam to produce electricity by running
iations.
steam turbine/generator and space heating by acquiring thermal energy with the help of
solar thermal system [1].
In 2018, Muhammad Kamran [2] performed the study to investigate the current posi-
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
tion and future success of renewable energy in light of operational and under construction
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. renewable energy projects. The results showed the success of renewable energy in Pakistan
This article is an open access article which will attracts not only local but also foreign investors to invest in Pakistan.
distributed under the terms and Nowadays, the world is widely using the emerging technology of the solar-PV-system.
conditions of the Creative Commons The working of sun radiation-based energy production mechanism is to convert the solar
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// light using the photovoltaic (PV) effect into direct current DC electricity. The generation
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ from solar PV system is possible through the solar cell present in the solar PV module of
4.0/). PV system. The submissions of the solar-PV-system are divided into two categories: one is
Sustainability 2022, 14, 6235. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14106235 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Sustainability 2022, 14, 6235 2 of 16
when it is connected with grid, and the other is when it is working off-grid/standalone.
Independent PV framework has direct convenience in decreasing the peak load, especially
the load of small and medium enterprises and industrial facility [1]. However, it is seen
through the examination of the incidents that happened in multi-MW sun-driven energy
producing plants that the electricity generated through PV modules is decreased by 8–15%
due to the quality of the light from the sun. Within the circumstance when the PV panels
are set in the dark, it is seen that about 42% of the drop in outcome may be because of the
even shed of light on all the edges [3].
There are some important points of views that must be considered for the achievement
of perfect implementation, that include the position of the panel that should be at the level
where the daylight falls in a manner that is ideal. Additionally, the position of the panel
should be changed according to the circumstances such as season or the territory [4].
Right now, monetarily accessible photo-voltaic (PV) panels have an efficiency some-
where in the range of 10 and 30 %. It is important that the solar energy should be changed
into power efficiently and for the same purpose it is crucial to upgrade the system whenever
and wherever it is necessary and is possible [4].
In the photovoltaic panels, the dust deposition not only minimizes the radiations that
reach the solar PV panel but also affects the dependence on the angle of incidents of such
radiation. The authors of [5] made a study showing the mean of daily energy loss of 4.4%
during the year being caused by dust deposition on Solar PV panel. It was also observed
that daily energy losses can be greater than 20% in the long periods without rain.
Further, the performance of photovoltaic PV panels can be increased by mitigation
the three types of losses, i.e., optical, electrical and thermal. The reduction in optical and
electrical losses in the PV panels are costly. Therefore, one should minimize the thermal
losses to achieve the best performance of PV panels. The thermal losses result in the
reduction in output power of PV panels working on temperatures above 25 ◦ C as well as in
the aging of PV Panels. In [6], the quantification of all possible strategies for minimizing the
thermal losses in the PV panel has been carried out, and it was proposed that the minimum
level of conductive/convective cooling is essential for mitigation of thermal losses in the
PV Panels.
As a rule, PV frameworks can be introduced under three distinct classes, specifically,
the private (lodging), business building (privately owned business/mechanical structure)
and solar parks. Past examinations through the product and trial works have demonstrated
that how the lightning influenced the frameworks and impacted the general presentation
of PV frameworks. For instance, the impact of lightning impulse voltage causes different
kinds of electrical degradation, for example, heat treatment and how the recurrent impulse
pushes generally bring down the peak voltage [7].
To improve the productivity of the solar photovoltaic panels, this research work focuses
toward the cooling, which decreases the temperature significantly as well as providing
lightning and surge protection to the solar power plant. For the cooling purpose of the
panels, one sends ordinary resources to the plant site, which further results in a compelling
action. This article discusses the PV losses, methods to reduce the losses, lightning and
surge protection, cost benefit analysis, and discussion of which source is preferred for
irrigation system.
This article is structured as follows: section II elaborates different types of PV losses
and methods to reduce these losses, section III represents the lightning protection of
PV modules, section IV discusses the proposed model of solar PV plant being used for
operating the pump house and reducing PV losses, section V deals with the cost analysis
and section VI presents the results followed by a conclusion.
2. PV Losses and Methods to Reduce PV Losses
The working temperature of photovoltaic PV panels depicts a critical boundary that
impacts their transformation productiveness. High working temperatures of PV panels
diminish the transformation efficiency of the panels within the same conditions of solar
Sustainability 2022, 14, 6235 3 of 16
radiation, which eventually minimizes the greatest yield power. In 2016, Sebastian Valeriu
Hudis, teanu [8] displayed that under the case of monocrystalline silicon solar cells, the
common greatest values of proficiency have come in between 14% and 17%. Those solar
radiations, which have not been changed into power, are completely changed into heat.
It has been noted that the produced power due to PV showed a decrease due to
individual solar cells or entire modules are midway covered. Even though there are other
losses, losses due to thermal conduction and dust deposition losses are considered vital.
2.1. Dust Deposition and Attenuation of Sunlight by Dust Layer
The dust deposition on the PV module surface reduces the solar radiations falling on
the solar cell and so causing decrease in the yeild power. Additionally, the dust deposition
on the surface of solar PV module depends on the angle onto which the panel is inclined.
It has been seen that the dust piling up decreases when the inclination angle of the solar
PV module changes from (0◦ ) level to (90◦ ) vertical, also this has been varified through
experimental approach [5,9].
2.2. Thermal Losses
The electricity production of silicon solar cell depends upon their working temperature.
It has been seen that short circuit current (Isc) increases to some degree with an increase in
temperature. Moreover, the open-circuit voltage (Voc) reduces (approximately 2.3 mV/◦ C)
with an increase in temperature of the solar PV modules [2]. The ability of the PV module
reduces with an increase in the temperature of the module [10].
