EDEXCEL SET WORK ANALYSES A2 INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC 2014-2015 - (GROUPED BY FEATURES)
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EdExcel Set Work Analyses
A2 Instrumental Music 2014-2015
(Grouped by features)
Name:
1Compositional Context (Useful for Introductions/Conclusions)
Corelli
These Op.1 and Op.3 Trio Sonatas are known as Sonata da Chiesa (or Church Sonatas) and were
designed to be played either in church or for sacred concerts. Typically there are four movements in the
order slow – fast – slow – fast and the style is broadly contrapuntal in character. Op. 2 and Op.4 Trio
Sonatas were called Sonata da Camera and are more secular in style, usually also in four movements with
an opening Prelude followed by three dances (Sarabanda, Corrente, Gavotta etc.) and are generally more
homophonic in texture. Op.3 consists of 12 such Sonata da Chiesa (six in major keys and six in minor
keys).
The keys use no more than two sharps or flats except for one which is in F minor. No.2 is in D major and
all four movements Grave – Allegro – Adagio – Allegro are in that key. There is no melodic link between
the movements although they are clearly designed to be played as a whole (the third movement, for
instance, finishes with an inconclusive Phrygian cadence).
Haydn
• Haydn’s string quartets span his creative life and it has been argued that one of his greatest
achievements is as the “Father of the String Quartet”.
• Given this nickname, it may come as a surprise that Alessandro Scarlatti had the innovative concept of a
“Sonata for four instruments: two violins, viola, and cello without harpsichord” some half a century
previously.
• Haydn’s contribution to the development of the string Quartet was, however, unparalleled; he
transformed the medium from the lightweight “background” music found in his Opus 1 quartets to the
high art form it became in his final works.
• With the set of six Op. 33 Quartets, we are almost at the midway point in Haydn’s string quartet output.
Opus 33 has attracted its fair share of nicknames - the unusual use of scherzo movements instead of
minuets resulted in “Gli Scherzi” and a picture of the front cover of the score generated the name
“Jungfernquartette” ("maiden" quartets) but the dedicatee, Grand Duke Paul of Russia, whose wife heard
the first performance in her Viennese apartments on Christmas Day 1781, brought about the most
commonly heard title, the “Russian” quartets.
• The movement with which we are concerning ourselves here has caused the second quartet of the set to
be labelled, “The Joke”. The “joke” here is most obviously played on the audience in this witty movement,
with the surprising twists, disconcerting silences and concluding “false start”, making applause a risky
activity for contemporary audience!
• Or is the “joke” also on those amateur “beat driven” performers who were a source of frustration to the
composer and who would find the carefully planned ensemble challenges of the final page quite daunting?
• Robbins Landon came up with the theory that Haydn’s commencement o an affair with the young
mezzo-soprano Luigia Polzelli is the real reason behind the sheer optimism and cheerfulness of the music
• Whether you accept this or any of the other theories, Mozart’s comment that Haydn could “amuse and
shock, arouse laughter and deep emotion as no one else” is a comment no one listening to this wonderful
movement could possibly disagree with.
Beethoven
At first Beethoven was known principally as a virtuoso pianist, but eventually devoted himself to
composition and became the crucial figure in the transition from the Classical to the Romantic era.
Schumann
The Romantic Period, to which Schumann and these pieces belong, was a period of fundamental change
in music – change that sometimes led in apparently contradictory directions. As well as being a time of
innovation and daring in compositional techniques, there was a shift to music with extra-musical
influences – perhaps a programmatic purpose, a poetic connection, a literary theme or a representation of
national identity. At the same time, the romantic emphasis on people as individuals rather than as
members of society could lead to introspection and a sense of isolation. Both these developments are
reflected in the titles and content of some of Schumann’s piano miniatures.
• Kinderscenen reflects yet another strand in Romanticism: a new way of looking at childhood. Far from
being considered as trainee adults given to tiresome bursts of misbehaviour, children could be seen as
having access to insights and experiences lost in adulthood.
The first half of the nineteenth century was a period of great change in piano construction. In the time
between Schumann’s birth and the composition of Kinderscenen some major developments had taken
2place. Two are very relevant to us here: the invention of the iron frame, and the use of felt rather than
leather to cover hammers. The former would allow for greater resonance and sustaining power and the
latter altered the tone to give a mellower and less strident quality. Some aspects of these pieces reflect
the changes – for instance, the gentle melodic lyricism of No. 1 and, to a lesser extent, No. 11. The
vibrant sustained bass open fifths in No. 3 (bars 13 & 14) would not have had the same effect on an
earlier instrument. It is also worth remembering that the modern-day instrument on which we now hear
these pieces is different again. The sheer power and volume of today’s grand pianos would probably have
seemed quite shocking (or thrilling!) to Schumann – something worth bearing in mind in any
performance.
The technical improvements to the piano were closely associated with two divergent tendencies – one
public and one domestic – in the way keyboard music was performed.
Armstrong
While analysing West End Blues it is important to remember that we are dealing with notation which has
been made on the basis of the recorded performance. Indeed, among early jazz players, the ability to
read music was often considered a handicap. Set portions of the music were played from memory, and
improvised sections depended on the musician’s ear, sensitivity and skill in the physical act of playing.
Quality of sound was a key priority for the players. Armstrong’s mentor ‘King’ Oliver claimed to have
spent ten years refining his tone. Inflections of pitch, rhythm and dynamics, aiming to reproduce the
nuances of the human voice, are an essential part of the expressive quality of the jazz of this period. Pitch
and rhythm used in this way can only be captured approximately by conventional notation, and dynamic
shading – essential to the expression – is not shown in the transcript. However, for the purposes of the
examination, students should refer to the anthology version when commenting on aspects of the music.
Tippett
Michael Tippett was born in London in 1905 and studied composition, conducting and piano at the Royal
College of Music in London. Some years later, he studied with R. O. Morris, an expert on sixteenth-
century music. This proved formative, and he developed a fascination and flair for counterpoint which
gave rise to the first significant works of his maturity, the String Quartet No.1 (1935, revised 1944) and
Piano Sonata No.1 (1936-7).
Cage
John Cage (1912-92) is now recognised as one of the most influential figures in twentieth-century music,
although in his own time he was widely maligned and misunderstood, almost inevitably as he questioned
so many of the fundamentals of western music.
