Nitrogen management is critical for wine fl avour and style
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A W R I R E P O R T
Nitrogen management
is critical for wine
Managing Director,
Sakkie Pretorius. flavour and style
Maurizio Ugliano, Paul A. Henschke, Markus J. Herderich, Isak S. Pretorius
The Australian Wine Research Institute, PO Box 197, Glen Osmond (Adelaide), South Australia 5064, Australia
“W inemaking begins in the vineyard” is a mantra
that has widespread support amongst
winemakers. It conveys the concept of vineyard
end-products in different amounts (Albers et al. 1998). Some of
the end products that have sensory properties can lead to changes
in the flavour profile of the wine. H2S formation is an all-too-well
or, in French jargon, terroir as an intrinsic property of grape, known example relating to nitrogen depletion stress.
and consequently the corresponding wine. There is no doubt Clearly, the vineyard environment and intervention by the
that many great wines are associated with great vineyards. So, viticulturist shape the development of the vine and especially
where do yeast fit in? the composition of the grape. Because the viticulturist attempts
The perception that fermentation yeast faithfully transform to balance a long list of priorities in order to produce fruit to
grape must into wine has been changing in the detail over the specification, most attention will focus on those factors that
past decades. Th is is a result of science uncovering the many cannot be modified once the fruit has been harvested.
roles that yeast perform, and the wider selection of strains Therefore, yeast nutrients, especially nitrogen, might not be
available that promote these various attributes. For example, optimised for fermentation, largely in the belief that nutrients
whereas most strains produce a relatively similar, generic, can be easily corrected in the winery. Given that we estimate
fermentation bouquet only some strains possess a strong that up to 500t of diammonium phosphate (DAP) could be
ability to hydrolyse cysteine conjugates responsible for used each year to produce Australian wine, is this winemaking
Sauvignon Blanc character, meaning that only selected strains input being used effectively?
can enhance varietal expression (Swiegers et al. 2006). Our current state of knowledge on the implications of
Winemakers today have many options through fermentation controlling vineyard nitrogen as opposed to fermentation
management to enhance the varietal characteristics of their nitrogen on fermentation performance and wine composition
wine, or to express further regional attributes. Furthermore, has been recently reviewed by Bell and Henschke (2005). In
yeast strongly respond to their environment. It is well known this article, we will focus on the role that fermentation nitrogen
that temperature affects the rate of fermentation, that grape has in modulating metabolism and some of the changes that
solids enhance survival and that high osmotic stress, as this can have on wine flavour. We will first summarise current
imposed by a Botrytis-affected must, leads not only to increased best practice for managing fermentation nitrogen and then
glycerol production but also to higher volatile acidity. The describe the main flavour changes that are affected by nitrogen.
latter example highlights the remarkable ability of yeast to Finally, we will consider the flavour implications of nitrogen for
adapt to stressful (i.e. high sugar) environments. However, white and red wine fermentations.
there is an accompanying metabolic adaptation which can
have positive or negative flavour implications. CURRENT BEST PRACTICE FOR MANAGING
At the time of inoculation, yeast are subjected to a range of FERMENTATION NITROGEN
stresses to which the cell must adapt in order to exploit its new A common practice amongst winemakers is to make a standard
environment. Some of the known stresses are osmotic pressure, addition of DAP to the juice or must (100-300mg/L) at
oxidative conditions, sulphite toxicity and temperature shock inoculation without measuring the nitrogen concentration. This
(Bauer and Pretorius 2000). Nutrients, whether present in sub- or article will show that DAP addition has significant flavour
super-optimal concentration, can also induce stress and metabolic consequences and that measuring the initial nitrogen
responses. The primary response is aimed at protecting the cell concentration provides the opportunity to adjust DAP addition
from committing to reproduction when key nutrients are lacking not only to achieve an adequate fermentation rate, but also to
or dealing with potential toxicity when the concentration is more reliably guide the flavour profile and style of wine required.
outside the normal range. The metabolic response often involves This work is still in a conceptual stage based on studies with
a cascade of biochemical reactions, some of which can lead to Chardonnay and Shiraz; however, it should stimulate
altered metabolism of nutrients such that the yeast will secrete winemakers to experiment with these and other varieties.
