SUSTAINABLE DECOMMISSIONING: WIND TURBINE BLADE RECYCLING - REPORT FROM PHASE 1 OF THE ENERGY TRANSITION ALLIANCE BLADE RECYCLING PROJECT - ORE ...
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SUSTAINABLE
DECOMMISSIONING:
WIND TURBINE
BLADE RECYCLING
REPORT FROM
PHASE 1 OF THE
ENERGY TRANSITION
ALLIANCE BLADE
RECYCLING PROJECT
With contributions from:
3
CONTENTS SUMMARY
Acknowledgements 2 Thirty years ago, it would have been hard to imagine that
Summary 3 offshore wind could power every home in the UK. Today,
Report Scope 6 that target is one of the key pillars of the UK Government’s
Anatomy of a Wind Turbine Blade 8 climate change policy. This vision has been driven by the
passion of wind industry pioneers to forge this new sector
Defining ‘Circular’ and ‘Recycling’ 10
and make renewable energy a commercial reality.
Governance Landscape 12
Future Market Opportunity 16
Current Methods of Blade Disposal 24
Composites Sector by Sector 28 With this has come an unrelenting drive to develop systems on oil and gas rigs. Both now face the challenge
high-performance, next-generation wind turbines that of finding good solutions for decommissioning these
Review of Composite Recycling Methods 36
will achieve the necessary energy capture and cost materials in the coming decades.
Mechanical 39 efficiency. For the blades, composite layers of stiff
For the wind sector, that is an urgent challenge here and
carbon or glass fibres in a resin matrix were found to be
now as the first generation of wind farms are starting to
Thermal 40 the optimal material, delivering exceptional strength,
reach the end of their service life. Longer term, by 2050,
stiffness-to-density and flexibility in processing.
Chemical 42 the global offshore wind industry will decommission
As the wind industry has grown, it has become a major up to 85GW of capacity (cumulatively, and assuming
Reprocessing 44 user of these materials, which have long been a solution a 25-year lifecycle). Onshore wind will decommission
to design challenges in the oil and gas, aerospace, another 1,200GW. The oil and gas sector will likely begin
Environmental Impact 50 automotive, defence and leisure industries. They are to decommission today’s composite pipelines around
found in the pipe systems at oil and gas rigs, in car the same time.
Academic Research 54
seats and interiors, aeroplane wings, bicycles, skis and
The wind industry is already a major collaborator in many
Industry Innovation Programmes 60 surfboards, to name but a few applications.
new innovation programmes in the composites arena –
Composite blades are now the final hurdle towards Carbo4Power, SusWIND and the Circular Economy for
Recommendations and Next Steps 72
fully recyclable wind turbines (85-90% of a turbine is the Wind Sector Joint Industry Project (CEWS). Under
References 74 technically recyclable already1). At the end of their lives, the latter project, ORE Catapult has set the target for an
they have proven difficult and costly to reclaim and at-scale demonstration of wind turbine blade recycling in
reprocess. To fully satisfy the sector’s future growth the UK within five years.
plans and sustainability goals, finding the right solution
The report sets out the huge opportunity for the
for recycling them is becoming imperative, especially as
UK supply chain in designing solutions to tackle the
the first generation of wind farms are starting to reach
recycling challenge and capturing a global market that
the end of their 25-year lifecycles.
encompasses 2.5 million tonnes of composites already
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In the year of COP26, this is the moment for the wind in use in the wind energy sector. Many of the recycling
and other industries to pause and take stock. Pooling technologies discussed in the report require further
our collective experience and resources, we can achieve study but show promise in terms of the quality of
This report was written by Lorna Bennet, Project
the feats of engineering that will make the energy recovered materials.
Engineer at the Offshore Renewable Energy
transition and pan-sector circular economy a reality.
(ORE) Catapult. ORE Catapult would like to thank Recycling is just the start. Moving turbines towards zero
the following partners for their help and expertise This report is the result of one such cross-sector waste will be the next opportunity for the UK supply
in compiling the report: collaboration between OGTC, Offshore Renewable chain through remanufacturing, reuse, repowering and
Energy (ORE) Catapult, University of Leeds and National upgrading of components too. If realised, a spin-off
• Dr Anne Velenturf, Research Impact Fellow
Composites Centre (NCC). It is the first phase in our circular economy from offshore wind could extend the
at the University of Leeds
work to identify, study and then demonstrate scalable, current projection of 60,000 jobs in the sector by an
• Annabel Fitzgerald, James Lightfoot cost-effective, and sustainable composite recycling additional 20,000 jobs.
and Jonathan Fuller of the National technologies that will be applicable to the wind industry.
As you will find in these pages, there are many reasons
Composites Centre (NCC)
When it comes to blade recycling, collaboration for optimism in the many techniques and technologies
• Jeff Hailey and Pamela Lomoro of OGTC between the wind and oil and gas sectors will be that are already being trialled in this area. We are excited
crucial to accelerating recycling technologies for plastic at the prospect of taking these forward together with
composites. Both sectors are users of glass and carbon our industry partners and showing how the wind turbine,
fibre reinforced plastics, which have proven to be the workhorse of the clean energy revolution, will take its
optimal materials for both wind turbine blades and pipe next steps towards circularity.
4 5
Table 1.
Results of the GF = glass fibre
CF = carbon fibre
Technology GFRP = glass fibre reinforced plastic
Review, ETA CFRP = carbon fibre reinforced plastic
Blade Recycling % figures refer to material properties retained
Project Phase 1 post recycling compared to virgin fibres
PROCESS TRL
GFRP
TRL
CFRP
COST SCALE END PRODUCT/
USES
INNOVATION
CHALLENGES
IF REALISED, A SPIN-OFF
Mechanical Grinding 9 6 Low Large GFRP powder for filler
or reprocessing
Microplastics and dust
CIRCULAR ECONOMY
FROM OFFSHORE WIND
Cement kiln 9 N/A Low Large Energy recovery and Potential pollutants
co-processing cement clinker and particulate matter
Thermal Pyrolysis 5 9 High Small Low quality GF High Energy Intensive
quality CF (90%) Oils
COULD EXTEND THE
from resins
Fluidised bed 4 5 High Small Good quality, clean CF Energy Intensive
pyrolysis (70-80%)
CURRENT PROJECTION
Microwave N/A 4 High Very Good quality CF (75%) Less energy intense
assisted pyrolysis Small
Steam pyrolysis N/A 4 High Very High quality CF (>90%) Energy Intensive
OF 60,000 JOBS IN
Small
Chemical Solvolysis 5 6 High Small Good quality GF (70%) Additional cleaning
High quality CF (90%) process required
Matrix material Energy Intensive
High temperature
and pressure
solvolysis
4 4 High Very
Small
Good quality,
clean CF
High energy intensive
Corrosive, high
pressure THE SECTOR BY AN
ADDITIONAL 20,000
Low temperature 4 4 High Very Good quality, clean CF Less energy intensive
and pressure Small Epoxy monomers Acids required that are
solvolysis difficult to dispose of
JOBS BY 2030.