His principal achievements were to:
● develop the use of percussion
● exploit elements of chance and indeterminacy in performance
● explore new sound sources (including the prepared piano)
● use new forms of graphic notation
● be open to the influence of eastern philosophy on western art, both in his music and in his extensive
writings.
During the late 1930s, Cage moved towards composing music for percussion instruments. He considered
rhythmic duration to be the most significant of the musical elements. Consequently, the system that Cage
developed for giving rhythmic structure to music depended on using mathematical proportions to govern
both the large-scale and small-scale dimensions of a work. Cage described his technique of rhythmic
structure as ‘micro-macrocosmic’; it was first used significantly in the First Construction (in Metal), and
then it dominated his compositions up to and beyond the Sonatas and Interludes.
Composition for percussion and for modern dance led to the invention of the prepared piano. From the
late 1930s, Cage was the musical director for a number of dance companies, eventually leading him to
work for Merce Cunningham, who required him to write music to a predetermined number of beats, not
necessarily organised or regular in terms of metrical schemes.
In 1940, he was asked to compose music for a new dance, Bacchanale, evocative of African culture, by
Syvilla Fort. Finding that there was no room for a percussion ensemble, Cage turned to the piano as his
sound source. He had encountered plucked and strummed sounds in the music of Henry Cowell, but here
he extended the idea by placing bolts, screws and fibrous weather stripping between the strings. Cage
3subsequently wrote many works for prepared piano, exploring the effects of different materials, different
placements, use of pedals, changing of pitch and timbre and the combination of effects.
Circumstances of (First) Performance
Corelli
Corelli was born into a prosperous landowning family in Fusignano in Northern Italy,although sadly his
father died before Arcangelo was born. He studied for four years anearby Bologna at a time when Italians
reigned as the best instrument makers, teachers and performers of string music in the whole of Europe.
In 1675 he moved to Rome where he remained for the rest of his life earning his living as a violinist an
composer. Queen Christine of Sweden was an early patron of Corelli (he dedicated his Op.1 Trio Sonatas
to her) but the Op.3 Trio Sonatas were dedicated in 1689 to Duk Francesco II of Modena. The
circumstances of first performance are unknoiwn. At the time, Corelli was employed by Cardinal Pamphili
as his music master, living in the Cardinal’s palace and organising and directing the regular academies
(Sunday concerts) there. Corelli was notable for being a strict disciplinarian with his orchestra, being one
of the first directors to insist that violinists within a section achieve unanimity in their bowing.
Haydn
• These quartets were not, as is commonly believed, composed for the Esterhazy Court but were a
commission for the Viennese publishing firm Artaria, who issued them in 1782. An inventive 18 th Century
marketing ploy to boost sales may account for the boast that the pieces were of “a new and entirely
special kind”.
• As chamber music, they were intended for private or semi-private performance by four accomplished
players.
Beethoven
The Septet was written in 1799 and first performed with great success a year later at concert in the
Court Theatre in Vienna, together with the First Symphony. It was published in 1802 and dedicated to the
Empress Maria Theresa. The septet grouping is rare and this piece is one of the few important examples
by any composer. There is incidentally no standard instrumentation for a septet.
Schumann
Robert Schumann (1810-1856) wrote Kinderscenen in 1838 at the age of 28. It was one of a number of
imaginatively titled and unusually constructed sets of piano miniatures which he composed around that
time. Kinderscenen (commonly translated as “Scenes from Childhood” although more accurately as
“Children’s Scenes”) is a collection of 13 short pieces of which we study three in Anthology No. 23 (Nos.
1, 3, and 11).
Armstrong
Louis Armstrong’s Hot Five was a studio-only group, first brought together in 1925 to make records for
the Okeh label. The original players were from ‘King’ Oliver’s Creole Jazz Band, but the brand was to
prove more important than the individual players: Armstrong was the only member of the original Hot
Five to play in the 1928 session that created West End Blues. The new group included Jimmy Strong
(clarinet), Fred Robinson (trombone), Earl Hines (piano), Mancy Carr (banjo) and – actually making it a
sextet – Zutty Singleton (percussion).
West End Blues was a 12-bar blues composition by Joe ‘King’ Oliver with words subsequently added by
Clarence Williams. It was played by Oliver’s Dixie Syncopators and recorded by them on 11 June 1928.
Students might like to listen to this recording (it is easy to find online) and compare it with Armstrong’s
version, recorded just over a fortnight later, on 28 June. Armstrong set new standards, which other bands
were soon to imitate. Striking evidence of the impact he made comes from ‘King’ Oliver himself: on 16
January 1929, Oliver recorded the piece again, reproducing as closely as possible the trumpet and piano
solos of Armstrong and Hines, played in this instance by Louis Metcalfe and Luis Russell, respectively.
Tippett
During the 1930s, Tippett worked as a conductor at Morley College in London, and this gave him the
opportunity to conduct the first performance of the Concerto for Double String Orchestra in a benefit
concert there on 21 April 1940 with The South London Orchestra, otherwise known as ‘Morley College
Professional Orchestra’. This was an orchestra of unemployed musicians, many of them thrown out of
work by the arrival of sound films, operating under the auspices of Morley College between 1932 and
1940.
4The Concerto also received an important second performance at the Wigmore Hall on 17 July 1943,
conducted by Tippett’s Morley College colleague, Walter Goehr. The reviewer from The Times described it
as ‘a well-knit, skillfully contrived composition, in which intricacy of detail in rhythm and texture was
made to serve the ends of a larger design’.
Cage
The Sonatas and Interludes (1946-48) were the culmination of Cage’s early work and brought together
many aspects of music and philosophy that were preoccupying him up to the end of the 1940s. The
ordered conception and the variety of technique, mood and colour that it presents are reminiscent in
some ways of Bach’s Well-Tempered Clavier or Chopin’s 24 Preludes, and it is certainly as important to
Cage’s output as these other works are to their composers. As such, it seems to owe a significant debt to
tradition, but at the same time it is a masterpiece of the unconventional in the twentieth century.
Work was interrupted in 1947 by the composition of the ballet The Seasons, but finally completed early in
1948. Cage referred to the Sonatas and Interludes as ‘intentionally expressive compositions’, because
they have an extra-musical inspiration, depicting the spiritual and emotional states described in Ananda
Coomaraswamy’s work The Transformation of Nature in Art: The Dance of Shiva. The content refers to
the permanent emotions of Indian aesthetics: heroic, erotic, wonder, rejoicing, anxiety, fear, anger,
loathing and the tendency of all of these emotions to resolve towards one other emotion, a state of
tranquillity. Cage did not specify how he had represented these emotions, but it has been suggested that
each movement represents a single emotion and that towards the end of the cycle the movements
become increasingly calm and tranquil.
