Integrated land use options for the Aotearoa - Core
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Paul Blaschke
Integrated land
use options for
the Aotearoa
New Zealand low-emissions
‘careful revolution’
Abstract sum attempt to address the land use-related low-
The Climate Change Response (Zero Carbon) emissions challenge in a coherent way. The analysis
Amendment Act 2019 is a welcome start on the is built around seven key integrative themes: an
path towards a low-emissions future for Aotearoa Aotearoa New Zealand world view and identity;
New Zealand, but it is not much more than a set sustainable low-emissions dietary and nutrition
of targets and some tools. There are also so many policy; integrated lower-emissions farming, forestry
potential alternative tools and processes now on and freight transport; natural capital’s contribution
offer that we face the additional significant risk of to wellbeing; integrated catchment approaches;
an unsystematic effort, without enough focus to resilient cities; and meta-integration. Without
secure an optimal pathway. Most of the needed tools significant effort on the integration of these and
and processes involve decisions about land use. This many other components of the required ‘careful
article outlines various options for well-integrated revolution’, the revolution will be neither careful
land use policies for Aotearoa New Zealand that in nor successful.
Keywords land use, New Zealand, environmental
Paul Blaschke is an independent environmental consultant and Honorary
Research Fellow at Victoria University of Wellington and the University of integration, catchment scale, just
Otago, Wellington. He has broad interests in ecosystem services, landscape
ecology and land use/biodiversity policy and policy implementation. transition, carbon emissions reduction
Page 26 – Policy Quarterly – Volume 16, Issue 2 – May 2020W
ith the passage of the Climate of the components of the required ‘careful operate within planetary boundaries.
Change Response (Zero revolution’, the revolution cannot be Perley uses a landscape systems framework
Carbon) Amendment Act 2019 considered careful, nor will it be successful. to illustrate his assertion that ‘if we want
(the Zero Carbon Act), Aotearoa New An additional reason for a land use focus to understand and act wisely, we need to
Zealand is now hopefully on a pathway is that this sector (especially agriculture, synthesise as much as we analyse’.
towards a low-emissions future. But the act forestry and nature conservation) is among The background to this commentary is
does not provide a map for the journey; the most politicised in Aotearoa New the legacy of colonial and post-colonial
it is not much more than a set of targets Zealand and most vulnerable to interest changes in land use that have led to the
and some tools. The recent book A Careful group lobbying. There is a real need, current land use pattern. Although our per
Revolution: towards a low-emissions future therefore, to take a carefully integrated capita fossil fuel emissions are somewhat
(Hall, 2019) offers much useful guidance approach which anticipates the likely kinds lower than those of comparable OECD
on aspects of the changes required, of social pushback to transition policies. countries,2 our total per capita emissions
coming from a refreshingly wide range of are much higher than the global average
contributors and perspectives. Principles because of unusually high biogenic
of intersectoral and intergenerational
justice permeate the contents, especially
The background emissions (Ministry for the Environment,
2019), as discussed below. The recent
the concept of a ‘just transition’,1 as does
an appreciation of the many types of risk
to this commentary pattern is of agricultural intensification but
continued dependence on commodity
and disruption that must be addressed. is the legacy production, leading to a desperately
Partly because of this welcome diversity concerning failure to reduce greenhouse
of approach, however, its messages are of colonial and gas emissions. We are also experiencing
post-colonial
not comprehensive and not always clearly persistent biodiversity losses in all types of
coherent. environments, and high levels of freshwater
A plethora of government and private
initiatives, including several national policy changes in land pollution, soil loss and sedimentation.3
As this article was being finalised, the
statements under the Resource
Management Act (RMA), reform of the
use that have led Covid-19 pandemic was still rapidly
expanding worldwide, and Aotearoa New
RMA itself, the One Billion Trees
programme, the Emissions Trading Scheme
to the current land Zealand was in the early stage of its Level
4 lockdown. Comment was beginning to
(ETS), the ‘Action for healthy waterways’ use pattern. emerge on the recovery phase,4 including
plan, post-Treaty of Waitangi settlement the need for the economic recovery to be
programmes, a new national Biodiversity planned and supported in a way that builds
Strategy and more, offer a superabundance in less carbon-intensive growth, and at the
of potential policy and implementation same time is equitable and offers support
vehicles to assist the journey. The current A need for integration in land use policy to people in declining sectors. The needs
government’s wellbeing agenda and the has been long recognised, but is not of ‘just transition’ mentioned above will be
Treasury’s Living Standards Framework handled well in the RMA despite it being equally critical for the required Covid-19
represent further approaches to a more specifically required under several sections recovery. In the conclusion I offer a brief
sustainable and resilient future. In fact, (Bührs, 2009; Resource Management postscript highlighting some aspects of a
there are so many potential vehicles and Review Panel, 2019). Given that the RMA low-carbon Covid-19 recovery phase in the
guidance systems now on offer (many of is our main statute for planning land use, land use sector.