Electrochemical 4 4 Very Very Reasonable GF High energy intensive
High Small Inefficient
Reprocessing Milled fibre 9 6 Low Large Powder additive/filler Microplastics and dust
(post grinding) for tailored electrical &
thermal conductivity
Chopped fibre 9 6 Low Medium Thermoplastic Handling of dry fibres
(post pyrolysis/ compounding/SMC/
solvolysis) BMC, cement reinforcing,
prepreg tape
Pellets 6 9 Low Medium Injection moulding Microplastics and dust
(thermoplastic)
Non-woven 9 9 Low Medium Press moulding, resin Handling of dry fibres
mat infusion, wet pressing,
prepregs, semi-pregs
and SMCs
Component 8 N/A Medium Very Structural components: Low impact as no need
reuse Small bridge support, bike for energy intensive
shelter, roofing, etc methods to reclaim
and process materials6 7
REPORT A KEY CONCLUSION OF
SCOPE THE REPORT IS THAT IF THE
WIND INDUSTRY IS TO HAVE
SECURITY OF SUPPLY IN
THE COMING YEARS,
This report is the conclusion of the first phase of the Energy
ESTABLISHING RELIABLE
Transition Alliance’s Blade Recycling Project. In Phase 2, the project
partners ORE Catapult and OGTC will select the most promising
AND EFFICIENT RECYCLING
solutions from this study for further exploration and demonstration
under the third and final phase of the project.
PROCESSES IS A NECESSITY.
Here, the current methods of blade disposal are
reviewed, the future scale of composite blade
While the wind industry continues its work to
develop more sustainable solutions2,3, recycling
recycling processes is a necessity. With that
comes a positive financial case, as it is estimated
CRITERIA FOR ASSESSING
decommissioning is projected, and the influence is one of the best solutions achievable for these that the resultant onward sale of materials could
RECYCLING TECHNOLOGIES
of a changing regulatory framework is evaluated. first-generation blades. And it is a solution that recoup up to 20% of decommissioning costs for
will be needed imminently in order to meet the an offshore wind farm5. Each of the technologies and processes investigated
The next step is an outline and assessment of
minimum resource security that will sustain in this report are reviewed against core criteria for
all the scenarios for recycling of glass and fibre As yet, there remains a technology gap for
offshore wind’s ambitious growth pathway. Wind meeting the wind industry’s needs:
reinforced plastics that are under development recycling blades. While various technologies
turbines are increasing rapidly in number and size
and trial or are establishing themselves across exist to recycle their composite materials, and ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
(turbine capacity has increased from 1.5MW in
various sectors. The emphasis throughout is an increasing number of companies are offering
2005 to 12MW in 2021).
on the feasibility of these technologies and composite recycling services, these solutions are
COST IMPLICATIONS FOR TURBINE
approaches for use at the scale and cost that A study completed by Topham et al4 concluded not yet widely available nor cost competitive. END-OF-LIFE MANAGEMENT
will be required by a sector that is expected that the material demands to manufacture a That is why this report’s additional exploration of
to decommission 40,000 to 60,000 tonnes of single large turbine are higher than the resources technologies at the research and development
COMPLIANCE WITH A DYNAMIC REGULATORY
composite materials in the next two years alone1. required to build two smaller turbines for the stage is so important. LANDSCAPE (INCLUDING HEALTH AND
same power capacity. In addition, the quantity SAFETY, USE OF CHEMICALS AND
It is worth highlighting at this point that the
of carbon fibre utilised also increases as blades PROCESS EMISSION REGULATIONS)
assumption that lies behind this project is that
become longer in order to achieve the necessary
blade recycling will be a stepping-stone towards
stiffness without significantly increasing weight. STAGE OF TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
even more sustainable solutions in the future,
and for this reason, some early examples of blade Landfill, which has been the most common
reuse in civil engineering and construction are solution for blade disposal to date, is out of the
USEFULNESS AND VALUE OF
THE END PRODUCTS
touched upon too. question as a future destination of these blades;
primarily, as it does not match the industry’s own
This is in tune with the philosophy of a circular Three main forms of material reclamation were
ambitions for circularity and sustainability. The
economy: designing out all waste at the start is identified: mechanical, thermal and chemical. Once
report concludes that this momentum from the
the ultimate end point of this journey, but one fibres and other materials have been recovered, further
wind industry itself is proving to be the crucial
that will not be achieved imminently. The next steps are required to reprocess them into usable
driver towards recycling.
best solutions are lifetime extension of turbines materials which can be recycled in the manufacture
and components, repowering of whole wind A key conclusion of the report is that if the wind of new products and components across a wide
farms and a whole host of refurbishing, reuse, industry is to have security of supply in the range of industries.
and remanufacturing approaches too. coming years, establishing reliable and efficient8 9
ANATOMY OF A WIND
TURBINE BLADE Blades are typically constructed of a
polymer resin matrix that is reinforced with
glass fibres and carbon fibres. A hybrid of
glass and carbon fibres is also increasingly
coming into use in the industry. A laminate
core material, often made from high
density foam or balsa wood, provides
additional strength. The exterior of the
Figure 1. Generic Composition of a Wind Turbine Blade6
blade is coated for weather protection
and improved aerodynamic performance.
There are also some metal components
associated with the lightning protection
Sandwich-Foam PVC Glass TX Adhesive Gel-coat system which prevents damage to the
blade in the event of a lightning strike.