When Cage first developed the prepared piano he expected the sounds he was devising to be able to be
repeated in successive performances. As time went by, he came to realise that not only pianists, but
pianos as well, are unique and that every performance would have its own characteristics; he appreciated
that he would be unable to ‘possess’ the sounds he had created. This acceptance fell in line with his
interest in Zen philosophy and his later view that life is not intended to consist of repetitive actions and
experiences and that things are to be enjoyed as they happen. This attitude led to the adoption of
indeterminacy in his compositions.
Instrumental Forces
Corelli
Although called Trio Sonatas this work requires four performers:
Violin 1
Violin 2
Violone
Organ
The first violin part (probably designed to be played by Corelli himself) and the second violin part
(possibly played by Matteo Fornari, one of Corelli’s pupils) are broadly equal partners in that they share a
similar tessitura (range of pitch), with Violin I covering two octaves and a semitone and Violin II a 14 th.
They frequently imitate each other at the unison and are constantly crossing parts and exchanging ideas.
Although the first violin always states the material first in this (and other) movements, the second violin
finishes the whole sonata on top. The parts are not difficult to play, only twice (in bars 11 – 13 and again
in bar 34) requiring either player to venture beyond first position, and not using the bottom G string
except for the penultimate note in the first violin part. It is possible that performers would embellish the
repeated sections with some ornamentation (although this is not heard on the CD).
The violone is a low pitched bowed string instrument similar to the bass viol, often with five or six strings.
However, the term is used loosely and may simply refer to any bass string instrument such as the
violoncello. Certainly, Corelli often performed with the Spanish ‘cellist G.B. Lulier who was referred to as
Giovannino del violone. The pitch range is two octaves, and fits comfortably within the range of the
modern ‘cello. The continuo part is provided by the organ which would probably have been a single
manual pipe organ without pedals. The player would have been expected to improvise the inner
harmonies by providing suitable chords above the bass line according to the figured bass. Corelli’s original
figuring is likely to have been somewhat sparser than
Haydn
The ‘Joke’, like all string quartets, is for
• Violin I, Violin II, Viola, Cello.
5The first violinist regularly plays higher than the second (although both players have instruments of the
same specification and range).
Only one player is required for each part:
• No doubling is expected as with string parts in symphonies…
• …not even doubling of cello by double bass an octave lower.
No keyboard continuo instrument is required as in one precursor of the Classical string quartet, the
Baroque trio sonata for two (constantly-crossing) violins and cello.
String-playing techniques
• All instruments play with the bow (arco) throughout – there’s no pizzicato, but frequent staccato helps
create the light playful effect
• Double stopping (where an instrument plays two notes at once) is used in two passages – notably in the
brief Adagio near the end for greater weight and mock solemnity
Dynamics
• The two episodes (bars 36 and 107) are forte (f). Sforzando (sf) emphasises some strong beats in the
first. Each phrase of the Adagio starts imposingly at f
• Many other passages are p, with some use of crescendo and diminuendo…
• …but the ‘joke’ ending is at a very subtle pp – as is the last continuous hearing of the first part of the
rondo refrain (bars 141–148)
Beethoven
A septet is an unusual chamber music combination. This piece has four string instruments (including a
double bass to add textural weight and depth of pitch), a clarinet, bassoon and horn.
• The piece includes a clarinet; an instrument that was hardly used before the Classical era. Indeed
Mozart was the first composer to make large-scale use of the instrument. A transposing instrument, the
clarinet in B flat sounds a tone lower than written.
• The violin and clarinet generally carry the main melodic interest. The bassoon and horn usually work
together to provide wind sonority harmony, although occasionally the bassoon works in a solo capacity in
conjunction with the clarinet, bar 69-73. The viola generally accompanies with arpeggio figures, bar 61.
The cello and double bass provide a strong harmonic foundation.
• The horn in E flat is a transposing instrument sounding a major 6th lower than written. It is sometimes
used to play some very low notes, e.g. the written Gs in bar 9 which sound at B flat a 9th below Middle C.
• The violin and viola use multiple stopping for emphasis and to increase the textural density. There is
double stopping in the first bar for example and elsewhere throughout. In the penultimate bar of the piece
there is quadruple stopping in the violin and triple stopping in the viola, making for an emphatic close.
• The violin writing is not extensively high in tessitura, except for bars 217-8. There are some wide leaps
in bars 216 and 218.
• Articulation is detailed in all instruments. There is no pizzicato writing in the strings but frequent
staccato to give lightness.
• Dynamic contrast was very important for Beethoven, and this can be heard immediately with the forte –
piano contrasts in the first two bars. Use of fp (bar 12) and sf (bar 18) provide attack to convey the con
brio mood.
Schumann
In terms of general piano writing, there are features that place these pieces stylistically in the Romantic
period:
• In No. 1 the two hands generate three clearly identifiable textural layers. The middle layer is divided
between the hands.
• Note the importance of the sustaining pedal. ‘Pedal’ is specified in general at the start of the pieces;
unlike Chopin – another pianist-composer who was almost his exact contemporary Schumann rarely gives
very precise directions on the use of the sustaining pedal. It is possible to play all the notes of
Kinderscenen no. 1 unpedalled, but the effect is thin without the halo of resonance that the pedal
provides. The unusual effect in bar 16 of no. 3, on the other hand, is impossible without pedal, as four
notes spanning nearly two octaves have to be sounded in the left hand part.
• In the accompaniment of no. 3 the left hand leaps in dramatic fashion between bass notes and chords
rather in the manner of the later jazz “stride bass” style. This type of layout, divided between groups of
instruments, had been used for orchestral accompaniments in the eighteenth century. Transferred to a
harpsichord it sounds very jolting, but on a piano, with its greater resonance and dynamic variety, the
right balance between the parts can be achieved.
6• Eighteenth-century music, whether baroque or classical, typically (though not invariably) has a ‘bass
line’ that is not the principal melody, and is played in the bass or tenor register. Romantic music was
scored with much greater freedom – the bass could have the melody, or the whole musical texture could
move into the treble register. So we see left hand melodies in Kinderscenen no. 1 and no. 11, and a
wholly treble texture at the beginning of no. 11.