24 w w w.w i n e b i z . c o m . a u > N O V E M B E R / D E C E M B E R 2 0 0 7 > V O L 2 2 N O 6 > W I N E I N D U S T R Y J O U R N A L
A W R I R E P O R T 1.1 Measuring YAN YAN (Figure 1). This procedure is used In general, in order to achieve an Grapes contain a variety of nitrogenous by NATA-accredited laboratories such as adequate rate of fermentation to dryness, compounds of which the most important AWRI’s Analytical Service laboratory a cellar bright juice containing are the primary or alpha amino acids, (http://www.awri.com.au/analytical_ V O L 2 2 N O 6 > N O V E M B E R / D E C E M B E R 2 0 0 7 > w w w.w i n e b i z . c o m . a u 25
A W R I R E P O R T
DAP (equivalent to 360mg/L YAN) if we butanediol and the organic acids, yeast Vitilevure M05 DAP addition
assume that the juice/must contained no especially acetic and succinic acids and, increases glycerol production whereas the
phosphate; in practice a lesser amount of to a lesser extent, the ketoacids, such as reverse is the case for AWRI 796 (Vilanova
DAP can only, therefore, be added. pyruvic acid and ␣-ketoglutaric acid. et al. 2007). Both yeast, however, produce
Overuse of DAP can also stimulate The production of many of these the lowest concentrations of acetic acid at
overproduction of acetate esters, primary metabolites of sugar metabolism moderate YAN concentrations (range of
especially ethyl acetate, resulting in the is modulated by YAN, although the 200-250mg/L) while higher concentrations
perception of volatile acidity (VA) and magnitude of changes has been observed are produced at both lower and higher
suppression of varietal character. As to depend on the yeast strain under concentrations of YAN. Malic acid
discussed in the following sections, high consideration. Furthermore, the type of consumption does, however, increase with
YAN (exceeding 450-500mg/L YAN) nitrogen source used, DAP or amino increasing DAP concentration, irrespective
can stimulate ethyl acetate production by acids, aff ects metabolite production of yeast strain. On the contrary and
many yeast strains. (Albers et al. 1996). Because low YAN depending on the strain, succinic acid
When working with very low YAN juices are typically supplemented with concentration can increase with increasing
juices, we have observed that other DAP, only the impact of ammonium DAP addition (Coulter et al. 2004). In
nutrients can similarly be low. Thus, when ion concentration on the production of general, YAN can affect TA and the
YAN is low and other nutrient deficiencies yeast metabolites will be discussed in balance of organic acids which can affect
are suspected, it can be useful to add a this article. flavour (Sowalsky and Noble 1998).
proprietary yeast food that contains more Ethanol is the major product of sugar Sulphur dioxide production during
complex forms of N, as well as vitamins, fermentation. However, while DAP fermentation can also be stimulated by
lipids and minerals. Indeed, continued addition increases yeast growth and the initial YAN concentration, but the
H 2S production after DAP addition rate of fermentation, it has little to no response seems to be yeast strain
suggests a general vitamin deficiency practical effect on final ethanol yield. dependent. Experimental work in
(Henschke 1996; Wang et al. 2003), Theoretically, DAP-grown yeast are synthetic media and wort suggests that
though other causes are also possible. forced to synthesise amino acids for cell low SO2 is produced in low YAN media
Most yeast suppliers can advise on the use growth when compared with amino acid but increases when initial YAN
of yeast foods, which are generally grown yeast. This decreases the availability is higher (Duan et al. 2004;
produced from inactivated yeast. proportion of sugar available for ethanol Osborne and Edwards 2006). SO 2
production (Albers et al. 1996), but in production contrasts with H 2 S
GENERAL METABOLIC RESPONSES OF our experiments this has a minor affect production, which is generally lowered
YEAST TO YAN on ethanol yield. by increasing YAN. Increased risk of
The principal role of sugar metabolism in Glycerol and acetic acid, which are MLF inhibition has also been associated
yeast is to generate energy and carbon important to wine composition and with high YAN addition but this
skeletons for building all the components flavour, respond relatively strongly to juice inhibition has not been conclusively
of the cell. These metabolic activities result YAN concentration (Albers et al. 1998; correlated with SO2 production (Osborne
in the accumulation of several by-products, Torrea et al. 2005; Vilanova et al. 2007). and Edwards 2006). Nevertheless, until
including esters, higher alcohols and Figure 2 summarises general trends better information is available,
polyols, carbonyls, acids and thiols which observed in synthetic juice and white wine consideration should be given to limiting
contribute to the aroma and flavour of fermentations. Both glycerol and acetic high YAN conditions when malolactic
wine. Nitrogen metabolism, which is acid production depends strongly on the fermentation (MLF) is required.