them untested and seemingly not this is a serious obstacle to better integration.
integrated) that we face an additional The theme of environmental integration What could constitute a ‘careful land use
significant risk on this critical journey: a related to land use has been discussed by revolution’ in Aotearoa New Zealand? Seven
scattering of effort, without enough Bührs (2009) and Perley (2018). Bührs calls strands of integration
focused intellectual, political or financial this type of integration ‘green planning’, Aotearoa New Zealand world view and
resource available to ensure an optimal which he regards as an overarching, mainly identity
pathway. national-scale policy framework to guide Any appropriate integrated response to
Most of the initiatives mentioned the development of all kinds of policies that the low-emissions challenge requires an
involve decisions about land use. I offer may have a significant impact on the integrated and evidence-informed world
here a personal commentary on some environment. Bührs’ focus helps to view, outward-looking but shaped to the
options for land use policies for Aotearoa promote a systems approach to history and environment of Aotearoa
New Zealand that in sum attempt to environmental policy applied to wicked New Zealand in the 21st century. An
address our critical low-emissions problems such as the climate crisis. It also excellent basis for this is provided by the
challenge in a consciously integrated way. reflects the realisation that humans and seminal Waitangi Tribunal Wai262 report
Without significant effort on the integration human institutions are a part of nature and concerning ownership of and rights to
Policy Quarterly – Volume 16, Issue 2 – May 2020 – Page 27Integrated Land Use Options for the Aotearoa New Zealand Low-emissions ‘Careful Revolution’
mätauranga Mäori (Mäori knowledge
systems) (Harmsworth and Awatere,
A large and Sustainable low-emissions diet and
nutrition policy
2013), in respect of indigenous flora and increasing body A very large reduction in Aotearoa New
fauna (Waitangi Tribunal, 2011). Over a Zealand agriculture-related emissions
protracted hearing period, the Tribunal’s of research is needed. This must be achieved while
inquiry widened from the traditional
resource management and conservation
indicates important people’s dietary and health needs are
equitably met and there is food security
sectors into many intersecting sectors such human health (IPCC, 2019). It is a critical component of
as health, education, intellectual property a just transition towards a low-emissions
and commerce. It thereby became the co-benefits from future (Huggard, 2019).
Tribunal’s first whole-of-government
report, recommending wide-ranging
a diet that is A large and increasing body of research
indicates important human health co-
reforms to laws and policies affecting richer in foods benefits from a diet that is richer in foods
Mäori culture and identity and calling for produced with a lower fossil fuel input
the Crown–Mäori relationship to move produced with (such as most fruits, vegetables and pulses),
beyond grievance to a new era based on
partnership.
a lower fossil compared with foods produced with a
higher fossil fuel input (such as meat and
Essential concepts traversed included fuel input ... dairy products). From both an
the interpretation of land and sea ‘resources’ environmental and a health perspective,
as taonga, and the viewing of humans as compared with these principles imply that New Zealanders
integrally bound to and part of the
environment, as vividly expressed by the
foods produced should eat much less meat than we do
currently on average, but not necessarily
whakatauki ‘Ko au te awa, ko te awa ko au’ with a higher fossil no meat. Meat products are not the only
(‘I am the river, the river is me’).5 This high climate-impact foods, and not all
report and its recommendations provide a fuel input ... meats have a high climate impact (e.g.
vivid, integrated and sustainable view of poultry) (Drew et al., 2020). Food
how our land and water taonga could best production systems that require high levels
be used. of water input (mainly through irrigation)
Notably, there has been no government research programmes such as the New can also have a large climate impact and in
response to the report in the years since it Zealand Biological Heritage National turn become highly vulnerable to climate
was issued.6 The report has been hugely Science Challenge, Ngä Koiora Tukuiho. change impacts.