• Kinderscenen , while far from ‘childish’, is intended to present somewhat naïve pictures, and a highly
challenging pianistic style would not be appropriate; it is not a work representative of full-blown romantic
pianism. Of all the movements, no. 10 shows the most advanced pianistic style. Its title, ‘Fast zu ernst‘
(‘Almost too serious’), can be applied in two ways: to a child taking life with unusual gravity; or to the
musical style, almost too intense for this group of pieces.
Armstrong
● West End Blues uses a typical New Orleans front line of trumpet, clarinet and trombone with a rhythm
section of piano, banjo and percussion.
● Armstrong was a leader in the move away from the early New Orleans style of jazz counterpoint, with
its interweaving lines for clarinet, trumpet and trombone, towards a style dominated by soloists.
● A live dance band would typically include a string bass or tuba to reinforce the rhythm (as in Oliver’s
original recording). Studio conditions allowed Armstrong to dispense with this, throwing even more
emphasis onto the solo instruments.
● During the clarinet solo Armstrong introduces scat singing – vocalisation with no words. Armstrong is
often credited with originating this in his influential 1926 recording of ‘Heebie Jeebies’, but there were
earlier examples.
The table below shows the deployment of instruments in the various sections.
Tippett
The instrumentation of the Concerto for two antiphonally opposed yet equally balanced string orchestras
had few precedents. Similar string orchestra works from the early years of the twentieth century by Elgar
and by Vaughan Williams, and subsequent works by Warlock, Bliss and Britten, had established an English
tradition of string orchestral writing. (In 1932, a further impetus to the English string orchestra was given
7by the formation of the Boyd Neel Orchestra whose aim was to revive the early string repertoire.)
However, few had explored the medium of a double string orchestra. Despite the title there is no solo
writing at all in the Concerto and it would seem that the term refers to the Baroque principle of
contrasting groups of instruments in order to achieve textural and dynamic variety. The opposition of
equal groups is also reminiscent of the early Baroque ‘concertato’ style of writing, in which composers
such as Monteverdi and Gabrieli composed ‘sacred concertos’ (for example, Gabrieli’s Symphoniae
Sacrae). These works were written for contrasted antiphonal groups of choral voices, solo voices, strings,
brass and continuo.
Tippett said that in calling the piece Concerto he was harking back to the concerti grossi of Handel,
although the writing in the Concerto avoids concertino and ripieno oppositions. The style of writing in the
first movement is traditional and there are few exceptional demands on the players, other than the
accurate interpretation of rhythmic complexities and the stamina required to maintain momentum.
A summary of general features of the instrumental writing in the first movement follows.
● All instruments have active lines, with only the double basses having a lighter load.
● Textures are very varied, ranging between octaves, homophony, counterpoint and antiphony (see the
section below on texture), with many different forms of the last three of these.
● Counterpoint is often intricate, with lines being passed between instrumental parts and orchestras.
● Individual lines can be angular and rhythmically intricate, with syncopation, anticipatory rhythms,
unpredictable emphasis and unusual note groupings.
● Few idiomatic techniques are used, and involve only a few instruments in each case: for example,
double-stopping (almost exclusively in the coda, e.g. bb.209-212), pizzicato (rare, e.g. b.51), sul tasto
(one section, from b.107).
● Performance instructions are very specific; dynamics or articulation marks are detailed in every bar,
‘character’ indications are frequent (e.g. scherzando, dolce cantabile) and bowing is given on occasion.
Cage
With the development of the prepared piano, Cage had created a percussion ensemble capable of being
performed by one player. It had the potential for sounding like an orchestra of highly original sounds, but
with an extraordinarily subtle range of dynamic and timbral nuances. What was particularly fascinating
was the possibility of combining new and old sounds, and that the instrument was capable of a richly
colourful spectrum of sounds which could be melodic as well as percussive.
In a 1949 interview, Cage outlined four ways in which preparing the piano affects the sound.
● It quietens it.
● It changes its timbre.
● It splits it into two or three sounds.
● It shortens its duration.
He also emphasised that the alteration to the sound must be complete, otherwise, ‘like a well-known
person appearing in costume, there's something clownish about it’. Despite such detailed instructions,
Cage also suggested that there is no absolutely strict plan to adhere to: ‘if you enjoy playing the Sonatas
and Interludes then do it so that it seems right to you’.
Structure
Corelli
This movement is in binary form: A (repeated) B (repeated). As the movement is broadly monothematic
the structure is defined by the repeat marks and the tonality.
The A section (bars 1 – 19) starts in D major and modulates to the dominant (A major).
The B section (bars 20 – 43) begins on the dominant with the same melodic material (inverted) and
modulates through various related keys before returning to the tonic at the end. Bars 41 – 43 could be
regarded as a Codetta.
Phrase structure and keys:
Bars 1 – 2 Subject in D major (tonic).
Bars 3 – 4 Answer in A major (dominant).
Bars 5 – 11 Inversion of main theme, with third entry of subject starting in bar 6 in
the tonic and modulating to the dominant.
Bars 11 – 19 Further entries in A major.
8Bars 20 - 22 Entries on the dominant.
Bars 23 – 28 Entries on the tonic modulating to the relative minor (B minor).
Bars 28 – 32 A 4 bar contrasting section in E minor (subdominant of the relative minor).
Bars 32 – 41 Imitative entries of a modified subject passing through A, D and G majors before
returning to the tonic.
Bars 41 – 43 A short codetta phrase emphasising the tonic key.
Haydn
When considering structure, it is worth remembering that Haydn was a composer of astounding
imaginative genius and not a music analyst! That is why this Rondo Form movement is open to more than
one interpretation. The most commonly agreed and persuasive analysis can be found in the table below:-
Bars 0-36 A Refrain(with repeats)
Bars 36-70 B Episode
Bars 71-107 A Refrain
Bars 107-140 C Episode
Bars 140-172 A1 Refrain (substantially altered)
Also worthy of note is the internal structure of the A section as Rounded Binary Form, clearly delineated
by the repeat marks on its first appearance at Bars 0-36
It wouldn’t be Haydn if there were not some anomalies thrown in for good measure. Particularly
problematic is the final A1 section which includes an incongruous Adagio and much unsettling
fragmentation of the main theme.