involved in the assimilation of nitrogen yeast strain used. For example, when using 2.2 Volatile aroma compounds
for the synthesis of protein and nucleic Among the various yeast metabolic
acids, also contributes to the pool of aroma pathways that are influenced by the
and flavour compounds. Because nitrogen nitrogen composition of the juice, those
metabolism is central to cell growth, it leading to volatile compounds are of
regulates other pathways, including sugar Glycerol particular importance due to the primary
and sulphur metabolism. Consequently, role played by fermentation-derived
Concentration
nitrogen availability can significantly Malic
volatiles in the aroma character of wine
acid
impact on the production of many flavour- (Smyth et al. 2005). Several studies have
Succinic
active metabolites. The nitrogen status of acid
indicated that both the total available
a juice or must, therefore, contributes to Acetic nitrogen and the balance of amino acids
wine flavour as well as affecting yeast acid
and ammonia can significantly affect the
growth and the fermentation of sugars. SO2
production of different groups of
100 200 300 400
2.1 Major fermentation products YAN fermentation-derived volatile compounds.
In addition to ethanol and CO2 , other Figure 2. Effect of yeast assimilable nitrogen From a practical point of view, the
major products of sugar metabolism are on production or utilisation of major metabolic
products of sugar fermentation and
problem of juice nitrogen composition is
the polyols, such as glycerol and sulphur assimilation. primarily linked to the frequent occurrence
26 w w w.w i n e b i z . c o m . a u > N O V E M B E R / D E C E M B E R 2 0 0 7 > V O L 2 2 N O 6 > W I N E I N D U S T R Y J O U R N A LA W R I R E P O R T
of juices with suboptimal concentrations that ammonium supplementation can odours, typically occur in concentrations
of nitrogen, and higher risk of slow or improve wine sensory quality by lowering that can be up to 400 times higher than
stuck fermentation. As this problem is higher alcohols production (Rapp and ethyl fatty acid esters, characterised by
frequently corrected in the winery through Versini 1991). However, based on the fruit-like odours. Nevertheless, relatively
the addition of DAP, several studies have trend shown in Figure 3, this advice has small variations in the concentration of
investigated the implications of this to be taken cautiously as it might apply ethyl fatty acid esters, such as those
common winery practice on the volatile only to fermentations with initial YAN introduced by variations in YAN content,
composition of wine (Ayrapaa 1971, Rapp in the range included in the descending are more likely to affect the aroma of wine
and Versini 1991; Carrau 2003; Torrea part of higher alcohols production than if proportionally similar variations
and Henschke 2004; Hernandez-Orte pattern, i.e. YAN >200mg N/L. would occur for higher alcohols. This is
et al. 2005, 2006; Vilanova et al. 2007). The production of fatty acids ethyl due to the fact that some of the possible
Due to the variety of yeast strains and esters, as well as of acetate esters, sensory modifications associated with
fermentation conditions employed, it is including ethyl acetate, is generally changes in the concentration of specific
somewhat difficult to extrapolate from the increased when DAP is added to the juice aroma compounds depend, among other
literature definitive conclusions concerning prior to alcoholic fermentation (Figure 3). factors, on the ability of that aroma
the effect of DAP addition on wine aroma. This can have interesting implications for compound to generate an olfactory
Nevertheless, some general trends relating wine flavour as fatty acids ethyl esters stimulus at a given concentration.