Adhesive Structural Carbon UD Laminate Sandwich-Foam PMI Glass Bx Adhesive10 11
DEFINING ‘CIRCULAR’
AND ‘RECYCLING’
DEFINING ‘CIRCULAR ECONOMY’ DEFINING ‘RECYCLING’
A Circular Economy is seen as an alternative to a There is some ambiguity around what constitutes true
linear economy, or the ‘take-make-dispose’ model. recycling. The UK’s Chartered Institution of Wastes
‘Recycling’ and ‘Circular Economy’ are terms in common parlance, Its aim is to keep resources in circulation, which Management defines it as: “Any operation the principal
but they are too often confused or wrongly applied. Recycling is just means serving a useful purpose and for as long as result of which is waste serving a useful purpose by
possible. This approach requires us to extract the replacing other materials which would otherwise have
one of the solutions that can form part of a circular economy, but a maximum value from components while they are been used to fulfil a particular function, or waste being
in use, then recover and regenerate products and prepared to fulfil that function, in the plant or in the
circular economy is much more than just one component or even one materials at the end of each service life8. wider economy9”. While the Department for Environment,
industry. It is an entire economic system aimed at eliminating waste The objectives of a Circular Economy are to:
Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) have described it
more succinctly as “turning waste into a new substance
and ensuring continual use of resources. or product10”.
• Reduce waste
• Reduce the environmental impacts of The question is whether this is simply the collection and
Figure 2. © 2020 by University of Leeds
preparation (or ‘harvesting’ and ‘reclamation’) of wastes
Circular Economy Strategies7 production and consumption
Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike into their core materials, or whether that operation must
4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.o)
• Drive greater resource productivity and efficiency be followed by reprocessing into new products to qualify
them as ‘recycled’. The latter is implied by den Hollander
• Address emerging concerns with regard
et al: “The recycling process involves the dismantling
to resource security and scarcity
Dematerialisation and disintegration of a product and its constituent
When this report refers to ‘Circular Economy’ in the components and the subsequent reprocessing of the
wind sector, it is referencing strategies that form a product’s materials” 11.
coherent design for circularity across all stages of
For the purposes of this project, the focus is towards the
a wind farm’s life.
reclamation and reprocessing of composites into materials
that are in good enough condition for a future reuse.
Reduce waste
These strategies can be grouped into four main areas:
Narrowing resource flows, which means using less Related definitions
Repair, resources to begin with, and thus limiting waste.
There are a number of other definitions that will be used
maintenance Slowing resource flows through repair, reuse and in this report that should not be confused with ‘recycling’:
Lifetime remanufacturing strategies as well as lifetime
Disassembly extension Repair: preventative, planned or ad hoc inspection/
extension and repowering of wind farm sites.
servicing tasks, which may involve repairs to restore
Recycling Reuse, refurbish,
Closing resource flows hrough recycling of a component to a good working condition.
upgrade
components, decommissioning and re-mining.
Repowering Remanufacturing: components are sorted, selected,
Integrating resource flows by entrusting disassembled, cleaned, inspected and repaired/replaced
Energy recovery materials to natural biogeochemical processes before being reassembled and tested to function as good
Remanufacture
during site restoration and landfill. as new or better.
Component reuse and repurposing: components
Decommissioning are used again for the same (reuse) or different
Landfill
(repurpose) function.
Harvesting: the act of collecting and sorting fibre
reinforced plastic waste.
Reclamation: the process of separating the fibres
and resin.
Re-mine Site restoration
Reprocessing: where the reclaimed fibre is used to
produce a useful material form, such as a discontinuous
fibre mat.
Materials Products and components Infrastructure12 13
GOVERNANCE ENERGY, INFRASTRUCTURE
AND CIRCULAR ECONOMY
LANDSCAPE GENERALLY PERSIST IN POLICY
SILOES BUT MOVES ARE
UNDERWAY TO ALIGN THESE
AREAS OF GOVERNANCE
In the UK, the decommissioning of offshore wind farms is regulated
by the Energy Act 200412 and the provision of a decommissioning MORE CLOSELY.
programme is part of the consent process prior to development. While
decommissioning programmes are primarily concerned with financial
assurances to cover the costs of offshore wind decommissioning, recent
research found that currently the regulation fails to do so2. Moreover,
proposed decommissioning operations were found to be neither attuned environment or human health, and the polluter-pays more demands on the wind industry and require
principle22; which for the offshore wind sector, means that companies invest now in the processes that
to minimal resources and waste management standards nor sensitive to that the responsibility of waste management and will deliver them.
resource security concerns about meeting the material demands that will its costs falls on original equipment manufacturers
Resources and waste regulation are highly dynamic,
(OEMs) and operators, and to a lesser extent on
sustain the sector’s ambitious growth pathway2. operations and maintenance (O&M) providers.
but the continued direction of travel is towards the
diversion of waste materials (that can be reused or
Following Brexit, the European Commission’s Circular recycled) from going to incineration or landfill facilities.
Overall, the general direction of travel in the UK is for On the other hand, the Maximising Economic Recovery Economy Package was transposed into UK law. This could limit the potential for turbine blades, which
clean growth and a circular economy, as set out in the (MER) policy, implemented by the Oil & Gas Authority21 A brief overview of the strategy for the UK and predominantly consist of glass fibre reinforced plastics,
Industrial Strategy13. Within the governance system, goes against the Clean Growth Strategy. This affects devolved nations backs up these ambitions. The to enter processes aimed primarily at energy recovery.
however, energy, infrastructure and circular economy decommissioning, as the MER obliges operators Resources and Waste Strategy (RWS) for England Despite provisions to limit incineration of technically
generally persist in policy siloes14: Energy is handled to continue extraction. It also affects the offshore aims to double resource productivity and eliminate recyclable materials, a part of the waste sector is
by the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial wind sector by presenting a continued push to lower all avoidable waste by 2050. The Strategy forms part campaigning for large-scale investment into more
Strategy (BEIS); infrastructure is part of the Treasury’s short-term levelised cost of energy (LCOE). of the Government’s commitment under the 25 Year Energy from Waste (EfW) capacity in the UK25. Already,
activities; while resources and circular economy sit with Environment Plan to leave the environment in a better more than 80% of investment into waste management
Circular economy state than we inherited it, including eliminating all infrastructure is directed towards energy-from-waste
(Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs
(DEFRA). However, there have been recent moves to avoidable plastic waste. facilities or facilities to prepare refuse derived fuel26.