Analytical consideration should also be given to the following points:
• Although the two episodes are labelled B and C they do begin with almost identical melodic
phrases in 1st Violin (2nd Violin is identical)
• Each episode seems to have a rather transitory feel; in the case of B it I because of harmonic
instability (a lack of resolution during the Pedal Note passages) and C remains in E Flat Major
with little feeling of novelty
• The end of the C section (Bars 139-140) bears too close a resemblance to Bars 27-28 in the
centre of A for it to be anything other than a direct reference
• Each Episode ends with an inconclusive Dominant 7th Chord creating both a lack of finality and
emphasising the musical identity and completeness of the Refrains – all part of a subtle plan
which eventually adds to the dramatic impact of the bizarre, fragmented final Refrain.
The movement also shows evidence of Haydn’s monothematicism. As we shall see when considering
melody, most of the thematic material can be derived from a few small motivic units with the result that
structural contrasts are significantly diluted.
Beethoven
This extract is the first movement of a six movement piece in the style of a Serenade.
• The movement is in Sonata form preceded by a slow introduction.
• The coda is much longer than earlier composers of the Classical era would have written.
• The structure is defined by tonality and conforms to the conventions dictated by sonata form.
9Schumann
• Balanced phrasing, as these are ‘songs without words’ (the title under which Mendelssohn chose to
publish his own short piano pieces) that could accompany lines of lyric poetry. There is a nostalgic
simplicity in the rounded binary form that Schumann chose for many of the movements of Kinderscenen.
This was the typical form for baroque dance movements; it survived through the classical period in the
minuets of symphonies. In his other collections of miniatures Schumann often favours unitary form (with
a single span), ternary form (ABA) or a freer structure of contrasting sections.
No. 1 – Von fremden Ländern und Menschen (‘Of foreign lands and people’)
• Rounded Binary Form: (A:BA) with each part repeated.
No. 3 – Hasche-Mann (‘Catch-me-if-you-can’)
• Rounded Binary Form (A: BA) with written out repeat of opening four bars but conventional notated
repeat of the ensuing BA section.
No. 11 – Fürchtenmachen (‘Frightening’)
• Symmetrical Rondo Form (A B A C A B A). Each section is 8 bars long but the B section consists of 4
bars repeated.
Armstrong
12-bar blues, five choruses long, with two contrasting strains, introduction and coda. See the table below
for bar numbers of different sections.
● In the vocal version (listen, for example, to Ethel Waters, 1928) the two strains clearly alternate, but in
Armstrong’s version Hines’s piano solo makes no reference to the melody of strain 2 as presented by the
trombone in bars 18-30.
10● The final trumpet solo breaks off in mid-stream, but the blues pattern continues, with solo piano and
coda creating an extension of the 12-bar shape.
Tippett
Having studied Beethoven’s works exhaustively as a student and realising that here there was an
essential fundamental archetype, it was only natural that in writing a concerto Tippett’s structures would
relate to classical ideals of form. The work is reminiscent of a three-movement concerto grosso, but in the
choice of sonata, ternary (modelled on Beethoven’s String Quartet in F minor, op.95) and sonata-rondo
forms it also clearly belongs to the late classical tradition.
Its seamless flow, however, is hardly interrupted by thematic contrast, and conventional articulation of
the journey through tonal relationships is not strongly evident. However, the standard divisions of sonata
structure are clear, indicated by the return of the opening music which acts both as a first subject, and a
ritornello theme.
Cage
The term ‘sonata’ refers back to Baroque sonatas such as those composed by Scarlatti, consisting of a
single movement in binary form. Most, but not all, of the Sonatas are in binary form (including Sonatas I-
III), with some having ternary or four-part structures or else being through-composed.
The micro-macrocosmic rhythmic structure depends on relationships between numbers which then govern
every aspect of the duration of the music. It produced a perfect symmetry which related the large-scale
to the small and the small-scale to the large, in the same way as fractals do in mathematics, nature and
art; fractals occur when a large shape can be broken down into fragments that have exactly the same
shape (as in snow crystals and ferns) as the large shape. Cage found this a particularly satisfying way of
structuring his music because in doing so his art was reflecting nature – a key feature of
Coomaraswamy’s teaching.
In practice, this meant that for each movement Cage would select a different number as a basic unit and
divide it into several varied proportions (for example, in Sonata III the basic unit is 8½ and this is divided
into 1, 1, 3¼, 3¼). These figures would then govern the length of the whole movement, its sections and
11phrases, and therefore each level of duration related to all the others. Such a system was first used in
First Construction (in Metal) in 1939, and subsequently became an essential ingredient of many of Cage’s
compositions. In Sonatas and Interludes he used fractions and irregular proportions for the first time,
giving rise to some complex durations.
Sonata I
● The length of each of the component parts relates to the number 7.
● The Sonata uses seven-crotchet units in multiples of 4 1 3; 4 1 3; 4 2; 4 2.
● The internal structure is as follows: o Bars 1-7 4 x 7 crotchets
o Bar 8 1 x 7 crotchets
o Bars 9-12 3 x 7 crotchets [Repeated]
o Bars 13-18 4 x 7 crotchets
o Bars 20-26 2 x 7 crotchets [Repeated].
● So, overall, the binary structure is composed of 2 sections of 56 and 42 beats.
● Note that there is a missing quaver because of the 9/8 in bar 11. There is, however, a
compensating ritardando.
Sonata II
● The length of each of the component parts relates to the number 31.
● The Sonata uses 31-crotchet units in multiples of 4,2; 4,2; 9½; 9½.
● The internal structure is as follows: o Bars 1-9 1 x 31 crotchets
o Bars 10-14 ½ x 31 crotchets [Repeated]
o Bars 15-23 1 X 31 crotchets
o Bars 24-32 1 x 31 crotchets
o Bars 33-37 1 x 11½ crotchets [Repeated].
● So, overall, the binary structure is composed of two sections of 46½ and 73½ beats.
● Note the frequent presence of 3/8 bars, many of them silent, which punctuate the phrases, and
the departure from the underlying pattern at the close.
Sonata III
● The length of each of the component parts relates to the number 34.
● The Sonata uses 34-crotchet units in multiples of 1; 1; 3¼; 3¼.
● The internal structure is as follows: o Bars 1-8 1 x 34 crotchets [Repeated]
o Bars 9-32 3¼ x 34 crotchets [Repeated].
● So, overall, the binary structure is composed of two sections of 34 and 110½ beats.
Melody
Corelli
As already stated, this movement is monothematic with all the melodic invention deriving from the
opening three-note motif based on a rising 3rd. Corelli develops this apparently simple motif in the
following ways:
As a rising sequence with added passing notes (second half of bar 1).