There are numerous strategies to decrease losses in the solar PV module energy yield
such as dynamic cooling of panels through water, air base cooling and cooling with heat
sinks, etc. In 2018 S. Nižetić [11] got the 10% to 20% average highest increase in performance
of PV panels achieved by water base cooling methods.
Our methodology is front water cooling of the solar PV panels to reduce thermal
losses. As this research work deals with the reduction in two types of solar PV losses, i.e.,
temperature losses and losses due to dust deposition on surface of solar panel. Both the
losses can be minimized by active water cooling. There are also other methods to reduce
the aforementioned losses, i.e., use of heat sink and air-cooled solar panels, etc. As we are
proposing the solar PV plant powers the pump house, there is therefore an excess amount
of water available in the area and using water cooling is the best option to minimize the
losses. By using active water cooling, the extra cost associated with the cooling system of
solar PV plant can be minimized. It is alluring to keep up low board temperatures, since
efficiency and electrical yield decrease with increased working temperature.
3. Lightning Protection of PV Models
3.1. Lightning Protection from Direct Impulse
To begin with, we need to calculate the yearly number of direct lightning strikes on
the locality under discussion. We can determine the mean annual number of probability of
number of direct lightning strikes Nd by utilizing the equation given underneath:
Nd = Ng · Ad · Cd · 10−6 (1)
where
Ng = Yearly mean number of lightning strikes per square kilometer = 5 to 14 (Ng
increases as we go in Northern areas of Pakistan [12,13]);
Cd = Ambient coefficient = 0.5 [14] At the selected site, there are no trees and buildings
so that the value will be 0.25;
Ad = Equivalent intercepting area in square meters = 7444.69 m2.
We can calculate Nd by using the equation for minimum and maximum possible values
of Ng .
In the case of PV plant prescribed to function pumphouse within the chosen zone,
indirect lightning security is not prescribed due to taking after reasons:
Sustainability 2022, 14, 6235 4 of 16
A small-scale power plant requires the area of 7444.69 m2 , which is exceptionally low.
Moreover, due to the non-presence of high buildings or trees around the proposed PV plant,
there is an exceptionally low probability of indirect surges.
• However, a direct drop of thunder on the surrounded vitality unit surface will certainly
harm the PV module. The lightning impulse voltage causes electrically degradation of
the PV model with bubbles that leads to breakdown of the PV model. In [15–17] the
researchers have conducted two tests:
• Up to 3000 impulses Lightning impulse voltage tests.
• The PV model was tried with heat treatment until bubbles showed up in its protection
layer and tried with a lightning impulse voltage similarly as in the primary test.
Although a quick thunder strike on a module casing will not completely damage it, the
module itself will be harmed. In addition, since of the incorporation of higher capable by
and large shared inductance, the harm will be significantly more vital when the casing of a
module that is wired to different individual modules perseveres a prompt lightning strike.
There are two primary viewpoints to be secured while doing the lightning protection
of the PV plant from direct lightning strokes:
• When solar panels are frame-mounted;
• When the solar panels are roof-mounted;
Moreover, if we are utilizing roof-mounted solar PV plant, it must be kept in mind to
avoid the induction phenomenon, that adequate safety clearance “S” should be kept up
between PV panels and lightning current conductors. Such acceptance could also be mini-
mized by the utilize of surrounded solar modules with small common acceptance cabling.
The safety clearance S is the distance between the solar panel and lightning conductor,
which can be calculated by following equation.
Minimum safety clearance for proximities:
kc
Smin = 0.04 l (2)
km
where km is a material factor with the following values: km for air distances; km ≈ 0.5 if the
proximity distance covers wood, concrete or brick.
l is the length of the loop down-conductor section through which the lightning
current flows.
kc shows the Proportion of lightning current in a down-conductor relative to overall current.
3.2. Roof-Mounted Solar PV Panels
For the case of a plant for irrigation system mounted on the top of any building or
roof over the ground level, the total building ought to be protected from lightning strikes.
In [18], the scientists manage the plan of an assurance framework for PV panel es-
tablishments against lightning. It underscores to the coordination of the different surge
protecting parts and sums up the essential techniques for the adequate and compelling
investigation of PV lightning execution. The introduced plan strategies incorporate the
danger the board, the partition into lightning protection zones (LPZ), the interior and
outside LPS, the determination of the electrical qualities, the productive placement of the
surge protective devises (SPDs) and the grounding framework, as per the current Standards,
considering, all the while, the worldwide exploration results and the regular practice. For
scenarios like these, we must adhere the following course of actions using surge protec-
tion devices (SPDs). The specialists in this investigation reviews about the impact on the
framework components when lightning straightforwardly strikes at two unique points of
the establishment. Such two points lies between the inverter and the solar PV Panel and
among inverter and grid. From the examinations managed without the consideration of
Surge protection devices SPDs, solar PV model would be harmed and debased because
of very high current and voltage that are proliferated as traveling waves delivered by an
immediate lightning strike on specific purposes of the PV Rooftop framework [19].
Surge protection devices SPDs, solar PV model would be harmed and deb
very high current and voltage that are proliferated as traveling waves
immediate lightning strike on specific purposes of the PV Rooftop frame
Sustainability 2022, 14, 6235 5 of 16
Figure 1 shows the protection scheme used for roof-mounted solar PV
a case, PV panels need to be put inside the assurance zone of lightning
safety Figure
clearance S between
1 shows the
the protection panel
scheme and
used for lightning
roof-mountedconductor should
solar PV panels. In be m
such a case, PV panels need to be put inside the assurance zone of lightning conductors.