Circular Economy primarily concerns itself with the
align these areas of governance more closely. The risk is that waste incineration becomes locked in
stocks and flows of materials and products within the The Welsh Government’s strategy, Beyond Recycling,
and UK plc loses valuable business opportunities, as
economy. As such, the circular economy primarily sets out its aim of making a circular, low carbon
Energy and climate observed already in Scandinavian countries27.
pertains to policy and regulation on resources and economy in Wales a reality with a set of key actions
Growth of wind power started relatively slowly, but the waste, which are largely driven by the EU Circular to deliver the objective of zero waste by 2050. The
Stern Review (2006)15 and Climate Change Act 200816 Economy Package – a major pillar of the European Scottish Government’s circular economy strategy,
raised ambitions for faster deployment17 by introducing Green Deal – and the Waste Framework Directive22,23. Making Things Last, published in 2016, sets out a clear
legally binding greenhouse gas reduction targets for
the UK. In 2019, the UK Government set a net-zero
Major aspects of the EU Circular Economy Action Plan
are the reduction of average per capita consumption
vision and priorities for action to move towards a
more circular economy; and Scotland has set a series
THE RISK IS THAT WASTE
target for carbon emissions by 2050 and reforming and the doubling of the use of recovered materials of ambitious targets to drive circularity. In Northern INCINERATION BECOMES
the energy system is a major pillar of the low-carbon
transition. Arguably the Clean Growth Strategy will
by 2030. Some materials and components that
are commonly used in offshore wind are already
Ireland, the Department of Agriculture, Environment
& Rural Affairs (DAERA) is currently developing the
LOCKED IN AND UK PLC
be followed by a new Integrated National Energy prioritised (such as electronics and electrical items, Environment Strategy for Northern Ireland, which will LOSES VALUABLE BUSINESS
and Climate Plan, but so far only a draft version from
2019 could be located online18. Low-carbon energy
steel and cement). consider the main long-term environmental priorities
for Northern Ireland.”24
OPPORTUNITIES, AS
has seen a strong growth19, but further reforms of the
The Waste Framework Directive sets out the legislative
framework for waste handling and establishes key
OBSERVED ALREADY IN
SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES.
energy system are necessary, and a more integrated At the UK level, the forthcoming Environment
principles such as the waste hierarchy, managing Bill is expected to enshrine more ambitious targets
governance structure should be brought into place to
wastes in a manner that does not harm the into law. The anticipated higher ambitions will place
allow for flexible adaptive governance20.14 15
THE RECOMMENDED APPROACH
Decommissioning will enable a feedback loop to the design of wind
farms, to adapt the design with a view to optimise
Offshore wind decommissioning is primarily
performance from environmental, social and
IS TO PROACTIVELY WORK
governed by provisions made in the Energy Act
economic perspectives at each stage of the lifecycle.
2004 implemented with guidance prepared by BEIS
which states that: “The Government’s approach is to While industry is in the first instance responsible for
WITH THE REGULATOR AND TO
seek decommissioning solutions which are consistent the preparation of a decommissioning programme
with relevant international obligations as well as UK of sufficient quality, Government can step in and
legislation, and which have a proper regard for safety, prepare the programme on their behalf if necessary
PREVENT A MATERIAL FROM
the environment, other legitimate uses of the sea and (under Section 107 of the Energy Act 2004).
economic considerations including protection of the
The Energy Act also applies to repowering, but more
taxpayer from liabilities relating to decommissioning.
clarity is required to understand the extent to which
BECOMING CLASSED AS A
The Government will act in line with the principles of
decommissioning programmes must be amended
sustainable development.”34
in the case of repowering and whether this also
There is a general lack of detail in offshore wind applies to cases of lifetime extension. As previously
WASTE IN THE FIRST PLACE. decommissioning programmes regarding the waste
management operations and a high likelihood that
costs have been significantly underestimated. This
mentioned, decommissioning became a devolved
matter in 2017, with decommissioning responsibilities
and powers being transferred to the Scottish
suggests that the first two obligations regarding the Government35. Marine Scotland has expressed the
contents of decommissioning programmes have not inclination to stay close to legislation laid out for
yet been met: England and Wales36.
• Programmes must set out measures to be taken
for decommissioning the relevant object;
Incineration of turbine blades is regulated under Companies can make their own assessment: however,
• Plans must contain an estimate of the
the Industrial Emissions Directive (IED)28, which this is risky as the regulator can sue companies as
expenditure likely to be incurred in carrying out
works in accordance with Best Available Techniques evidenced by the fact that End-of-Waste is riddled
those measures.
(BAT). The combustion of wind turbine blades does with case law. The recommended approach is to
not appear to be specifically mentioned in existing proactively work with the regulator and to prevent Should best environmental solutions not be available
BATs or BAT Reference Documents (BREFs)29 but a material from becoming classed as a waste in the
THERE IS A
in line with circular economy and sustainable
the BREF on cement does mention glass fibre30. first place. If a recyclate remains classed as a waste development policies, i.e. to deliver absolute
IED permits are subject to continuous improvement after recovery processing, then the commercial environmental improvements, then it can be argued
giving consideration to evidence that the proposed
technology is low waste and contributes to further
value of the material may be significantly less,
possibly rendering investment in associated
that the precautionary principle applies. In those
cases, the offshore wind sector can specify the
GENERAL LACK
recovery of materials, advances in the (academic)
knowledge base, and minimising environmental
recycling processes uneconomical. knowledge gap and co-produce plans as part
of the decommissioning programme to increase
OF DETAIL IN
OFFSHORE WIND
While landfilling wind turbine blades is not prohibited
risks and impacts. chances that solutions will be available in support of
anywhere in the UK (as in some European countries),
environmental sustainability at every lifecycle stage,
DECOMMISSIONING
The end-of-waste regulations and the procedures available landfill space is rapidly diminishing. The
including waste management. This will have the
through which end-of-waste solutions are assessed landfill tax makes it economically unattractive. Scotland
added benefit of reducing decommissioning costs
PROGRAMMES
by the regulator involve four tests, each of which and Wales, along with several EU countries, have
or even opening new income streams for the sector.
must be met: already begun severely limiting landfill. When it comes
REGARDING
to export of wastes, the relevant legislation is the BEIS (2019) states that: “Waste from
1. Evidence that the recycled product is different
Transfrontier Shipment of Waste Regulations 200731. decommissioning should be reused, recycled or
from the original waste, and for meeting this
Shipment to or from the UK is subject to a permit,
THE WASTE
incinerated with energy recovery in line with the
test a mechanical recycling route is normally
regulatory fees for every shipment and very strict rules. waste hierarchy, with disposal on land as the last
not sufficient;
option”. This does not integrate recent updates
2. Presence of a clear and demonstrable market,
which may need to be developed as part of
The current general interpretation of the regulation
is that the export of wastes for which a solution can
to resources and waste policies, however, and the
implications for waste management in offshore
MANAGEMENT
achieving end-of-waste;
be reasonably found or brought into place inside the
UK is in principle not allowed. Moreover, in recent
wind decommissioning will be greater proactivity
on decommissioning and waste management in
OPERATIONS
AND A HIGH
3. The product can be used in the same way as a non- times the major destinations for waste from the UK,
the design of wind farms and the manufacturing
waste alternative; usually this is assessed through primarily in Asia, are tightening their rules and have
of components.