A further sequence of this embellished version (first half of bar 2).
In inversion (bar 5).
As a falling one-bar sequence with the embellishments removed (2nd violin and
violone bars 8 – 10).
Juxtaposition of the opening motif and its inversion in rising sequence (bar 11 and subsequent entries).
Extended falling sequence in violone (bars 15 – 17).
Addition of an anacrucis to the motif for the entries starting in bar 32.
12As a consequence of this development of the motif, almost all of the melody is based on the interval of a
3rd and stepwise movement. Occasionally an octave leap (eg 1 violin in bar 7) will break the chains of
st
characteristic descending sequences.
Haydn
Haydn’s melodic style in this piece is as typical of the Classical Style as one could ever hope to find.
Features worthy of comment are:-
• Periodic phrasing – look no further than the opening 8 bars to find a perfect (2 + 2 + 4) Classical phrase
structure • Much use of scale and arpeggio patterns – Bars 17- 21 is a good example of alternation
between them
• Some chromaticism within a mainly diatonic melody – the phrase at Bars 9-12 exemplifies this
• Melodic dissonance – for example, what would have been a rather bland arpeggio in Bars 18 and 20 is
transformed by the inspired inclusion of a surprising strong beat A natural
• Passing notes – these vary from diatonic, unaccented (e.g., the D in Bar 3) to chromatic, accented (
e.g., the B natural in Bar 13)
• Auxiliary notes – the A natural in Bar 4 is a chromatic lower auxiliary note
• Échappée – the G in Bar 3 qualifies as one of these unusual notes
• Ornamentation – quite limited in this movement although acciaccaturas do make a number of
appearances, the first one being in Bar 7
• Articulation – the crisp and buoyant nature of Haydn’s melody is brought alive by short slurs and much
use of staccato.
As mentioned above, Haydn is particularly renowned for adopting a monothematic approach. The opening
phrase can be analysed as comprising three thematic units; X, Y & Z:-
It does not take too much imagination to relate every other melodic unit in the piece to one of these
initial motives. Here are clear examples of how Haydn utilises and transforms each motive:-
Beethoven
• Melodies are mainly diatonic, although they do often contain brief chromaticism. There is, for example,
a chromatic scale in bars 25-6 of the 1st subject.
• Chromatic scales are sometimes used to form a lead into a melody, e.g. bar 69.
• The 1st subject theme begins with a rising sequence based on a four note motif derived from bar 8 of
the introduction which utilises a chromatic lower auxiliary note. It moves sequentially up a 3rd each time
with the longer note forming an E flat major arpeggio (Eb- G – Bb). It revolves around the E flat major
arpeggio in a similar way to that of the 3rd (“Eroica”) Symphony, which appeared five years later. After
13scalic passages, the theme comes to a close with a characteristic turn (bar 28), preceding the perfect
cadence.
• Melodies are often repeated, so the 1st subject theme is immediately repeated with fuller
instrumentation.
• The second subject theme at bar 53 is based upon intervals of a 4th played semistaccato before
adopting conjunct movement.
• It continues at bar 61 with descending quavers, spanning an octave and slurred in pairs.
• The final motif of the second subject group, bar 86, has a staccato march-like melody which uses a
descending sequence.
• The codetta is based upon a combination of two motifs, the anacrusis to the first subject which uses the
chromatic lower auxiliary note and conjunct descending figures from the second subject. It is presented
as a descending sequence.
• Typical of the Classical period, phrasing is usually periodic and balanced.
• Ornamentation is used widely throughout. As noted above, there is a characteristically classical turn at
bar 28. Dramatic appoggiaturas decorate the three stately crotchets at the start of the introduction, bars
2, 4, 6. Grace notes embellish the monophonic violin scalic solos in bars 40, 42, 44. Acciaccaturasenliven
the high violin melody in bars 217.
Schumann
Rudolf Reti, in The Thematic Process in Music, has demonstrated how many of the melodies of
Kinderscenen are derived from the first piece in the set. The rising 6th followed by a group of four
descending conjunct notes (page 9 example 1) can be traced through the various pieces, often at their
original pitches. In no. 3, the crotchet B natural has been detached from the four descending notes, and
the space filled with a similarly-shaped phrase one note higher. (Example 2) No. 11 also begins on B. The
four note descent is immediately heard in the alto on the principal beats, filled in with chromatic passing
notes. It reappears conspicuously at its original pitch in the second phrase of the melody. (See example
3, which also makes Schumann’s consecutive octaves very apparent!)
In the second episode, bar 21 is an obvious diminution of the upper notes of bars 9-11 of no. 1.
No. 1 – Von fremden Ländern und Menschen
• Thematic feature of rising minor 6th leap followed by stepwise descent in bars 1-2 and elsewhere.
• Bass melody in bars 9-12 borrows features of the opening bars.
• Melodic sequence in bars 9-12.
No. 3 – Hasche-Mann
• Melody is almost entirely conjunct, with leaps onto accented notes such as the appoggiaturas in bar 2
and the sforzando dominant seventh in bar 15.
• Thematic use of the figure of four conjunct semiquavers, ascending or descending. Appears as a
sequence in bar 2.
• Unusual descent of a minor 7th in bar 9. This is generated by the octave transposition of the
semiquaver phrase in the second half of the bar. The high position of the G major chord at the start of bar
9 is close to the hand position of the previous bar. The overall shape of the melody from bar 9 is a
descent, emphasised by accents at bars 9 and 11, and culminating with the Neapolitan chord at bar 13
(the lowest melody note in the piece).
No. 11 – Fürchtenmachen
• Mostly diatonic apart from chromaticism in the 2nd bar of the A section.
• Modified version of opening melody appears in the bass in bars 5-8, below a new phrase in the topmost
melody.
14• B section (bar 9) has a very disjunct bass melody with octave leaps which is treated in sequence.
• The second half of the C section (bars 25-28) has a 2-bar phrase with semitone movement which spans
a diminished 4th and is then treated in sequence.
Armstrong
Melodic lines in West End Blues vary in character from player to player. The sweeping, aerobatic trumpet
and piano lines of Armstrong and Hines have differing characters, and both are in marked contrast to the
much gentler contours of the solos for trombone and clarinet by Robinson and Strong.
Sung blues melodies are often characterised by notes or phrases that are ‘out of step’ with the changes in
background harmony, either persisting as dissonances against a new chord or anticipating a resolution.