influential nevertheless, its ideas and An example of where integrated How closely should food exports mirror
recommendations permeating landmark Aotearoa-specific knowledge is particularly domestic food production and
partnership settlements such as for Te relevant is within the new forestry agency consumption? Thinking about Aotearoa
Urewera and Te Awa Tupua (Whanganui), Te Uru Räkau. Te Uru Räkau is positioned New Zealand’s international trading
both incorporating the concept and legal within the Ministry for Primary Industries, position as a significant food exporter, as
right of personhood conferred on elements so that forest policy is developed within a well as global food security and equitable
of the environment. broader land use framework. Aotearoa- global nutrition considerations, there is a
specific technical knowledge is required, continuing requirement for animal-based
Aotearoa New Zealand-appropriate for example, for feasible wood processing and dairy-based protein; and in some cases
technology and knowledge options, end uses of tree products and it is environmentally, as well as culturally
Appropriate knowledge is required in order responses to invasive species, including soil and/or nutritionally, appropriate for this
to develop the means of expressing the pathogens. Technical knowledge must be to be meat protein.
world view referred to above and shaping integrated with social and economic From a climate response perspective, if
it towards the low-emissions challenge. research to ensure effective outcomes. Such there is a role for food exports these must
Mätauranga is an integral part of such integrated knowledge is necessary for be high-value and relatively low climate-
knowledge and can be used productively developing forestry-related emissions impact (Saunders and Barber, 2008). The
in conjunction with Western, Aotearoa- offsets with a high degree of permanence, higher emissions of our long-distance
adapted scientific knowledge. For example, including possible end uses of timber. All transport costs must be offset by lower
mätauranga incorporates ecosystems and this requires innovation in both knowledge climate-impact production systems.
ecosystem service concepts (Harmsworth acquisition and implementation into land Exports to countries closer rather than
and Awatere, 2013), as well as intimate use systems. The whole journey from further away should be favoured: for
knowledge of taonga species not expressed know ledge to technolog y to example, Asian Pacific Rim countries. It is
within Linnean nomenclature. These implementation is an iterative social hard to see a large future role for air-
productive relationships are increasingly process of engagement and knowledge transported food exports.
underpinning recent environmental transfer.
Page 28 – Policy Quarterly – Volume 16, Issue 2 – May 2020Technology and knowledge have a
critical role in achieving low-emissions
... an adequate numbers; distance from markets or ports;
labour and infrastructure requirements
diets and food production. Aotearoa New price on emissions for each potential land use; and social and
Zealand has been a significant exporter of cultural factors. Landowners in specific
innovation for many agricultural sectors, is fundamental localities remain the best placed to take
and its role in researching greenhouse gas
reductions in pastoral agriculture has also
not only to all these considerations into account, but
need to face an environmentally realistic
been significant,7 with potential for further enable a low- price on emissions.
large reductions. Integrated reduction of The parliamentary commissioner for
food waste at points of production and emissions transition, the environment also considered the
consumption, for both domestic and
export agricultural produce, is also an
but also to potential roles of carbon offsets,
recommending that access to forest sinks
important component of reducing maintain natural as offsets be allowed ‘only for biological
agriculture-related greenhouse gas emissions’. In his view they should be used
emissions (Drew et al., 2020), closely tied capital in the low- as a temporary last resort measure to offset
to reductions in the transport sector (see
below).
emissions future. fossil emissions, and only those sinks with
a high degree of permanence, including
timber end uses, should be counted.
Farming, forestry and freight transport in the Essentially, however, all offsets in the sector
low-emissions economy and even flat land (Meurk and Swaffield,
are trade-offs and not in themselves
Agriculture, forestry and associated freight 2006). problematic as a means to an end if they
transport should be considered together Contributory measures would include result in an overall reduction in net
because transport emissions associated the provision of efficient renewable energy emissions in a well-integrated manner – for
with agricultural and forest production for all possible agriculture and transport example, to take account of regional social
and processing are large but not uses, both road and rail (through greater use needs and avoid inappropriate whole-farm
incorporated into those sectors in Aotearoa of electric vehicles, including for freight,10
conversions. Overall, by considering the
New Zealand’s emissions inventory system and rail electrification); and reduced overall
purposes of split targets, the appropriate
(Ministry for the Environment, 2019). sector transport demand, initially and uses of offsets and the importance of scale
Some form of meaningful price for all urgently to no net growth. The objective considerations, the commissioner’s report
primary production greenhouse gas should be that fossil fuels are reserved for achieves a rare degree of integrated systems
emissions is fundamental to lowering those heavy freight transport and essential thinking for this sector.12 His conclusions
emissions, as now recognised in the Zero infrastructure needs during the transition reinforce the ‘right tree, right place, right
Carbon Act and the ETS.8 The bottom line period. purpose’ principle again. The principle
in these sectors is that, overall, many more makes a direct contribution to sustainability
trees are needed, both native and Farming and forestry: carbon targets and resilience in its immediate land use
introduced, because of their potential for A feature of the Zero Carbon Act is the split
context, as well as contributing to carbon
greenhouse gas storage and erosion in the emissions target between biogenic sequestration. Landscape-integrated
reduction, and the need to halt native methane and other greenhouse gas (mainly woody vegetation serves many purposes.