LIKELIHOOD THAT
a comparison with an appropriate virgin material; stopped accepting numerous low-value materials.
When exporting to countries with more lenient waste A more proactive approach would include
4. Evidence that the product can be stored and used
COSTS HAVE BEEN
regulations, waste producers remain responsible for consultation with parties capable and/or likely to be
with no worse environmental effects than the them under duty of care regulations. involved in the end-of-use management, such as the
material it replaces.
SIGNIFICANTLY
removal and resources sectors as well as offshore
Developing the required end-of-use infrastructure in
wind OEMs, to investigate potential for component
There are many challenges with these procedures such the UK is subject to planning regulations (in England
UNDERESTIMATED.
reuse, repurposing, repair and remanufacturing.
as the subjectivity in interpretation and the forced and Wales under the Localism Act 201132) and likely
When these solutions are not suitable, recycling,
processing of materials using environmentally costly will be subject to guidance set out in the Green Book33.
incineration, disposal and landfill solutions can be
means, along with the end-of-waste panel that handles This will take time, which has to be factored in, to get
detailed as a means of last resort. This information
applications being unavailable for extended periods. UK infrastructure in place.16 17
FUTURE MARKET
Figure 3.
Global Carbon Composite
Demand in 201839
OPPORTUNITY Wind Energy Aerospace
24% 23%
This report summarises previous and current projects underway in the UK Automotive
Sports Goods 10%
and globally to develop a blade recycling solution for wind turbines. As
13%
already mentioned, a flotilla of new UK-based projects, initiated by the wind Construction
industry, has come online in the past year. Many more have been underway 4%
in countries such as Spain, Denmark and the Netherlands for some time. Pressure Vessels
8% Marine
2%
At present, there are few UK companies
actively pursuing this opportunity.
extend the UK’s current job creation
targets (60,000 direct and indirect
GLOBAL FORECAST Other Moulding Compound
Stand-out amongst them, Scotland’s jobs by 2030) by an additional 5,000
FOR WIND FARM 4% 12%
Renewable Parts, is a fast-growing jobs. By adding more advanced DECOMMISSIONING
enterprise focussed upon component circular economy approaches (reuse,
refurbishing and reuse that is now remanufacturing, refurbishment, etc.) Today, 2.5 million tonnes of composite
expanding its operations into larger these targets could be increased by material are in use in the wind energy
facilities to meet growing demand. at least 20,000 jobs by 2030. sector globally2. It is estimated that
there are 12-15 tonnes of glass fibre Figure 4.
Aside from a few trailblazers, there is
reinforced plastic per MW of power37. Global Carbon Fibre Demand
low awareness amongst the UK supply
Glass fibre reinforced plastic (GFRP) by Sales (£million) in 201839
chain of the economic opportunity that
represents the majority of the USD 75
blade recycling, and the broader drive
billion global market for composites.
towards a circular economy in the wind
In Europe alone, over one million
sector brings. The University of Leeds,
tonnes are produced annually, with
a contributor to the report, estimates
the construction, infrastructure and Other Wind Energy
that if we can invest now in the birth
transport sectors accounting for
of a circular economy sector, the UK 193 772
almost 70% of that figure38.
can extend its wind sector job creation
targets by at least a third. When it comes to carbon fibre Moulding Compound
reinforced plastic (CFRP), the global 541 Sports Goods
This assertion is supported by research
demand has tripled in the past decade 1,313
from the Green Alliance and WRAP
(2010 – 2020) to around 160,000 Marine
(2015) that focussed upon the UK
tonnes38. Wind energy now represents
waste sector. They estimated that 193
the biggest sector with 24% of the
without new initiatives, 31,000 jobs Pressure Vessels
global demand for this material, just
could potentially be created in that Construction
surpassing the aerospace (23%), sports 541
sector, in the coming years (relying
(13%) and automotive (10%) sectors. 386
upon energy from waste and landfill).
In terms of value, however, the wind
If we add job creation based upon
industry represents only 4% of the Automotive Aerospace
recycling development, that increases
global market (at £772 million) due to
to 205,000 new UK jobs. Even better, 1,160 14,000
the use of low-cost, and often lower
if we develop reuse and repair of
quality, carbon fibres (see Figures 3
products and components, we can
and 4)39.
increase this projection to 517,000
new and higher value UK jobs. In the UK, current landfilling rates are
35% for CFRP and 67% for GFRP, out
The report’s authors conclude that
of which only 20% of CF and 13% of GF
the creation of a blade recycling
are recycled and 2% of CF and 6% of
segment of the wind economy could18 19
Figure 5. Figure 6.
Number of Articles Published on Carbon and Glass In-Use Fibre Reinforced Plastic (FRP) Blade Mass and All Source
Fibre Reinforced Plastic Recycling 1989-201940 End-of-life FRP Recycling Capacity Gap in the UK 2
600,000
120
— Annual All Source EoL FRP
Waste (5-7.5% Growth p.a.)
100
500,000
— Carbon Fibre
Documents published
80 — Annual All Source FRP Waste
Recovery (20% Growth p.a.)