Additionally, framed modules and wiring having low mutual acceptanc
The safety clearance S between the panel and lightning conductor should be more than
lized. SPDs
60 cm. have framed
Additionally, to bemodules
mounted on both
and wiring havingsides of the
low mutual DC fundamental
acceptance should be
Pal/shielded. The power leads and inverter must be protected bywith
utilized. SPDs have to be mounted on both sides of the DC fundamental cable bent utilizing
Pal/shielded. The power leads and inverter must be protected by utilizing type 1 and type
2 SPDs
2 SPDsrespectively.
respectively.
Figure 1. Protection of roof-mounted PV panel against lightning strikes [12].
Figure 1. Protection of roof-mounted PV panel against lightning strikes [12].
3.3. Protection of Ground-Based Frame-Mounted PV Panels against Lightning Strikes
Perfect lightning protection has been achieved by utilizing enveloped modules, an
3.3.embedded
Protection
andof Ground-Based
fitted Frame-Mounted
metallic mounting PV Panels
structure, low-shared against
inductance wiring,Lightning
and
able surge protection devices (SPDs) with an adequately high-surveyed current bur-
Perfect lightning protection has been achieved by utilizing envelop
den. Underneath the figure are the thunder flash security estimates required for such
embedded and fitted metallic mounting structure, low-shared inducta
a PV establishment.
Figure 2 shows the shadow
able surge protection deviceseffect of panels
(SPDs) and the
with an termination
adequately rods.high-surveyed
Lightning
security components for a gigantic ground-based PV foundation with three inverters.
Underneath
Long DC cables thehave
figure are the thunder
to be presented between theflash security
show circuit boxesestimates required f
and the generator
tablishment.
intersection encloses the inverter work area zones. Such joints have to be laid in cable
conduits or in over-the-ground metal raceways. Two-sided type 2 SPDs must be mounted
Figure
at either end 2of shows
these joint.the shadow
Running a groundeffect of panels
wire with andcheck
a comparative theastermination
the positive rod
curity components
and negative forthe
wires reduces a gigantic
varistor loadground-based PV foundation
from any lightning current with three
that can be actuated
in these wires. Sort 1 SPDs (in a perfect world half and half contraptions that keep surge
DCvoltage
cables have to be presented between the show circuit boxes and the
as low as may be anticipated under such conditions) need to be introduced on the
section
arrangeencloses
side. the inverter work area zones. Such joints have to be laid i
or in over-the-ground metal raceways. Two-sided type 2 SPDs must be m
end of these joint. Running a ground wire with a comparative check as
negative wires reduces the varistor load from any lightning current that
in these wires. Sort 1 SPDs (in a perfect world half and half contraptions
voltage as low as may be anticipated under such conditions) need to be in
arrange side.
Sustainability 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Sustainability 2022, 14, 6235 6 of 16
2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16
Figure
Figure 2. Shadow effect 2. Shadow
of panels
Figure effect effect
and termination
2. Shadow ofand
rods
of panels panels
[12]. and termination
termination rods [12]. rods [12].
Figure 3 shows theFigureprotection3 shows
schemethe protection schemePV
for ground-based forpanel
ground-based PV panel against lightning
against lightning
strikes. In this case,strikes.Figure
the lightning 3
In this poles shows
case, the the
are lightning
presentedpolesprotection
are
on the scheme
presented
module for ground-based
on the system,
mounting moduleto PV panel
mounting system, to aga
strikes.
reduce the lightningreduce
current In this case,
thetriggered
lightning current
within the lightning
triggered
the display wires:poles
within the are wires:
the display
Terminationpresented on the Grounding
the Termination
Ground- module mount
ing Kit (TGK), as inKit (TGK),
Figure 3, as in Figure
ensured that 3,theensured
DC-link that
hastheto DC-link
be laid has
in to be laidjoined
diligently
reduce the lightning current triggered within the display wires: the Termin in diligently joined and
individually
and individually grounded metal grounded
raceways, metal raceways,
or that or thatsort
the sensible the 1sensible sort 1 SPDs
SPDs (Figure 3) (Figure 3) were
ing Kit
mounted (TGK),
on either as in
side ofFigure
the DC 3, ensured
cables. The
were mounted on either side of the DC cables. The figure underneath shows the lightning
that
figure the DC-link
underneath showshas thetolightning
be laid in dil
poles to be introducedand
poles individually
to
in suchbeaintroduced
way that they grounded
in (a)such waymetal
areainside that
the PV raceways,
they (a) are
panels or that
inside
assurance the PVthe
zone, sensible
panels sort 1 SP
assurance
zone, (b) show the least required clearances with the solar PV panels, and (c) do not cast
were mounted on either side of the DC cables. The figure underneath show
(b) show the least required clearances with the solar PV panels, and (c) do not cast super-
fluous shadows in the superfluous
season ofshadows
winters. in the season of winters.
poles to be introduced in such a way that they (a) are inside the PV panels as
(b) show the least required clearances with the solar PV panels, and (c) do n
fluous shadows in the season of winters.
Figure 3. Protection of Ground-based PV panel against lightning strikes [12].
Figure 3. Protection of Ground-based PV panel against lightning strikes [12].
Sustainability 2022, 14, 6235 7 of 16
4. Proposed Model
In 2019 Muhammad Irfan and Zen-Yu Zhao [20] have gathered the information for
solar radiation and wind speed for a time of one year in a few significant urban communities
of Pakistan. Results shows that as far as value, life range, activity and support cost, Solar
energy is the best sustainable power source alternative for Pakistan.
As mentioned earlier, the dust deposition on the surface of the solar PV module
brought about a decrease in PV output. For this reason, Dusted and clean solar PV module
was tested practically and observed that there is significant increase in the output voltage
with the cleaning of Solar PV module. For this reason, a PV module of max. power 260 Wp
and open-circuit voltage 36.0 V was chosen.
Table 1 shows the rating and capacity of the test system under observation. King-
Star solar PV panels are selected for experimental setup. PV module model name is
KS260P-60. Max power it can generate is 260 W/module having Voc and Isc of 36 V and
9 A, respectively.
Table 1. Different types of ratings of the presented model.