(For example, see the fall from the dominant through the blue third to the tonic, which pervades Howlin
Wolf’s ‘I’m Leavin’ You’ – NAM 51.) This effect is heard in West End Blues, e.g. bars 104–14, with the
trumpet’s insistence on C and B flat; in the repeated G of bar 40 (dominant 13th, anticipating the tonic
chord); in the persistent E flat, against the dominant harmony, in bar 453 (piano RH); and spectacularly
in bar 59, where the high B flat persists across the change of chord, as the repeated jumping-off point for
Armstrong’s improvisation.
Armstrong’s style of improvisation
Joshua Berrett (in Musical Quarterly, Spring 1992) argues that Armstrong’s improvisation blends
techniques learned from jazz players (both trumpeters and clarinettists) with influences from opera.
Armstrong included opera arias in his early record collection, and frequently quoted from popular arias
and other well-known songs in his solo breaks: Berrett quotes examples from Verdi’s Rigoletto and
Leoncavallo’s I Pagliacci, among others.
Armstrong might also have heard the opera-inspired Italianate flourishes of romantic piano music, evident
in the music of Thalberg (a leading nineteenth-century piano virtuoso) and Chopin. These various
influences can be seen in:
● the use of leaps of an octave or more
● the balancing on very high notes before a descent
● the mix of diatonic and chromatic decoration
● the irregularly curving ascents and descents
● the prevalence of appoggiaturas
● the free subdivision of the beat into irregular rhythmic groups
● the incorporation of mordent-like figures.
Armstrong’s introduction
These are six of the most famous bars in the history of jazz recording. Gunther Schuller wrote that ‘The
clarion call of West End Blues served notice that jazz had the potential capacity to compete with the
highest order of previously known expression.’ (Early Jazz, 1968).
● The opening phrase sweeps down then up again across a range of a 13th, based around the chord of E
flat added 6th, plus F and the F# that will be such a characteristic part of the West End Blues melody.
● The second phrase covers an even wider range (two octaves and a tone), swooping down in swung
rhythm through blue G flats and D flats and zig-zagging through little chromatic triplet figures that
Armstrong had already developed in earlier recordings (especially in a solo break in Margaret Johnson’s
‘Changeable Daddy of Mine’).
● The diminuendo on the last few notes, with a hushed vibrato on the final Ab, anticipates the melancholy
tone of the blues melody.
Blues strain 1
● Only a few phrases are needed to establish the identity of the melody before Armstrong starts to
embellish it, gradually moving from added blue notes through diatonic figuration (bars 13-14) to
increasing chromaticism (bars 15-17) and a return to the rising triplet arpeggio of his introduction.
● The improvised phrases, from bar 13 onwards, typically start on, or leap to, a dissonance against the
prevailing chord.
● In bars 14-16, note the rapid mordent-like figure (demisemiquavers), leaps onto dissonant notes, and
the tension between the melody and supporting harmony in bars 15-16.
Trombone solo
Fred Robinson’s solo has a strongly vocal quality.
15● There is emphasis on ‘blue’ notes throughout, e.g. G flat/G natural in bars 18-21, and D flat/D natural
in bars 26-28.
● Note the glissando between major and ‘blue’ third at the start.
● Phrases droop expressively through small intervals, most typically a second followed by a third.
● Note the contrast between the longer, expressively ‘bent’ notes and the much cleaner pitching of the
figures in shorter notes.
● Compare this treatment of the melody with vocal recordings of West End Blues such as Ethel Waters
(August 1928) and Eva Taylor (July 1929).
Clarinet and scat duet
Jimmy Strong simplifies the theme to a series of brief, simple phrases, allowing room for Armstrong’s
vocal answers. These become increasingly elaborate, in the style of his trumpet improvisations – compare
bar 14 with bar 37 (descent from D to G) and with bar 40 (rapid alternation between G and B flat).
Piano solo
Earl Hines’s solo includes a wide variety of melodic effects, including echoes of earlier solo phrases, which
serve to integrate this solo into the whole performance:
● virtuoso show-piece arabesques spanning between two and three octaves, based on chord shapes: E
flat added 6th (bars 43, 45), F minor (bar 51)
● short expressive phrases recalling Armstrong’s scat phrases (bar 44, compare bar 40)
● chromatic figurations (bar 46 – possibly an echo of bar 5 of Armstrong’s introduction).
● ‘trumpet-style’ rhythmic phrases in octaves, again based on added 6th chord shapes (bars 47-50)
● right-hand tremolo (bar 50), which adds colour to a surprising harmonic twist
● bars 51-54 picking up ideas from the end of Armstrong’s solo in bars 15-18
● little reference to ‘blue’ notes except the chromatic D flat/D natural in bars 46 and 52.
Second trumpet solo
High notes were a speciality of jazz clarinettists and trumpeters, with long high notes creating particular
excitement because of the sustained tension in the sound and the demands on the player. Armstrong’s
dramatic 12-second top B flat, with its gradually intensifying tone and vibrato, is at the same time a
variation on the ‘West End’ melody and an extreme melodic gesture. The ensuing run discharges the
tension after winding it up even further with five short descents from the same top B flat. The piano
chords (bars 63-65) provide a transition between the extrovert solo and the final trumpet phrase that
recaptures the blues character in a descending pentatonic scale.
Tippett
Features of Tippett’s melodic style include:
● use of motifs, leading to
o phrase structures of varying lengths and
o phrase extension, e.g. b. 39, arising from opening motif
● sequence, e.g. bars 18-20, violin I, orchestra II
● inversion, e.g. b.8
● interval extension, e.g. lower instruments from b.13
● ostinato, e.g. b.21
● varied intervallic shapes, comprising both conjunct and disjunct patterns
● modality pervasive, involving Aeolian, Lydian (see F# in b.56) and Mixolydian)
● ornamentation.
Cage
Melody is one of the most significant features of Cage’s style in Sonatas and Interludes. General features
of melody include:
● some immediate repetition of patterns, but these are not usually recapitulated later
● short statements with defined shapes and phrases separated by rests
● arch-shaped melodies are common: see Sonata I, bars 15-16; Sonata II, bars 1-2
16● limited number of pitches, sometimes suggesting pentatonicism: see Sonata II, bars 1-8
● a tendency to use conjunct movement: see Sonata III
● Ddecorative use of grace notes and rhythmic embellishment
● in Sonata III in particular motifs are treated with familiar melodic devices: such as repetition, sequence,
inversion, augmentation.