Fibre Reinforced Polymer (t)
— Glass Fibre
400,000
60
— Cumulative Installed On/
Offshore FRP Blade Mass
40
300,000
Known FRP waste recovery gap (blue
zone) of -90% in 2018, optimistically
20
reducing to -62% by 2030, i.e. prior to
significant tranche of blade disposals
200,000
0
2000
2004
2006
2009
2005
2008
2002
2003
2007
2001
2010
2014
2016
2019
2015
2018
2012
2013
2017
1989
1995
2011
100,000
Year
0
2020
2030
2024
2026
2028
2022
2010
2014
2016
2018
2012
2013
GF are reprocessed. Recycling even 20% of UK GF and
CF would be able to generate millions or even billions
UK FORECAST FOR WIND
of pounds depending on the end product40.
FARM DECOMMISSIONING
This is a topic of interest for materials researchers,
As of 2019, there was a total of 24GW of wind capacity Figure 7.
circular economy and environmental impact studies
installed in the UK, 10GW of which was offshore41 Offshore Wind Farm Decommissioning Projections (25-year
as well as for individual industries (aerospace, marine,
wind energy, oil and gas, etc) as evidenced by the
representing nearly half of Europe’s installed offshore lifecycle - UK), an analysis of data from 4C Offshore45
wind capacity of 22GW and a third of the operational
increasing number of papers on the topic (Figure
29GW offshore globally2. If the turbines that are currently
5). All of this research is complimented by projects
being installed offshore are included, the capacity grows 500
established by companies and government institutions
by 13GW. Onshore there are 13.6GW installed.
in order to develop a cost-effective environmental Windfarm status
solution for composite end of life, many of which Overall, there are 2,555 turbines and approximately 7,655 Consent Application Submitted
will be discussed in this report. blades installed in UK waters, while onshore there are Consent Authorised
400 95
8,625 commercial turbines with 25,875 blades2. Figure 6 Fully Commissioned
The two largest sectors (wind and aerospace) have
shows the cumulative mass of all composite wind turbine Pre-Construction
the opportunity to develop a new type of supply chain
blades installed onshore and offshore in the UK as well as Under Construction
targeting reclaimed fibres from composites. Industries
Number of Turbines
the projections for the years to come. Assuming 20 years 85
like sports goods have low retrieval rates of used 300
of operation, the number of wind turbines and blades
goods; firstly, because they are consumer goods, and
that will be expected to be decommissioned can be
secondly, because they contain small quantities of
calculated and is presented in Figure 7.
composites. Wind and aerospace, on the other hand
are comprised of large quantities per product and, in It should be noted that these predictions are for
200
addition, the assets are managed by a small number wind turbine blade waste and do not include other
of companies (compared to the millions of individual components that are also often made of composites
consumers of sports equipment, for example). This (such as nacelle covers and rotor hub nose cones).
allows for relatively easy predictions of the volume
of composites that will be disposed of in upcoming In 2018-2019 only 10% of all fibre reinforced plastic waste 100 209
years, which will encourage the supply chain to was diverted from landfill. Optimistic estimates suggest
develop new products which reuse blades or use this number can increase by 20% per annum. However,
recyclates of the blades. by 2030 this would still leave a gap of 67% of all waste 72
60 30 25 79 206 51 81 480 135 284 104 367 258 102 409 121 300
that would go to landfill2. 0
2050
2030
2084
2045
203520 21
Figure 8. GLOBAL FORECAST FOR WIND
Global Onshore
Wind Capacity44
FARM DECOMMISSIONING
LIFE EXTENSION
In 2019, there were 29.1GW of offshore wind power
installed globally. By 2050, it is predicted that 85GW
Italy Rest of the World of this wind farm capacity will be decommissioned,
adding up to 325,000 blades. It should be noted that
DOES NOT SOLVE
2%
Canada
16%
this is a maximum estimate as it does not account for THE PROBLEM OF
2%
PR China
the possibility for life extension or repowering and
assumes that wind farms will be decommissioned BLADE DISPOSAL,
UK
37% at the end of their operating life of 25 years.
IT MERELY DELAYS
2% USA
Europe is the largest market (75% of all offshore
DECOMMISSIONING
Brazil
621 GW 17%
wind), followed by China, Taiwan and Vietnam42. North
America currently operates only 30MW although this FOR A FEW YEARS
3%
number is expected to grow in the following years.
Overall, the top five countries by installed capacity are
AND WILL SLIGHTLY
REDUCE THE
Germany
France UK, Germany, China, Denmark and Belgium. Onshore,
9%
3%
there are more than 600GW installed. Out of those,
230GW are in China and 106GW in the USA, followed STEEPNESS IN
Spain India by India, Spain and Sweden42 (Figures 8 and 9).
THE RATE OF THE
4% 6% As growth in the coming years is expected to increase
(Figure 10), it is time to start thinking about what
COMPOSITE
happens at the end of life of materials that make up WASTE CURVE.
wind turbines.
Figure 9. Figure 10.
Global Offshore Rate of Wind Turbine Installation CAGR = Compound Annual Growth Rate
Wind Capacity45 Globally (GW installed per year)42
CAGR
+9%
— Offshore CAGR
-3%
63.8
— Onshore 60.4
3.4
Belgium Rest of the World 54.9
6.1
CAGR 53.5
+22% 51.7
4% 8% 2.2
4.5
50.7
1.6
4.4
45.0
Denmark
40.6 1.2
38.5 39.1
6% 0.9 36.0
0.6 0.9
29.1 GW
1.5
PR China UK
26.9
23% 33% 0.4
20.3
0.3
14.7
11.5 0.1
7.3 8.1 8.2 0.1
6.5
Germany 03 0.1
0.1 0.2
26%
6.4 7.1 7.9 8.1
2004 11.4 14.6 20 26.5 37.9 38.2 39.8 43.9 34.5 50.2 60.4 52.7 49.0 46.3 54.2
2006
2009
2005
2008
2002
2003
2007
2001
2010
2014
2016
2019
2015
2018
2012
2013
2017
2011
Share of offshore 1% 3% 5% 9%22 23
Figure 11. Figure 12.