King-Star Solar (www.kingstar-solar.com)
Model Name KS260 P-60
Max Power (Pm) 260 Wp
Open-Circuit Voltage (Voc) 36.0 V
Short-Circuit Current (Isc) 9.06 A
Max Power Voltage (Vmp) 30.2 V
Max Power Current (Imp) 8.60 A
Max System Voltage (V) 1000 VDC
Temperature Cycling Range −40 ◦ C to +85 ◦ C
Tolerance +/−10%
Weight 22.0 Kg
4.1. Effect of Dust on Output Voltage
Two modules of PV were chosen to observe the contrast in output open-circuit voltage.
At the temperature of 46 ◦ C, the experiment was performed. The voltage distinction of
dusted and clean PV module has been observed within Figure 4a,b individually.
Figure 4a,b shows the response of the module in respect of open-circuit voltage for
dusted and cleaned PV panels. (a) This shows the experimental result of the PV module for
a dusted surface at 46 ◦ C. (b) This shows the open-circuit voltage value for the cleaned PV
module at 46 ◦ C.
Figure 5 shows there is almost a 1-volt difference between the open circuit voltages of
clean and neatened solar PV modules. In our proposed location, the five pumps required
power is 92 KW. For this reason, 200 PV panels will be introduced at that point. Hence,
on the off chance that we will spare 1-volt from each dusted solar PV module, we can
increase the productivity of the PV panel to be introduced for the operation of pumps for
irrigation purposes.
Weight 22.0 Kg
4.1. Effect of Dust on Output Voltage
Two modules of PV were chosen to observe the contrast in output open-circuit volt-
Sustainability 2022, 14, 6235 8 of 16
age. At the temperature of 46 °C, the experiment was performed. The voltage distinction
of dusted and clean PV module has been observed within Figure 4a, b individually.
Sustainability 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Figure 4a,b shows the response of the module in respect of open-circ
dusted and cleaned PV panels. (a) This shows the experimental result of t
for a dusted surface at 46 °C. (b) This shows the open-circuit voltage value
PV module at 46 °C.
Figure 5 shows there is almost a 1-volt difference between the open c
of clean and neatened solar PV modules. In our proposed location, the f
quired power is 92 KW. For this reason, 200 PV panels will be introduced
Hence,
(a) on the off chance that we will spare (b)1-volt from each dusted solar P
can increase
Figure
Figure 4.4. (a)
(a) Solar
the
Solar PV
productivity
PV module
module model
model at
at the
of the PVof panel
the temperature
temperature of 46
46 °C;
◦ C; (b)toThe
be
(b) The
introduced
open-circuit
open-circuit output
for the opera
output voltage
voltage
offor irrigation purposes.
of clean
clean
solar PV module
solar PV module
model.
model.
Figure
Figure 5. The
5. The open open
circuit circuit output
output voltage voltage
of dusted ofPV
solar dusted
modulesolar
model.PV module model.
4.2. Active Water Cooling Method
4.2.Moreover,
Active Water Cooling
as discussed Method
earlier, the electric output decreases with an increase in the
working temperatures. For this reason, dynamic cooling was used to reduce the temper-
Moreover, as discussed earlier, the electric output decreases with an
ature of the photovoltaic module as shown in the Figure 6. In our proposed solar PV
working
setup [3], wetemperatures. For this
are making a lean layer reason,
of water dynamic
to stream cooling
on the surface of thewas used to redu
panels.
ature of the photovoltaic module as shown in the figure 6. In our proposed
[3], we are making a lean layer of water to stream on the surface of the pan
4.2. Active Water Cooling Method
Moreover, as discussed earlier, the electric output decreases with an increa
working temperatures. For this reason, dynamic cooling was used to reduce the
Sustainability 2022, 14, 6235 ature of the photovoltaic module as shown in the figure 6. In our proposed
9 of 16 solar P
[3], we are making a lean layer of water to stream on the surface of the panels.
Figure
Sustainability 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Figure 6. Active
6. Active water
water cooling
cooling of solarof
PVsolar PV
module. module. 9 of 16
Various plans to decrease reflection have been proposed; however, a significant part
Various plans to decrease reflection have been proposed; however, a signific
of them have drawbacks such as utilization of hostile to intelligent coatings, which are
of them
water withhave
exceptionally a smalldrawbacks
refractive
solid index such
of 1.3 as
and besides utilization
is the
organized of are
mostsurfaces hostile
attainable toUp
interface
costly. intelligent
between coatings,
until this glass
point, w
(η = 1.5)
exceptionally
and
waterdiscuss (η = small
1) [21].
with a refractive solid
index andis the
Furthermore,
of 1.3 besides organized
a flimsy
most of surfaces
layer interface
attainable waterbetween are glass
streamingcostly. =Up
on(ηthe until th
outside
1.5) of
and PV
the discuss
panel(η would
= 1) [21].build
Furthermore, a flimsyheat
the convective layertransfer
of waterfrom
streaming on the outside
the outside of
of the water wil
the PV panel would build the convective heat transfer from the outside of the
bring further increase in the effectiveness by controlling the surface temperature of the PV water will
bring further
module [3]. increase in the effectiveness by controlling the surface temperature of the PV
module [3].
Spilling a film of cooling water on the module surface has to be compelled to hypo-
Spilling a film of cooling water on the module surface has to be compelled to hypo-
thetically permitactivity
thetically permit activity at even
at even lower
lower temperatures
temperatures than without
than without the cooling
the cooling PV modulePV module
as shownininthe
as shown theFigure
figure 7 below.
7 below. Because
Because of speedy
of the the speedy progression
progression of thethrough
of the water water through
the surface, there has to be just a negligible increase in water temperature
the surface, there has to be just a negligible increase in water temperature [21]. [21].