to DAP supplementation and wine volatile and acetates are generally responsible for This complex relationship is often
composition are summarised in Figure 3. the fruity character of wine (Guth and simplified by means of the concept of
Higher alcohols, which are directly Sies 2002). However, ethyl acetate, one odour threshold, defined as the minimum
related to amino acid metabolism in the of the dominant yeast-derived volatile concentration at which a given compound
cell, exhibit a characteristic behaviour. metabolites, when present at very high can be detected by the sense of smell
Therefore, when total nitrogen is concentrations, can give unwanted (Guth 1997). This is referred to as the
increased by adding ammonium to a sensory characteristics, often described odour activity value (OAV). Some of the
medium containing very low levels of with terms like nail lacquer/solvent and fermentation-derived volatile compounds,
YAN, the production of higher alcohols volatile acidity. Branched chain esters such as esters, that are generally associated
is initially increased, but then tends to are, from a quantitative point of view, the with the fruity character of wine, are
decrease after a peak between less abundant volatiles produced during extremely powerful odourants (i.e. have a
200-300mg/L YAN. This activity fermentation. Although their contribution very low odour threshold) and can,
depends on various factors, including to wine flavour has still to be clarified, therefore, impart specific sensory attributes
yeast strain and fermentation conditions. tentative evidence is available in the even when present in low concentrations.
Higher alcohols are characterised by literature for these compounds to be On the contrary, compounds like higher
fusel-like odours, and are generally important contributors to the red berry alcohols possess a much higher odour
thought to contribute to the complexity fruit character of some red wines (Diaz- threshold and, therefore, are likely to
of wine fermentation bouquet. However, Maroto et al. 2005). Their concentration generate variations in the aroma profile of
when present in very high concentrations appears to decrease with increased DAP a wine only when their concentration
they can have a negative impact on wine additions, however. varies to a very large extent. In Figure 4, a
aroma, mainly because they mask fruity The existence of a variety of different theoretical relationship between the OAV
characters. Several authors have reported responses for the various groups of yeast- of selected volatile compounds, belonging
derived volatile compounds to DAP to the chemical classes of Figure 3, and
supplementation arises from the fact that DAP supplementation is illustrated. It
each group of volatiles is derived from a appears clear then that the range of
different metabolic pathway, each of which variations potentially introduced by DAP
Concentration of yeast aroma compounds
respond differently to DAP
supplementation. However, from a
120
Higher alcohols practical point of view, understanding the Isoamyl alcohol
Ethyl octanoate
potential of DAP supplementation as a tool 100 Isoamyl acetate
Ethyl 3-methylbutanoate
to modulate wine sensory characteristics 80 Ethyl acetate
Odour Activity Value
Ethyl acetate
cannot be based simply on compositional
60
Acetate esters data. The various volatiles or groups of
Fatty acids
ethyl esters
volatiles illustrated in Figure 3 occur in 40
Branched chain wine over an extremely broad range of 20
esters
concentrations. However, this figure does
0
100 200 300 400 500 not represent the actual quantitative 100 200 300 400 500
YAN
relationship between different chemical YAN
Figure 3. Relationship between initial YAN species. For example, higher alcohols, Figure 4. Theoretical relationship between initial
concentration and final concentration of YAN concentration and Odour Activity Values of
volatile compounds after fermentation. characterised by herbaceous, fusel-like selected yeast-derived aroma compounds.
W I N E I N D U S T R Y J O U R N A L > V O L 2 2 N O 6 > N O V E M B E R / D E C E M B E R 2 0 0 7 > w w w.w i n e b i z . c o m . a u 27A W R I R E P O R T
in the concentration of acetates and fatty acid ethyl esters (isoamyl These results highlight the complexity of predicting wine
acetate and ethyl octanoate are used as reference compounds for aroma from compositional data. They also underline the
these two classes) can have a dramatic impact on the volatile importance of measuring YAN and adding the appropriate
character of wine, whereas variations in compounds such as higher amount of DAP, if necessary, before or during fermentation in
alcohols (isoamyl alcohol), although quantitatively extremely large, order to reduce the potentially negative effects that inadequate
are likely to have a limited impact. Although it has to be stressed or excessive DAP supplementation can have on wine aroma.
that OAVs only give a projection of the potential of a given Particularly, the risk of excessive formation of ethyl acetate has
compound to contribute to the overall aroma of a wine, the trends to be considered as this ester is relatively stable during wine
shown in Figure 4 provide a good indication of which one of the ageing, compared with other acetate and ethyl fatty acid esters,
compositional changes associated with DAP supplementation is which tend to decrease significantly after several months of
likely to have a greater impact on wine aroma. bottle storage.