Global projections for offshore wind turbine Global projections for onshore wind turbine
decommissioning up to 205045 decommissioning up to 205045
90 1,300
1,200
80
1,100
70
1,000
Cuumultative Capacity (GW)
60 900
800
50
700
40 600
500
30
400
20 300
200
10
100
0 0
2040
2044
2050
2046
2020
2030
2049
2045
2048
2042
2043
2034
2024
2047
2026
2029
2036
2039
2025
2028
2038
2022
2023
2032
2035
2033
2027
2037
2041
2021
2031
2040
2044
2050
2046
2020
2030
2049
2045
2048
2042
2043
2034
2024
2047
2026
2029
2036
2039
2025
2028
2038
2022
2023
2032
2035
2033
2027
2037
2041
2021
2031
China Germany Denmark Netherlands Japan China Brazil Spain Norway South Korea Sweden
UK Spain Belgium Portugal South Korea Italy France USA Netherlands Ireland Taiwan
France USA Norway Finland Ireland Canada Germany Denmark Portugal Other Japan
UK India Belgium Finland Vietnam Poland
Current decommissioning costs are estimated to be in waste curve. Making use of this delay in decommissioning
the region of USD 223,000 - 668,000 per MW43. Again by developing promising reprocessing technologies
assuming 20 years of operation, globally the rate at is crucial to increase recycling efficiency rates and to
which wind farms are decommissioned and the rate at produce higher quality recyclates.
which landfills fill with wind turbine blades is only going
Over the next 30 years, global wind energy capacity is
to grow if recycling and reusing technology, as well as
expected to grow as discussed. However, assuming an
the supply chain, is not advanced..
operational life span of 20 years, wind farms that are
While lifetime extension offers a short-term alternative installed over the next 10 years will be decommissioned
to decommissioning, extending the operational life of by 2050. Figures 11 and 12 show the projected capacity
a wind farm (say, for up to 10 years) will depend upon of onshore and offshore wind power that is anticipated
having a detailed assessment of the remaining useful to be decommissioned by 2050 based on the current
life, environmental conditions, reliable monitoring of the consent agreements, planning applications and
systems as well as overall operations and maintenance government targets that have been declared. These
costs and expectations over the life of the wind farm. estimates do not consider the possibility of life extension
There are no clear statistics on how many wind farm and repowering and assumes that windfarms will be
owners will pursue this option. Furthermore, life discontinued at the end of their operating life of 25 years.
extension does not solve the problem of blade disposal,
it merely delays decommissioning for a few years and will
slightly reduce the steepness in the rate of the composite24 25
CURRENT APPROXIMATELY
METHODS 60% OF WASTE
OF BLADE FIBRE REINFORCED
DISPOSAL PLASTIC IS
LANDFILLED,
Fibre-reinforced plastics (FRPs) are
a combination of plastic resins, glass,
From an environmental point of view, the
material offers significant benefits in the
use-phase of a product because it is light,
WHILE ANOTHER
SIGNIFICANT
carbon and other fibres. There are strong and long-lasting. For example, it can
reduce the weight of vehicles, cutting their fuel
two main forms of plastic resins: consumption and thus their greenhouse-gas
emissions. Fibre reinforced plastic is also vital
thermosets, which form an irreversible
PORTION OF IT IS
for the ever-larger blades of wind turbines, as
solid polymer and are most commonly blades made from steel would be incredibly
heavy, less efficient and very expensive.
used in the manufacture of wind turbine
At the end of their lives, they have proven
blades, and thermoplastics, which
INCINERATED FOR
difficult and costly to reclaim and reprocess.
can be remelted and recycled. Fibre To fully satisfy the sector’s future growth
plans and sustainability goals, finding the
reinforced composites are used in right solution for recycling them is becoming
ENERGY RECOVERY
numerous applications such as vehicle imperative, especially as the first generation
of wind farms are starting to reach the end of
components, doors, bathtubs and wind their 25-year lifecycles.
turbine blades. Approximately 60% of waste fibre reinforced
AS HEAT.
plastic is landfilled, while another significant
portion of it is incinerated for energy recovery
as heat. Where it is recycled, the reclamation
techniques mean that it can only be used for
lower value applications – such as short fibre
reinforcement or filler in new composite materials
– limiting the economic case for using recycled
materials. This is especially relevant for glass
fibre reinforced plastics, as the low price of virgin
glass fibres (£2-3/kg) does not incentivise the
use of recycled glass fibres that may be a higher
price and lower quality. Addressing these issues
to strengthen the business case is a key aspect
of establishing a functioning supply chain for
recycled glass fibre46.26 27
LANDFILL THERMAL MECHANICAL MECHANICAL MECHANICAL
RECYCLING RECYCLING RECYCLING TO RECYCLING WITH
Landfill used to be the most The European Waste Framework FINE FILLER FIBRE RETENTION
economic form of disposal for Directive (2008/98/EC) established Thermal recycling involves the There are two main methods for
many municipal solid wastes, the basic principle that the ‘polluter incineration of composites to mechanical recycling where the Glass reinforced plastic can be Glass reinforced plastic can be
with many negative environmental pays’, known as extended producer reclaim the fibres for reuse. end material can either be in the ground to a fine filler, and this ground to a lesser degree, leaving
impacts. These could include responsibility. This requires EU Pyrolysis of 500- 600°C breaks the form of powdered material or is done in-house together with bundles of fibres that have
fires and explosions, vegetation Member States to apply the waste polymer down to components of short fibres. The main advantages manufacturing waste in some reinforcing properties. This uses
damage, potential health management hierarchy: Prevention, wax, oil, char and gas. The oil and of this method are the low cost cases. However, it is not generally less energy and provides a more
hazards, unpleasant odours, Re-use, Recycling, Recovery, wax are high in calorific content for recycling and the low energy economical since the energy input valuable product than fine filler.
landfill settlement, ground water Disposal. Article 11.2 stipulates which, when reclaimed through the requirements, in addition to the is not viable for grinding a filler This is done in-house to a small
pollution, air pollution, and global that “by 2020 a minimum of 70% pyrolysis process, can be reused fact that no hazardous fluids are that would only replace a low value degree, but there is potential for
warming47. The landfill tax in (by weight) of non-hazardous to produce thermal energy. The released during the process (as product such as calcium carbonate. higher volume applications in
England is currently £94.15 per construction and demolition gasses produced are hydrogen, long precautions are taken to the UK, such as in infrastructure
tonne (2020-2021 rate), however, waste… shall be prepared for methane, ethane and propane prevent the release of fine dust Mulching involves regrinding the
products with recycled mixed
including the cost of gate fees and re-use, recycled or undergo other which can be fed back into the where employees are present). composite down to suitable size
plastics48.