Figure
Figure 7.7.Voltage
Voltage improvement
improvement after
after active
active waterwater cooling
cooling ofPV
of solar solar PV module.
module.
The
Theestimations
estimationsand andresults that
results appeared
that in the
appeared figures
in the can can
figures be accomplished by by in-
be accomplished
introducing the little and low-cost pump for PV modules with insignificant cost impact.
troducing the little and low-cost pump for PV modules with insignificant cost impact. Due
Due to the presence of excessive water at the proposed location, it will be exceptionally
to the presence of excessive water at the proposed location, it will be exceptionally con-
convenient to carry out the dynamic cooling of solar PV modules. Moreover, the water
venient to carry out the dynamic cooling of solar PV modules. Moreover, the water after
performing the dynamic cooling of solar PV modules will be utilized to move forward the
grounding of the PV module by channelizing. It will also help in the enhancement of
productivity.
Sustainability 2022, 14, 6235 10 of 16
after performing the dynamic cooling of solar PV modules will be utilized to move forward
the grounding of the PV module by channelizing. It will also help in the enhancement
of productivity.
The results of the practical test are very encouraging. In early morning and late
evening, it has been observed that the cooling of the PV panel is reducing heat from the
board, making it less effective [22]. The practical experiment showed that avoiding early
morning cooling and late evening cooling of PV panels increases the overall output voltage
of the solar control plant.
We are proposing the PV panels to operate the pump house, including five centrifugal
horizontal pumps within the selected region of Pakistan, where water is accessible in
abundance. In the proposed area, after opting for the approach of improving solar panel
efficiency, we are utilizing water based dynamic cooling to maintain a strategic distance
from thermal losses within the PV panels. The perforated polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastic
pipe with holes at the top of the panels was fixed to another pipe leading towards the
motor, which draws water from the adjacent canal. Closed-circuit water streams have to be
x FOR PEER REVIEW incorporated with a few components for absorption of warmth from the surface of the 10PVof 16
panels as described in the Figure 8 below.
After that, we are proposing lightning protection for the PV panels. For this, a “Water
channel” mechanism has been proposed, in which wastewater after cooling of PV panels
would stream through the proposed water channel. This water channel has been designed
way of the said water
in a way channel. Withforthe
that grounding the arrangement of the
purpose of lightning waterof channel,
protection the in
PV panels come surface
the
temperature of the
waysoil
of remains lowchannel.
the said water as wellWith
as itthewill be useful
arrangement forwater
of the the grounding reason.
channel, the surface
temperature of the soil remains low as well as it will be useful for the grounding reason.
Figure 8. Diagram showing proposed idea.
Figure 8. Diagram showing proposed idea.
5. Cost Analysis
5. Cost Analysis A couple of recreation and computational gadgets have been made, such as MATLAB,
TRYNSIS, and Hybrid 2, as well as different calculation methods for energy reproduction.
A couple ofHOMERrecreation and has
programming computational gadgets
been built up by NREL (Nationalhave beenEnergy
Renewable made, such as
Laboratory,
Cole Boulevard Golden, CO, USA) which is utilized for ideal
MATLAB, TRYNSIS, and Hybrid 2, as well as different calculation methods for energy planning and to study the
techno-monetary possibility of the autonomous and hybrid sustainable power source
reproduction. HOMER programming has been built up by NREL (National Renewable
system. This item may be a profitable gadget for the perfect planning, measuring, and
Energy Laboratory, Cole Boulevard
arranging Golden,
of hybrid economic CO,
power USA)
source which
systems is utilized
through fortechno-financial
carting out ideal planning
and to study the techno-monetary possibility
examination for away lattice of the autonomous
and matrix-associated and hybrid
power frameworks [23]. sustainable
power source system. This item may be a profitable gadget for the perfect planning, meas-
uring, and arranging of hybrid economic power source systems through carting out
techno-financial examination for away lattice and matrix-associated power frameworksSustainability 2022, 14, 6235 11 of 16
5.1. Components of Proposed Model
The majority of PV modules or solar power is seen as expensive when it is contrasted
with such power frameworks that are operating on standard energy sources. Utilization
of solar power in such a way is not exempt from cost examination, as a single PV module
is expensive when utilized independently and differentiated and accessible at entryway
step. Figure 9 shows the schematic diagram of model used for simulation in Homer pro
simulation tool. As HOMER Pro simulation apparatus is utilized to give the framework
y 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW designers possibility and financial report of the framework being planned, so as to check
frameworks suitability. The principal motivation behind the HOMER Pro is to limit the net
present cost NPC and working expenses of the framework dependent on the affectability
inputs. For the financial investigation, the yearly markdown pace of 10%-and 25-years
venture lifetime was considered [23].
Figure 9. Homer model used in simulation.
Figure 9. Homer model used in simulation.
“Schneider Conext CL25000 E with generic PV” and panels of type “Flat plate” PV
panels having the effectiveness of 17.30% with the rated capacity of 495 KW are utilized
for simulation. The capital cost of the PV module is considered 1200 USD/kW. However,
“Schneider Conext CL25000 E with generic
replacement cost is considered as 1200 USD/kW with operation and maintenance cost
of 34 USD/year. The PV module lifetime is 25 years. Capital expense of converter is
panels having the effectiveness of 17.30% with t
considered as 300$ while substitution cost is additionally 300$ [24]. The derating variable
of PV exhibit is 85% as shown in the Figure 10.
for simulation. The capital cost of the PV modul
replacement cost is considered as 1200 USD/kW
34 USD/year. The PV module lifetime is 25 year
ered as 300$ while substitution cost is additiona
exhibit is 85% as shown in the Figure 10.“Schneider Conext CL25000 E with generic PV” and panels of type “Flat plate” PV
panels having the effectiveness of 17.30% with the rated capacity of 495 KW are utilized
for simulation. The capital cost of the PV module is considered 1200 USD/kW. However,
replacement cost is considered as 1200 USD/kW with operation and maintenance cost of
34 USD/year. The PV module lifetime is 25 years. Capital expense of converter is consid-
Sustainability 2022, 14, 6235 12 of 16
ered as 300$ while substitution cost is additionally 300$ [24]. The derating variable of PV
exhibit is 85% as shown in the Figure 10.