3.2 Implications of nitrogen for red wine fermentations
IMPLICATIONS OF NITROGEN FOR WINE FERMENTATIONS
More recently, researchers at the AWRI have investigated the
3.1 Implications of nitrogen for white wine fermentations effect of DAP supplementation on the volatile composition of
Interestingly, the results obtained in various winemaking trials Shiraz wine (Ugliano et al. 2007). It is generally believed that
conducted at the AWRI with sub-optimal YAN juices have the conditions normally adopted for the production of red wine
indicated that, under typical winemaking conditions, DAP (i.e. higher temperatures, aeration of the fermenting must
supplementation is an extremely powerful tool for modulating during cap management operations, extraction of YAN and
the production of esters which, based on the previous discussion, other nutrients from skin during maceration) render
are probably the most sensorially-interesting group of fermentations less susceptible to slow or stuck fermentations,
compounds generated during fermentation. Figures 5 and 6 even when YAN concentrations approach the sub-optimal
show the variations in volatile compounds and the sensory range. Nevertheless, several surveys have shown that YAN levels
profi le of Chardonnay wines made at different DAP in red grapes can be well below optimal (Gockowiak and
concentrations. In good agreement with the trends shown in Henschke 1992; Butzke 1998; Nicolini et al. 2004; Ugliano
Figure 3, DAP had a positive effect on ester production, while and Henschke, unpublished data).
it lowered the formation of higher alcohols. However, the wines Although during red wine fermentations YAN deficiencies are
obtained with moderate nitrogen supplementation of the juice likely to have a more moderate effect on fermentation kinetics,
were preferred by panellists compared with those obtained they can still negatively affect the formation of important aroma
without or with high DAP addition. This preference might be compounds. From the results of a trial which was carried out on
due to a combination of higher acetates, ethyl fatty acid ester a low YAN Shiraz must (YAN 100mg/L) with S. cerevisiae
concentrations and moderate levels of ethyl acetate, the latter AWRI 796, it is again clearly evident that DAP supplementation
being associated with unwanted, solvent-like characteristics is a powerful tool for modulating the volatile composition of red
when present at very high concentrations. DAP addition to low wine. Th is confirms some of the trends observed during
YAN juices also suppresses the production of H 2 S and experiments with model substrates and white grape juices. As
mercaptans by many wine yeasts, which although not quantified can be seen in Figure 7, DAP supplementation resulted in higher
in this study, no doubt contributed to the preference of the production of ethyl fatty acid esters and acetate esters, while
moderate YAN wines. The impact of DAP addition on the higher alcohols were scarcely affected.
production of fruity thiols, such as 4MMP, 3MH and 3MHA,
still needs to be determined.
Banana
Wet cardboard 4 Fruit ester
12,000 160mg/L YAN 320mg/L YAN 480mg/L YAN 3.5
Sweaty 3 Artificial grape
2.5
10,000
More preferred aromas
Less preferred aromas
2
Cheesy 1.5 Musk
8000
Concentration µg/L
1
0.5
6000 Acetic 0 Floral
4000 Nail lacquer Stewed fruit
2000
Stale beer Tropical
0 Honey Citrus
Fatty acids ethyl esters Acetates Ethyl acetate/10 Higher alcohols/100 Bruised apple
Figure 5. Volatile compounds of wines obtained from a low YAN Figure 6. Sensory characteristics of wines obtained from a low YAN
(160mg/L) Chardonnay juice supplemented with two increasing (160mg/L) Chardonnay juice (green line) supplemented with two
concentrations of DAP, to a final YAN of 320mg/L and 480mg/L, increasing concentrations of DAP, to a final YAN of 320mg/L (red line)
respectively. Fermentations were carried out at 18ºC using S. cerevisiae and 480mg/L (blue line), respectively. Fermentations were carried out at
AWRI 796. 18ºC using S. cerevisiae AWRI 796.