biodiversity decline. To achieve these fossil fuel-derived) emissions targets.11
higher-level aims, the One Billion Trees Although the split target appeared to be Natural capital’s contribution to wellbeing
programme and Te Uru Räkau slogan ‘the largely a political response in order to Protecting natural capital as the basis
right tree in the right place for the right gain greater consensus for the act, there for economic and societal resilience is
purpose’ are complementary. are also valid environmental reasons to a fundamental tenet of an integrated
Commercial forests, including those support a split target, as discussed by sustainability framework, and this must
using native species, have a role in the ETS. the parliamentary commissioner for the be maintained during and beyond the
Exotic tree plantations9 can have a valuable environment (2019). The commissioner’s transition to a low-emissions future.
role for employment, trade, building and discussion takes account of necessary scale The focus here is not just on the land
erosion control, subject to adequate and considerations for an integrated landscape component of natural capital, but on all
well-enforced environmental controls, approach. For example, the ‘ideal’ balance the components of the environment: land,
especially in the harvesting phase. An between farming and forestry for equitably water, soil, plants, animals and microbes,
integrated production landscape will reducing emissions would range in scale mineral and energy resources.
include various types of longer-term from the local to the national depending Economists have long grappled with
continuous and discontinuous canopy, on many factors, including: the nature how to express and make real the values of
including conservation areas, farm of the land resource (see next section); ecosystem services.13 Markets do not
woodlots, shelter belts and agroforestry projected economic returns on different adequately provide for these values, so
systems, covering steep as well as rolling land use options; proportions of animal there is a case for statutory approaches,
Policy Quarterly – Volume 16, Issue 2 – May 2020 – Page 29Integrated Land Use Options for the Aotearoa New Zealand Low-emissions ‘Careful Revolution’
such as land or water management
standards, or a zoning approach that
The concept of climate adaptation will include more
attention to and preparedness for increased
enables recognising and protecting diverse ‘just transition’ ... fire hazards. The catchment scale is also
ecosystem services. appropriate for recognising the inclusion of
As noted earlier, an adequate price on is in itself nature conservation as a land use: managing
emissions is fundamental not only to
enable a low-emissions transition, but also
integrative by threatened ecosystems and species and
integrating many local or regional
to maintain natural capital in the low- involving many biodiversity programmes and projects with
emissions future. This economic tool could land management in a catchment, all
lead to a revival of ‘old’ land uses that sectors, including planned with a view to a low-emissions
generate lower emissions while providing
high-value or niche products, such as wool,
the land use future. All these aspects can powerfully
come together in an integrated catchment
manuka and honey bee crops, and sectors management plan methodology (Marshall,
plantation trees for timber construction as Blackstock and Dunglinson, 2010).16
opposed to log exports. Catchment-based soil conservation,
Incentives for development, such as the which has a relatively long history in
Provincial Growth Fund, must be shaped and purpose (including spiritual and Aotearoa New Zealand, is a key
to value natural capital and enable cultural components). implementation methodology for
appropriate capital investment. matching land use to land use capability
Disincentives for unproductive capital Integrated catchment approaches: ki uta ki (Roche, 1994). Maintenance of intact soils
investment, such as a capital gains tax, may tai (mountains to sea) and soil quality is essential to maintaining
be necessary even if unpopular. The A catchment-based approach to land use farming use and food-producing potential
insurance and investment sectors have a planning and management is a logical in the face of variable and changing climate.