Texture
Corelli
The movement is typically contrapuntal. It is in a three–part texture with the violone part joining in the
counterpoint for most of the movement. The opening section is fugal in style. The first violin states the
subject (monophonic texture) and the second violin provides the answer a 4th lower (called a real answer
as it is exactly the same). In bar 5 the two violins start an inverted version of the subject in parallel 3rds
before the violone completes the entries of the original subject starting midway through bar 6. Stretto
entries (where the parts come in more closely) in bars 11 – 13 are followed by a closing passage where
the violins sustain an inverted pedal point (briefly doubled in bars 16 – 17) above the moving bass line.
Corelli achieves much variety within this three-part texture. Often the parts are polarised with the two
violins close together above a bass much lower in pitch (eg bars 18 – 19), but they are more evenly
spaced at the start of bar 27. Violin 2 and Violone sometimes work together in parallel 10ths (bars 8 – 9)
although in the later part of the movement the imitation is largely confined to the violins with the violone
providing a more distinct bass line (bars 28 – end). The texture is more obviously homophonic at cadence
points (bars 26 – 27, 42 – 43). An interesting effect occurs in bars 32 – 34 where the two violins leapfrog
over each other with successive entries of imitation a 4 higher. It is worth noting also how Corelli draws
th
the movement (and the whole sonata) to a close by dropping all three parts down an octave for the final
three bars.
Haydn
The texture is
• Largely four-part:
o Usually each instrument is independent – doubling at unison and octave is not a feature
o However, violins have some parallel 3rds, 6ths and 10ths (as in the middle of the opening
section or ‘refrain’, from bar 9)
o There are three parts in the second phrase of the refrain, first heard in bars 3–4).
• Homophonic:
o Very occasional chordal or homorhythmic movement (all parts haring the same rhythm, as at
the two pause chords in bars 139–
140)
o Usually Violin I melody dominates, other parts accompanying with the same rhythm (e.g. at
the beginning) – this is melody dominated homophony.
• Textural exceptions and noteworthy points are as follows:
o In bars 112–116 (from the second episode) other parts take up the melody just heard in Violin
I. This is not strict imitation, however, because successive entries do not genuinely overlap
o In the bars of three-part texture Viola functions as the bass instrument in lieu of Cello (e.g.,
Bars 3-4)
o The aforementioned double-stopping automatically creates a denser texture – five parts in Bar
151 and six parts in Bar 149
o Pedals are common, either as a sustained note (Bars 87-92) or as reiterated notes (Bars 128-
131)
o Unusually, in Bars 128-131 the textural division seems to pair off inner (2nd Violin & Viola) and
outer (1st Violin & Cello) parts
o What then ensues in Bars 132-135 is the three upper parts working in partnership whilst Cello
is isolated.
Beethoven
• Beethoven uses a wide variety of textures.
• The slow introduction begins with tutti homophonic chords, e.g. bar 1.
17• There is monophony in bar 2 (solo violin).
• Typical of the Classical period, the texture for much of the piece is melody-dominated homophony, e.g.
beginning of the Exposition, where the string trio texture consists of a broken chord accompaniment in
the viola and a strong harmonic foundation in the cello to support the melody in the violin. At bar 28 this
melody is repeated but in a full tutti format with the melody in the clarinet, sustained harmony in the
bassoon and French horn, double stopped syncopated accompaniment in the upper strings and arpeggio
walking bass in the lower strings.
• There are antiphonal exchanges with dialogue between the clarinet/bassoon and the violin, bars 47–50.
• Homophonic/homorhythmic writing occurs at bars 50-53 and 86-97.
• There is octave writing between the clarinet and bassoon (bar 128), or 6ths (bar 140). Octaves between
five instruments at the start of the Development, bar 113.
• Pedal notes add stability to the texture, bars 140-153.
Schumann
• Melody dominated homophony.
No. 1 – Von fremden Ländern und Menschen
• Three textural layers in A section consisting of upper melody, inner quaver triplets and an independent
bass line.
• In B section (bars 9-14) the sound of the three layers continues, but the treatment and notation are
different: the upper melody is thickened with thirds whilst triplets are associated with the bass line as it
adapts the melody of bars 1-8.
No. 3 – Hasche-Mann
• Again, the texture is essentially 3-part, with the most active part usually at the top, the bass line firmly
on the main beats and an accompaniment of off-beat chords – the bass and accompaniment both played
by a very active left hand in the ‘stride’ manner already mentioned.
• The exceptions to this are the open 5th double pedal in bars 132-151 (emphasised by the rest in the
bass line, bar 13) and the sustained chord with inner ascending scale in bars 152-16.
No. 11 – Fürchtenmachen
• Whilst the harmony and counterpoint training of the nineteenth century still involved strict part-writing,
pianist-composers were able to treat this with great freedom. In this piece, whilst there is obviously a
basic 3- and 4-part texture, Schumann adapts the part-writing to the needs of the moment. A particular
effect can be noted in bars 25-27, where the left hand thumb, at the top of the accompanying chords,
repeats the melody notes an octave lower. The variations in texture and dynamics, some gradual and
some sudden, are an expressive feature obviously related to the title of the piece.
• The opening is effectively a melody supported by the two lower parts descending in thirds.
• By bar 3 four-part harmony can be heard, involving some rhythmic independence between the
component lines.
• In bar 5, the texture of the opening is inverted with the tune in the lowest part, while the accompanying
material, now expanded to three-part chords, is in the right hand.
• The B section (bars 9-12) has a bass tune with short off beat chords accompanying above.
• At the start of the C section (bars 21-24) three contrasting textural elements alternate – rapid
semiquaver movement in 6ths, single bass notes and full 5 or 6-part chords.
• The melody dominated homophony texture at bars 25-28 uses a stride-like accompaniment pattern
reminiscent of no.3.
Armstrong
● Monophonic at start (bars 1-6).
● Thereafter, melody and accompaniment (melody-dominated homophony). Accompaniment typically in
repeated chords for banjo and piano; sometimes with slow-moving accompanying lines for clarinet and
trombone with occasional ‘fills’.
● Parallel thirds between trumpet and clarinet (bars 8-9), and parallel tritones between clarinet and voice
in the chromatic turnaround (bar 41).
● Antiphony between clarinet and scat voice (bars 31-42).
● Keyboard textures include LH parallel tenths (bars 43-44) and RH octaves (bars 47-50).
● Dominant pedal in bars 64-66.
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