28 w w w.w i n e b i z . c o m . a u > N O V E M B E R / D E C E M B E R 2 0 0 7 > V O L 2 2 N O 6 > W I N E I N D U S T R Y J O U R N A LA W R I R E P O R T
Preliminary results also indicated that YAN supplementation excessively estery wines. Similar effects can be expected in other
of must can have an impact on red wine colour composition. varieties, excepting for those varieties that depend on thiols, for
Analytical parameters related to colour intensity and hue were which no information is presently available. Clearly, more wine
indeed found to vary with DAP supplementation (Ugliano et al. sensory studies need to be undertaken to better understand the
2007). The factors responsible for this effect are currently being effects of must YAN and amino acid profile on wine flavour.
investigated at the AWRI. The effect might be ascribable to A red wine trial is currently in progress to understand better
various aspects of yeast metabolism that are known to modulate the impacts of managing nitrogen in the vineyard compared
wine colour and phenolics composition. Factors include with that in the winery on wine flavour and quality. This research
variations in the rate of ethanol production, absorption of can be expected to provide grapegrowers and winemakers with
anthocyanins on yeast cell walls (Morata et al. 2003) or better information for optimising wine style and quality
reactions with yeast-derived metabolites such as pyruvic acid according to consumer preferences and other desired outcomes.
and acetaldehyde to form pigmented polymers (Romero and
Bakker 1999). ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank our many colleagues for supporting this project,
CONCLUSION especially Tracey Siebert and Dimitra Capone for help with
This work shows that the concentration of yeast assimilable analysis of fermentation volatiles; Mariola Kwiatkowski and
nitrogen is not only important for ensuring that adequate yeast Meagan Mercurio for analysis of phenolic compounds; Kate
growth and fermentation kinetics are achieved, but also can Lattey, Belinda Bramley and Dr Leigh Francis for carrying out the
affect the production of the major metabolites arising from sensory analyses; Industry Development and Support and
sugar fermentation. Whereas ethanol concentration is little Analytical Service team members for help with chemical analyses;
affected, that of glycerol and various carboxylic acids can be and Dr Paul Chambers, Dr Cristian Varela and Biosciences team
markedly modulated. These changes are likely to affect wine members for many helpful discussions. Professor Francisco
flavour. Most importantly, however, is the finding that YAN Carrau, of Uruguay, and visiting scientists Drs Diego Torrea and
can strongly influence production of some of the volatile Mar Vilanova, from Spain, have made important contributions to
metabolites, especially the acetate and ethyl esters, which are this project. We are especially grateful to Mike Farmilo, of Boar’s
known to be positive to wine aroma when in balance. The Rock winery, for supplying a large number of juice samples and
impact of higher alcohols, which can be negative when present donating must for the Shiraz fermentation trials, and Russell
in high concentration, can also be modulated by YAN. These Johnstone and Inca Pearce, of Orlando Wines, and Louisa Rose
various yeast metabolites were also found to vary in red wine and Simon Dillon of The Yalumba Wine Company, for supplying
fermentations, suggesting that, as in white wines, must YAN white wine juices. Current work on nitrogen management also
can affect the development of wine flavour. Our preliminary involves collaboration with Dr Sally-Jean Bell and Marcel Essling.
data suggest that wine colour and phenolics composition can Rae Blair is thanked for her editorial assistance. This project is
also be influenced by YAN. supported by Australia’s grapegrowers and winemakers through
Overall, these results suggest that, at least for Chardonnay, their investment agency, the Grape and Wine Research and
the flavour and style of wine is dramatically modulated by the Development Corporation, with matching funds from the
initial YAN concentration of the grape juice. Low YAN level Australian Government. The AWRI is a member of the Wine
juices favour the production of more complex wines with less Innovation Cluster.
fruity aromas, whereas moderate YAN levels produce cleaner
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17 Gump, B.H.; Zoecklein, B.W.; Fugelsang, K.C.; Whiton, R.S. (2002) nitrogen conditions: a study in synthetic media. Aust. J. Grape Wine Res.