vital role to play to channel investment, basis for integrated management because it Soil conservation during forest
providing low-cost capital to enable recognises the principle that all landscape establishment and harvesting is also a key
landowners to invest in new assets and processes occur in natural catchment requirement of any wood production
management systems, and informed systems (Perley, 2018), and that human system. Generally, production management
market signals of emissions-related risk management that recognises this physical on our very widespread mountain and hill
(Whineray, 2019).14 setting is more likely to achieve integration. lands is sustainable under only very light
We must also consider how tourism In Aotearoa New Zealand our often and conservative land uses everywhere.
will be positioned in the transition, as it steep catchments are visible and intuitive Avoidance of soil erosion and
is a land use driver in its own right as well units of land management. This realisation sedimentation is also the key to mitigating
as a key economic sector. To continue this makes easier the objective of matching land many water quality problems currently
role in a low-emissions future, tourism use and land management to land experienced in Aotearoa New Zealand, as
must be at appropriate scale, and may capability while adapting land use to a sediment is among the worst and most
contract under the Zero Carbon Act. lower-emissions framework. Farming pervasive pollutants in waterways.
International tourism, in particular, may according to land capability is a further Freshwater quality and availability are
move to become a niche high-value expression of the ‘right tree in the right intimately linked to land management. In
product for those who can afford the place’ approach, which should be extended spite of some initiatives under the National
carbon charges of international travel to the notion of ‘right crop and animal in Policy Statement for Freshwater
when aviation fuels eventually attract a the right place’. Aspects of integrated Management, systematic problems for
charge or levy (Parliamentar y catchment-based management still exist in freshwater remain, including a lack of clear
Commissioner for the Environment, local government organisations; these can goals and the need to integrate potentially
2020). This is true also for the outward be built on and extended to current or conflicting goals.
tourism of New Zealanders, so the future developments to enable low- A suite of methods under the rubric of
counterpart of less international tourism emissions land management to be widely ‘regenerative agriculture’ offer conservative,
is likely to be more domestic tourism, adopted. For example, in the Wellington low-input methods for maintenance of soil
with lower net emissions. region, Whaitua implementation quantity and quality, as well as retaining
Overall, a wellbeing approach is highly programmes15 are being developed by the ability of intact soils to sequester
integrative and implies a quadruple bottom catchment-based community groups in carbon. A regenerative agriculture
line: recognition of natural, cultural and order to implement water management approach is also essentially integrative in
social capital and performance alongside objectives in regional plans. character in requiring soils, vegetation and
economic capital and performance. To A catchment-based approach and the animals to be managed within a land
expand on a conventional triple bottom matching of land use and land capability is systems framework. Relatively low-input
line approach, value is derived for all the the key to adapting to climate variability, farming was the norm in Aotearoa New
components of people, planet, prosperity now and into the future. In many regions, Zealand farming systems until recent
Page 30 – Policy Quarterly – Volume 16, Issue 2 – May 2020decades, and elements of regenerative
farming are still common,17 but an increase
Novel or enriched significant areas of land within or adjacent
to our cities. For this potential to be realised,
in intensity and accompanying fossil fuel ecosystems within the functional relationships between urban,
dependence has been evident for some peri-urban and rural areas are critical, and
time (Parliamentary Commissioner for the extensive areas of some significant land use changes would
Environment, 2004). As the parliamentary
commissioner for the environment pointed
production, ‘fallow’ need to be accepted by urban residents.
out in 2004, low-input farming is not or stewardship land Conclusion: meta-integration at the core of a
necessarily inefficient or unprofitable. low-emissions wellbeing economy
Nevertheless, in an era of high land values can be habitats for The last strand briefly addresses land
and capital servicing costs, more explicit
valuation of natural capital and the
native biodiversity use components of meaningful whole-
of-government and whole-of-society
environmental cost of high-emissions recovery ... as integration towards a low-emissions
farming may be required in order for its future (Waitangi Tribunal, 2011; IPCC,
efficiency to be profitable. well as for 2019). This will obviously involve many
Resilient cities
climate responses. sectors; all those referred to above and
more. ‘Whole-of-government’ refers to an
Why should urban areas, with less than integrated and holistic systems-oriented,
1% of Aotearoa New Zealand’s total area, cross-agency approach (Boston, 2017),
be a focus of integration? Urban areas added benefit of proximity and fewer but also includes an integral partnership
and their more extensive peri-urban travel-related emissions for the urban- approach as embodied in Ko Aotearoa
surrounds provide the habitat and most based recreation and nature seekers who Te-nei (Waitangi Tribunal, 2011). The
of the food, ecosystem and wellbeing visit. The use of these green and blue spaces governmental approach currently being
benefits for nearly 90% of the national for recreation offers important health and developed towards an integrated response
population; most of our gross national wellbeing benefits to large numbers of to that report could turn out to be
domestic product is produced in cities; urban dwellers (Roberts et al., 2015). highly relevant to whole-of-government
and they are growing rapidly in extent. Cities function best if there are limits approaches to the climate crisis, not just
Denser urban populations offer generally to spatial growth (i.e. sprawl), which are to bicultural governance issues.