transportation, the total cost to material recovery”50. plant furnace to fuel the process. However, the end material has to be used as filler material in new
landfill waste is typically £130 Any gases or particulates that significantly lower value due products. This can happen through A significant barrier for further
When blades are removed
to £140 per tonne48. cannot be reused within the system to the reduction in mechanical cutting, grinding or chipping application of this process is
from a wind turbine during
are passed through a scrubber to properties52. As shorter fibres the material. In this process, the the provenance of material and
Although landfill tax is not expected decommissioning or repowering,
remove harmful elements before have lower mechanical properties, continuous fibres are broken therefore the expected or known
to rise dramatically, Germany, they can require specialist vehicles,
being released into the atmosphere. the real commercial value lies in down into smaller fragments and quality of the recyclate. Currently,
Scotland, Wales and several other if transporting the structure as a
The fibres are recovered for reuse; subsequent reprocessing of the lose their ability to provide high there are ongoing projects in the
European countries have already whole, or they must be cut into
however, the mechanical strength fibres into products such as matts durability and stiffness53. aerospace industry for recycling
begun to ban or severely limit the manageable sections. Both options
can be severely reduced by the or pellets. composite prepreg waste offcuts
landfill of wind turbine blades48,49. can be costly, with the process of
pyrolysis process. from the manufacturing process.
Their materials can, and often cutting larger and strong blades
The aviation industry’s health and
are, considered as recyclable and requiring sizeable machinery
safety regulations require high-
there are concerns about their such as vehicle mounted wire or
quality materials, but these offcuts
environmental impacts due to diamond-wire saws similar to those
can be used as they have not
the associated carbon emissions used in quarries. It has been noted
been stressed in operation. For
during decomposition. By 2030, the that there are so few options to
mechanical recycling with fibre
European Commission’s Circular recycle wind turbine blades in the
retention, it is of great importance
Economy Package seeks to reduce USA that the vast majority
to be able to trace the quality
the amount of municipal waste of blades are taken to landfill or
of the original source in order
that can go to landfill to 10% by long-term storage facilities51.
to ensure quality and strength
increasing the rate of recycling48.
of the reprocessed materials.
Certification methods and bodies
could play a crucial role in enabling
this technology and establishing
methodologies for reprocessing
composite.28 29
COMPOSITES IT IS DIFFICULT TO
SECTOR BY SECTOR MAKE AN ECONOMIC
CASE TO BUILD A
RECYCLING BUSINESS
Composite recycling is a huge The following sections provide a brief
OR SUPPLY CHAIN BASED
cross-sector challenge and is not
solely an area of concern for the
overview of the current composite
recycling and disposal methods used EXCLUSIVELY ON THE
WIND TURBINE BLADE
across other industries.
wind industry. It is expected that
the waste produced from the wind AEROSPACE
industry will account for only 10%
of the total estimated thermoset Among the first uses of modern
composite materials in the aerospace
WASTE STREAM.
composite waste in Europe industry was in the late seventies when
by 202552. With this relatively boron-reinforced epoxy composite was
low volume and low quality of used for the skins of the empennages
of the U.S. F14 and F15 fighters.
production materials, it is difficult
In aircraft and space product applications, the weight Due to the current global coronavirus pandemic these driven not just by the potential economic benefits, but
to make an economic case to build of structures is a critical parameter in determining numbers are now likely to be considerably higher as also by government research incentives, and by society’s
a recycling business or supply performance, fuel economy, and therefore lower airlines accelerate their retirements59. changing expectations. Studies have reported that the
operating costs. The need for lowest possible structural cost of manufacturing virgin carbon fibre was around USD
chain based exclusively on the weight led to development of high-performance
The common practice over many years has been to
15 -30 per pound in 2011, while only USD 8-12 per pound
remove usable parts from retired aircraft60 to be re-
is needed for recycling. Numerous research projects are
wind turbine blade waste stream. composites initially only for secondary aircraft structure,
manufactured and reused as spares in younger aircraft
but as knowledge and development of the materials seeking to gain more value from recyclates, particularly
It is therefore essential to engage improved, their use in primary structure such as
of the same type. The largest portion of recycled aircraft
using chemical and thermal processes such as pyrolysis
materials consists of aluminium, titanium, nickel-based
wings and fuselages increased. The global aerospace and fluidised bed process for carbon fibre recovery.
actively with all the composite- composites market size is projected to grow from USD
superalloys, stainless steel and electrical components
(about 60%). The remaining ‘non-recyclable’ aircraft Recycling of aircraft is currently not regulated by
using sectors, manufacturers and 23.8 billion in 2020 to USD 41.4 billion by 2025, at a
have been stored beside airports (or in deserts around legislation. The European Waste Framework Directive
compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 11.7% during
authorities to develop cost-effective the forecast period54.
the globe up until a few years ago) and in aircraft (2008/98/EC) is the closest applicable guidance and sets
graveyards61. out the basic concepts and definitions related to waste
and sustainable economic and The significant use of composite material in a management. It requires EU Member States to apply
The number of stored aircraft on landfill sites has
environmental solutions and strong commercial aircraft was by Airbus in 1983 in the rudder
become a greater issue now that there are fewer
the waste management hierarchy of Prevention, Reuse,
of the A300 and A310, and then in 1985 in the vertical Recycling, Recovery. In anticipation of future legislation,
material value chains. tail fin. To date, composite materials constitute up to
markets for old models, particularly since previous
the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and
demand markets such as Indonesia, China and Russia
50% of most modern civil and defence aircrafts, with the Aircraft Fleet Recycling Association (AFRA) together
have introduced import restrictions for used aircraft
average weight savings of up to 20%55,56. with industry members62 have formed partnerships to
over 10-20 years of age. The few that have been re-
develop a best practice for end-of-life aircraft63, but
The average lifespan of a civil aircraft is 25-28 years purposed have become water bombers to fight wildfires,
challenges remain in terms of a lack of commercially viable
old57, and 30-40 years for freight aircraft. Aircrafts are atmospheric aircraft, private jets, props for the film
composite recycling technologies and market demand.
retired when they become uneconomical to operate industry and hostel accommodation.
due to higher costs of maintenance, overhaul or fuel
Composite scrap from the aerospace industry can be
consumption. It has been reported that approximately
divided into two categories: wastes generated during
9,526 passenger fleets and 785 cargo fleets will have
the manufacturing process and parts from end-of-life
been retired worldwide between 2017 and 202758.
aircraft. Composite recycling is a growing consideration,You can also read