Figure 10. Solar PV module used in simulation.
Figure 10. Solar PV module used in simulation.
5.2. Comparison
5.2. Comparison of of Cost
Cost of
of Solar
Solar PV
PV Plant and Hydro
Hydro power
power Plant
Plant Being
Being Used
Used for
for Irrigation
Irrigation
System
System in in Proposed
Proposed Site
Site
In
In the
the proposed
proposed location
location (Spinwam, Area North Waziristan),
Waziristan), aa 0.4
0.4 MW
MW Hydropower
Hydropower
station
station has
has been
been proposed
proposed to to run
run the
the pump
pump house,
house, comprising
comprising five
five horizontal
horizontal centrifugal
centrifugal
pumps.
pumps. In In this research
research work,
work, we
we plan
plan to
to compare
compare the
the cost
cost proposed
proposed of of Hydropower
Hydropower and and
PV
PV for
for the
the operation
operation of of the
the said
said pump
pump house.
house.
5.3.
5.3. Hydro
Hydro Power
Power Station
Station at
at Proposed
Proposed Site
Site
At the chosen location, a powerhouse having a capacity of 0.4 MW has been proposed
to run the pump house, in order to lift the water to irrigate the upper lands. The prime
objective of this venture is to irrigate the virgin lands of Spaira Ragha fields (4080 sections
of land) and Sheratalla plains (12,300 acres) regions, which will advance agriculture within
the remote regions of Pakistan.
The need of the running pump house will be met with the development of a 0.4 MW
hydropower plant by introducing two Francis turbines at the powerhouse with the installed
capacity of 0.4 MW. The project is environmentally sound because it will not deliver CO2
and SO2 , as compared to thermal generation. Climate change represents a significant
test for developing countries. Regardless of providing evidence to assist low-carbon
and environment versatile techniques, Pakistan currently cannot commit to standard
environmental change inside their public improvement plans. The project will develop
the thought of feasible advancement through the gathering of the Clean Development
Mechanism (CDM).
5.4. Cost of Hydro Power
At the chosen location, the cost of hydropower also includes the cost of an 11 KV
transmission line having a distance of 9 km. The acquiring of land, as well as the cost of
land, also plays an imperative part in the cost of the hydropower plant. A hydro power
project cost includes different types of major E&M equipment as well as their insurance,
shipping, handling and storage and local transport, due to which the cost of Hydro power
project reaches its limits.
In the Bill of Quantities (BOQ) for a hydropower station, the BOQ rate of electrical
and mechanical works for the hydro power plant having a capacity of 0.4 MW is PKRSustainability 2022, 14, 6235 13 of 16
278 million. The 9 Km transmission line (11 KV) from the location of PH to the pumphouse
costs PKR 62 million, whereas the cost of penstock material, fabrication and hydro testing,
which also includes installation, is PKR 117.45 million [25]. Furthermore, time is the key
factor that can impact the project’s progress.
5.5. Cost of Solar Plant
The schematic model of the solar and diesel generator has been analyzed in the Homer
Pro simulation tool. Different costs of the model are shown in the Tables 2 and 3 and
Figure 11 below:
Table 2. Different types of costs of the presented model.
Cost Type USD
Net Present Cost 746,800
Operating Cost 42,919.35
Initial Capital Cost 687,100
Sustainability 2022, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 16
Cost of Energy 2.88
Figure 11. Cost of different components of model.
Figure 11. Cost of different components of model.
6. Results
Component wise costs of the model is shown in the table below:
Different type of losses of PV panels such as thermal losses, loses due to dust
deposition, etc. are all addressed and strategies to reduce these losses are considered and
analyzed. We are proposing power generation to operate the pump house in the chosen
region of district North Waziristan to lift the water from lower lands and to irrigate the
upper lands of the said locality. Hence, there is excessive water at said location, due to
which we are proposing dynamic water cooling of PV panels to bring down the thermal
losses and also to reduce the dust deposition on the surface of PV panels.
Lightning protection of the proposed PV panels has been discussed and examined.
In our proposed proposal, excessive water after satisfying the cooling purpose of panels
will be channelized through the open channel. The structure for lightning protection has
been proposed such that water channels will help with damping the grounding soil to get
the finest grounding of solar PV panels.
The renewable stand-alone hybrid model is simulated and optimized by the Homer
Pro simulation tool, and the feasible result has been examined. Net present cost (NPC),Sustainability 2022, 14, 6235 14 of 16
Table 3. Different components cost of model.
Capital Replacement O and M Salvage Total
Component
(USD) (USD) (USD) (USD) (USD)
Battery 23,100 7364.45 17,064.32 4150.34 43,378.43
Deisel
40,000 00 00 9342.76 30,658.24
Generator
Converter 30,000 26,503.13 25,855.03 3593.37 78,764.79
Solar PV 594,000 00 00 00 594,000
System 687,100 33,867.58 42,919.35 17,086.46 746,800.47
6. Results
Different type of losses of PV panels such as thermal losses, loses due to dust de-
position, etc. are all addressed and strategies to reduce these losses are considered and
analyzed. We are proposing power generation to operate the pump house in the chosen
region of district North Waziristan to lift the water from lower lands and to irrigate the
upper lands of the said locality. Hence, there is excessive water at said location, due to
which we are proposing dynamic water cooling of PV panels to bring down the thermal
losses and also to reduce the dust deposition on the surface of PV panels.