easier low-adaptation opportunities and also necessary for low-emissions outcomes. Land use is a vital part of our economy
more resources available to implement Total urban emissions footprints of urban and society. A fully integrated land use
these opportunities. Urban land uses must areas are much higher than their land area response will need to embrace all aspects
therefore be included among the integrated share,18 so emissions transitions need to of carbon farming and low-emissions
land use mosaic for a low-emissions future. take place in cities even more so than in initiatives discussed above, including
Extensive rural areas occur around and rural areas. Urban transport emissions native and exotic trees, animals and urban
even within the boundaries of many (including from transport between outer land use. As well as government policy and
Aotearoa New Zealand city council suburbs, city centres and employment regulatory initiatives, it will build on
administrative areas and provide rural uses hubs) need to reduce urgently; there is diverse current examples of best practice
and services. Peri-urban areas offer critical emerging evidence that intensification of ranging from farm environmental award
transitions between urban and rural cities can play a useful part over time in winners to innovative multi-sector
environments; they are also an important reducing these transport emissions production sector NGOs and stakeholder
focus area for horticulture, currently (Chapman et al., 2017). Alongside this, organisations. It must also include large
around 1.5% of total land area. This land, some policy measures to achieve urban corporate farming organisations (Carden
if not lost to urban expansion, offers emissions reductions are relatively and McKenzie, 2018). It must see
potential to maintain or expand straightforward technically, but require biodiversity conservation in its widest
horticulture, including products with high political will to implement (Hasan et al., sense as an integral part of our land use
value and relatively low volume, and thus 2019). Integration of urban and rural land responses, making full use of nature-based
potential export priorities in a low- uses also require efficient low-emissions solutions (Cohen-Sacham et al., 2016;
emissions future. But development of this city/hinterland connections, both public Roberts et al., 2015). A well-integrated,
potential must be linked to the retention and private. nature-based solution recognises that as
of the high-value soils on which growth of In short, there is much potential for the well as our precious native biodiversity,
these crops depends. careful revolution to occur in and around introduced species within plantations,
Some of these rural and peri-urban our cities as well as rural areas, through agro-ecosystems, and all kinds of novel
areas also contain significant natural ‘areas, decarbonised transport systems, energy ecosystems and mixtures of native and
e.g. regional parks’. Hence, they offer efficiency and conservation, building and introduced species can provide elements
spatially close opportunities for integration manufacturing technology, waste of nature-based solutions to climate
of production and natural values, with the management, etc. Many of these sectors use change and biodiversity decline. Novel or
Policy Quarterly – Volume 16, Issue 2 – May 2020 – Page 31Integrated Land Use Options for the Aotearoa New Zealand Low-emissions ‘Careful Revolution’
enriched ecosystems within extensive areas
of production, ‘fallow’ or stewardship land
Climate change help low-emissions resilience and can
also help in managing demand peaks
can be habitats for native biodiversity adaptation is of if well designed and integrated
recovery (Parliamentary Commissioner for (Transpower New Zealand, 2020).
the Environment, 2002; Forbes et al., 2020), course a critical Development of such sources would
as well as for climate responses.
Some of the social and economic
part of the low- require the development of smart grids
and local energy distribution networks.
parameters for land use transitions are in emissions transition • Policy and implementation tools are
themselves whole-of-society integrative needed for the continued development
responses. The concept of ‘just transition’ ... of low-emissions, resilient urban and
(Huggard 2019)19 is in itself integrative by
involving many sectors, including the land
and provides peri-urban forms during the recovery
phase, as well as continued housing
use sectors. So is the notion that carrots as opportunities for growth. This will be critical for halting
well as sticks will be needed to change urban transport emissions growth and
behaviours, with at best fiscal neutrality integration. protecting high-quality soils while
being achieved from the financial maintaining good access for rural and
mechanisms used. For example, the urban populations.