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19 Guth, H.; Sies, A. (2002) Flavour of wines: Towards an understanding by 29 Ribéreau-Gayon, J.; Dubourdieu, D.; Donéche, B.; Lonvaud, A. (2000)
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activity of key compounds. Blair, R.J.; Williams, P.J.; Høj, P.B. (eds.). vinification. John Wiley & Sons Ltd: Chichester, UK.: 454.
Proceedings of the eleventh Australian Wine Industry Technical 30 Romero C.; Bakker, J. (1999) Interactions between grape anthocyanins and
pyruvic acid, with effect of pH and acid concentration on anthocyanin
composition and color in model systems. J. Agric. Food Chem. 47,
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31 Shively, C.E.; Henick-Kling, T. (2001) Comparison of two procedures for
GRAPEVINE GRAFTLINGS & ROOTLINGS assay of free amino nitrogen. Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 52: 400-401.
32 Smyth, H., Cozzolino, D., Herderich, M.J., Sefton, M.A.; Francis, I.L.
(2005) Relating volatile composition to wine aroma: identification of key
• Serving Australian Viticulture for over 50 years. aroma compounds in Australian white wines. Blair, R.J.; Williams, P.J.;
Pretorius, I.S. (eds.) Proceedings of the Twelfth Australian Wine Industry
• VINA Accredited Nursery. Technical Conference, Melbourne, Vic, 24-29 July 2004. Australian Wine
Industry Technical Conference Inc., Adelaide SA: 31-33.
• Vine Improvement sourced material. 33 Sowalsky, R.A.; Noble, A.C. (1998) Comparison of the effects of
concentration, pH and anion species on astringency and sourness of
• Graftlings and rootlings supplied as dormant organic acids. Chem. Senses 23: 343-349.
12 month old field grown or 4 month/12 month old 34 Swiegers, J.H.; Francis, I.L.; Herderich, M.J.; Pretorius, I.S. (2006)
Meeting consumer expectations through management in the vineyard and
container grown in bio-degradable Plant Bands.
winery: the choice of yeast for fermentation offers great potential to adjust
• Hot water treated. the aroma of Sauvignon Blanc wine. Aust. N.Z. Wine Ind. J. 21: 34-42.
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• Trichoderma protected. juice – effect on the aroma profi le of a Chardonnay wine. Tech. Rev. 150,
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• Taking orders now for 2008, 2009 and 36 Torrea, D.; Siebert, T.; Liebich, B.; Ancin, C.; Francis, L.; Henschke, P.A.
2010 requirements. (2005) Effect of ammonium supplementation of a Chardonnay must on
wine aroma. Blair, R.J.; Williams, P.J.; Pretorius, I.S. (eds.) Proceedings of
• We also stock a full range of container grown the Twelfth Australian Wine Industry Technical Conference, Melbourne,
OLIVE, CITRUS, AVOCADO & PISTACHIO TREES. Vic,, 24-29 July 2004. Australian Wine Industry Technical Conference
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37 Ugliano, M.; Siebert, T.; Capone, D.; Mercurio, M.; Henschke, P.A.
(2007) Colour, aroma and fl avour compounds in Shiraz wine as affected by
Sunraysia Nurseries DAP addition before fermentation. Blair, R.J.; Williams, P.J.; Pretorius, I.
P.O. Box 45, Sturt Highway, Gol Gol, NSW 2738 S. (eds.) Proceedings of the thirteenth Australian Wine Industry Technical
Ph (03) 5024 8502 • Fax (03) 5024 8551 Conference, Adelaide, SA, 28 July-2 August 2007. Australian Wine
E-mail: sales@sunraysianurseries.com.au Industry Technical Conference Inc. Adelaide, SA: in press.
Website: www.sunraysianurseries.com.au 38 Vilanova, M.; Ugliano, M.; Siebert, T.; Pretorius, I.J.; Henschke, P.A.
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volatile compounds in chemically defi ned medium by Saccharomyces
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39 Wang, X.D.; Bohlscheid, J.C.; Edwards, C.G. (2003) Fermentative activity
and production of volatile compounds by Saccharomyces grown in synthetic
grape juice media deficient in assimilable nitrogen and/or pantothenic acid.
Growing for You J. Appl. Microbiol. 94: 349-359.
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