Lightning protection of the proposed PV panels has been discussed and examined. In
our proposed proposal, excessive water after satisfying the cooling purpose of panels will
be channelized through the open channel. The structure for lightning protection has been
proposed such that water channels will help with damping the grounding soil to get the
finest grounding of solar PV panels.
The renewable stand-alone hybrid model is simulated and optimized by the Homer
Pro simulation tool, and the feasible result has been examined. Net present cost (NPC), cost
of electricity (COE), capital cost, replacement cost, operation, and maintenance cost has
been acquired from the Homer Pro software. The most important factors in the planned
model for distant domain charge are NPC, COE and the capital cost of Model. At the
chosen area, the land procurement in terms of cost is not difficult. The analysis carried out
indicated that the cost of one plot of land in the chosen location costs PKR 0.1 million. After
calculation, the PV model comprising 495 PV panels would cover nearly two acres of land.
Each result of the planned model is differentiated and discussed with regard to the hydro
power plant, after which a conclusion has been made.
Results gained from experimental observations have been analyzed and compared
with previously obtained results as shown in Tables 4 and 5:
Table 4. Comparison of o/p voltage with and without dust.
Operating O/P Voltage with O/P Voltage of
Power Source
Temperature Dust Deposition Clean Surface
Solar PV Panel of 38 v capacity 46 ◦ C 29.9 v 30.8 v
Table 5. Comparison of o/p voltage with and without water-cooling.
O/P Voltage of Dry and of
O/P Voltage of Clean and
Power Source High Temperature Panel
Water-Cooled Panel Surface
Surface
Solar PV Panel of 38 v
28 v 30 v
capacity
After the water cooling of PV panels, the drain water would be channelized once more
towards the pump house, and again it will be included with its source. The earthing of theSustainability 2022, 14, 6235 15 of 16
lightning protection scheme has been proposed to be laid down beneath the said channel,
so that the soil remains damp all day.
The capital cost of the hydropower plant having a capacity of 0.4 MW comes out to be,
PKR 278 million. However, in the proposed plan, there is a 9 Km transmission line (11 KV)
from the location of the powerhouse to the pump house having a cost of PKR 62 million.
Still, the cost of penstock material, fabrication and hydro testing including installation is
PKR 117.45 million. The hydropower plant requires land of nearly 10 acres and the per acre
cost is PKR 0.1 million. Consequently, the total capital cost of the hydropower plant comes
out to be PKR 458.45 million, which is equivalent to USD 2.760 million at an exchange rate
of 166.05. However, the capital cost of the proposed model comprising PV, battery storage,
converter, and emergency diesel generator is USD 687,100. This makes the PV framework
more economical in terms of cost analysis to operate the pump house in the chosen location.
7. Conclusions
A locally available water-cooling mechanism is the inexpensive and easy process
looking at the challenges regarding photovoltaic technology for irrigation purposes in the
remote areas concerning its hot and dusty climate. The experimental design of a water
cleaning and cooling mechanism on a single PV panel of 360 W demonstrated a gain of
2 V per panel, which can significantly improve the complete PV plant of 0.4 MW for the
area of 7444.69 m2 . The same water is then channelized for its major purpose of irrigation,
which avoids the wastage of water. Moreover, generally practicing Hydel power generation
in such an area where excessive water availability is considered a fundamental reason
to rely on, is expensive in terms of capital cost compared to newly emerging cheap PV
technology. The cost estimation for a Hydel power plant of 0.4 MW, provided by a company
responsible for dam designing in the region, has approximated PKR 278 million, which
is PKR 2 million higher than that of the PV technology we have proposed with the water
cooling and cleaning mechanism. Along with an efficient cleaning and cooling system,
protection against surges and lightning strikes is also incorporated in the PV system, which
will ensure PV plant durability.
However, the water used for cleaning is directly taken from the stream / canal, which
might have some chemical impact on the panel’s chemical composition. It may result in the
degradation of PV efficiency or lifetime, which needs a detailed lab investigation. In this
case, stream water containing minerals that result in the degradation of PV can be avoided
by using a filtration plant. Such filtered water can be used both for clean PV and for the
benefit of the local community. Moreover, the output voltage can be improved by using
LDR sensors and MPPTs.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, W.R.; methodology, W.R. and I.U.; software, W.R.; val-
idation, I.U., N.U. and A.A.A.; formal analysis, I.U.; investigation, W.R.; I.U.; resources, N.U.;
writ-ing—original draft preparation, W.R.; writing—review and editing, I.U., W.R.; supervision, I.U.;
project administration, N.U.; funding acquisition, N.U. and A.A.A. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by Taif University, Taif, Saudi Arabia, under Taif University
Researchers Supporting Project (TURSP-2020/121).
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.Sustainability 2022, 14, 6235 16 of 16
References
1. Shukla, A.K.; Sudhakar, K.; Baredar, P.J. Design, simulation and economic analysis of standalone roof top solar PV system in
India. Sol. Energy 2016, 136, 437–449. [CrossRef]
2. Kamran, M. Current status and future success of renewable energy in Pakistan. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018, 82, 609–617.
[CrossRef]
3. Prudhvi, P.; Sai, P.C. Efficiency improvement of solar PV panels using active cooling. In Proceedings of the 2012 11th International
Conference on Environment and Electrical Engineering, Venice, Italy, 18–25 May 2012; pp. 1093–1097.
4. Melis, W.J.; Mallick, S.K.; Relf, P. Increasing solar panel efficiency in a sustainable manner. In Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE
International Energy Conference (ENERGYCON), Cavtat, Croatia, 13–16 May 2014; pp. 912–915.
5. Zorrilla-Casanova, J.; Philiougine, M.; Carretero, J.; Bernaola, P.; Carpena, P.; Mora-López, L.; Sidrach-de-Cardona, M. Analysis of
dust losses in photovoltaic modules. In Proceedings of the World Renewable Energy Congress-Sweden, Linköping, Sweden, 8–13
May 2011; pp. 2985–2992.
6. Vaillon, R.; Dupré, O.; Cal, R.B.; Calaf, M.J. Pathways for mitigating thermal losses in solar photovoltaics. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 1–9.
[CrossRef] [PubMed]
7. Ahmad, N.; Ab-Kadir, M.; Izadi, M.; Azis, N.; Radzi, M.; Zaini, N.; Nasir, M. Lightning protection on photovoltaic systems: A
review on current and recommended practices. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2018, 82, 1611–1619. [CrossRef]
8. Popovici, C.G.; Hudişteanu, S.V.; Mateescu, T.D.; Cherecheş, N.-C.J. Efficiency improvement of photovoltaic panels by using air
cooled heat sinks. Energy Procedia 2016, 85, 425–432. [CrossRef]
9. Sayyah, A.; Horenstein, M.N.; Mazumder, M.K.J.S.E. Energy yield loss caused by dust deposition on photovoltaic panels. Sol.
Energy 2014, 107, 576–604. [CrossRef]
10. Moharram, K.A.; Abd-Elhady, M.; Kandil, H.; El-Sherif, H.J. Enhancing the performance of photovoltaic panels by water cooling.
Ain Shams Eng. J. 2013, 4, 869–877. [CrossRef]
11. Nižetić, S.; Giama, E.; Papadopoulos, A.J. Comprehensive analysis and general economic-environmental evaluation of cooling
techniques for photovoltaic panels, Part II: Active cooling techniques. Energy Convers. Manag. 2018, 155, 301–323. [CrossRef]
12. Häberlin, H. Protecting PV Installations Against Lightning. In Photovoltaics: System Design and Practice, 1st ed.; Herbert Eppel at HE
Translations: Leicester, UK, 2012; Volume ch.06, pp. 395–485. Available online: https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Photovoltaics%
3A+System+Design+and+Practice-p-9781119978381 (accessed on 16 February 2022).
13. World Lightning Strikes Map. Available online: http://geology.com/articles/lightning-map.shtml (accessed on 16 February 2022).
14. Hasse, P. Protective measures, standards. In Overvoltage Protection of Low Voltage Systems, 2nd ed.; IEE: London, UK, 2008;
Volume ch.04, pp. 67–126. Available online: https://343lzp26ts7kiqip8biqf71a-wpengine.netdna-ssl.com/wp-content/uploads/
Overvoltage-Protection-of-Low-Voltage-Systems-By-Peter-Hasse.pdf (accessed on 16 February 2022).
15. Jiang, T.; Grzybowski, S. Electrical degradation of Photovoltaic modules caused by lightning induced voltage. In Proceedings of
the 2014 IEEE Electrical Insulation Conference (EIC), Philadelphia, PA, USA, 8–11 June 2014; pp. 107–110.
16. Jiang, T.; Grzybowski, S. Impact of lightning impulse voltage on polycrystalline silicon photovoltaic modules. In Proceedings of
the 2013 International Symposium on Lightning Protection (XII SIPDA), Belo Horizonte, Brazil, 7–11 October 2013; pp. 287–290.
17. Jiang, T.; Grzybowski, S. Influence of lightning impulse voltages on power output characteristics of Photovoltaic modules. In
Proceedings of the 2014 ICHVE International Conference on High Voltage Engineering and Application, Poznan, Poland, 8–11
September 2014; pp. 1–4.
18. Christodoulou, C.A.; Ekonomou, L.; Gonos, I.F.; Papanikolaou, N.P. Lightning protection of PV systems. Energy Syst. 2016,
7, 469–482. [CrossRef]
19. Nasir, M.; Ab-Kadir, M.; Radzi, M.; Izadi, M.; Ahmad, N.; Zaini, N.J. Lightning performance analysis of a rooftop grid-connected
solar photovoltaic without external lightning protection system. PLoS ONE 2019, 14, e0219326. [CrossRef] [PubMed]
20. Irfan, M.; Zhao, Z.-Y.; Ahmad, M.; Mukeshimana, M.C. Solar energy development in Pakistan: Barriers and policy recommenda-
tions. Sustainability 2019, 11, 1206. [CrossRef]
21. Krauter, S.J. Increased electrical yield via water flow over the front of photovoltaic panels. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 2004,
82, 131–137. [CrossRef]
22. Arshad, R.; Tariq, S.; Niaz, M.U.; Jamil, M. Improvement in solar panel efficiency using solar concentration by simple mirrors and
by cooling. In Proceedings of the 2014 International Conference on Robotics and Emerging Allied Technologies in Engineering
(iCREATE), Islamabad, Pakistan, 22–24 April 2014; pp. 292–295.
23. Shahzad, M.K.; Zahid, A.; ur Rashid, T.; Rehan, M.A.; Ali, M.; Ahmad, M.J. Techno-economic feasibility analysis of a solar-biomass
off grid system for the electrification of remote rural areas in Pakistan using HOMER software. Renew. Energy 2017, 106, 264–273.
[CrossRef]
24. Ghenai, C.; Bettayeb, M.J. Grid-tied solar PV/fuel cell hybrid power system for university building. Energy Procedia 2019,
159, 96–103. [CrossRef]
25. Water and Power Development Authority WAPDA. Lahore, Pakistan, Contract Documents, For Construction of Civil Works
along with Design, Supply, Installation, Testing and Commissioning of Hydraulic Steel, Mechanical and Electrical Works Between
WAPDA and FWO-DESCON Joint Venture (Volume-1, Contractual). 2016; pp. 115–117.You can also read