Provincial Growth Fund is being used for • Sustainable land use projects for
many social and economic development examples of sustainable and integrated land recovery workforce opportunities
projects as well as the One Billion Trees use management for Aotearoa New Zealand. could include (among many others):
programme and other environmental Better and more equitable human wellbeing urban and rural infrastructure projects,
sustainability and resilience projects. outcomes are needed, as well as averting the especially water quality improvements;
Emissions charge revenues can be used in worst impacts of the climate crisis. For both renewable energy development (as
the same redistributive way. sets of outcomes to be achieved, more above); rail and electric vehicle
Climate change adaptation is of course focused thinking on the role of land use in infrastructure to service more primary
a critical part of the low-emissions the integration of the two linked sets will be producers (e.g. recharging facilities to
transition (Lawrence, 2019) and provides essential. enable more light commercial e-vehicle
opportunities for integration. The Zero deliveries); pest-free and other
Carbon Act provides for systematic risk Postscript: aspects of a low-carbon Covid-19 biodiversity initiatives in and off the
assessment across sectors to be a key input recovery phase in the land use sector conservation estate, including in
to an integrated multi-sector national As mentioned in the introduction, a freshwater habitats.
adaptation plan spanning central and local brief recap of aspects of the previous
1 Defined by the International Trade Union Confederation as an
government. Many adaptation responses commentary relevant to economic ‘economy-wide process that produces the plans, policies and
will be short-term, but need to be framed and social recovery after the Covid-19 investments that lead to a future where all jobs are green
and decent, emissions are at net zero, poverty is eradicated,
in the context of longer-term mitigation pandemic is relevant. and communities are thriving and resilient’. Its two key
components are planned economic diversification away from
goals. • Tourism may be very restricted for fossil fuel industries, and integrated planning of workforce
Examining potential integrative some time, and in a low-emissions change. It also requires anticipating and compensating for
injustices that are a consequence of taking action.
planning and policy vehicles for the low- future cannot recover its former high- 2 Largely because of our generous endowment of renewable
energy sources, rather than from planned emissions
emissions wellbeing economy is beyond growth characteristics. As discussed management.
the scope of this article.20 The Climate earlier, domestic and limited short-haul 3 See various chapters in Ministry for the Environment and
Statistics New Zealand, 2019. In 2017, emissions from
Change Commission has some key roles international tourism would be more the agriculture sector decreased slightly (by 0.1%) from
that can clearly be integrative. Some of appropriate than long-distance tourism. 2016. This decrease was due to a small fall in the sheep
and dairy cattle populations (0.4% and 1.5% respectively).
these, such as the provisions for national • Continuation of agriculture and It was mostly offset by a 2.1% increase in the population of
non-dairy cattle. See https://www.mfe.govt.nz/sites/ default/
adaptation planning, have already been set production forestry for domestic and files/media/Climate%20Change/snapshot-nzs-greenhouse-
down in the Zero Carbon Act. There are export markets will be critical for gas-inventory-1990-2017.pdf.
4 For example, see commentary from Williams, 2020, and
many potential but underused vehicles economic recovery, but more local food report from Greenpeace New Zealand, 2020.
5 This concept is not uniquely Mäori. It was articulated for
within the Resource Management Act production (especially plant-based and example by the Canadian-Japanese environmentalist David
which could receive consideration under in peri-urban areas) would provide Suzuki as: ‘There is no environment “out there” separate
from us. The environment is embedded in us. We are as
the current reform of that act. lower-carbon food alternatives. much a part of our surroundings as the trees and birds and
Taken together, it is hoped that these Continued tree planting and the early fish, the sky, water and rocks’ (Suzuki, 2014).
6 A response is now being slowly developed, led by the
land use themes as discussed here will achievement or exceedance of the One Minister for Mäori Development, with promising signs of an
integrated whole-of-government approach being adopted.
provide some useful options and suggestions Billion Tree targets would provide See https://www.tpk.govt.nz/en/a-matou-kaupapa/wai-262-
for the integrated low-emissions transition short-term employment and longer- te-pae-tawhiti#head2.
7 Largely through the Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Research
so vital in the years and decades to come. term low-emission opportunities. Centre allied with the Global Research Alliance on
Agricultural Greenhouse Gases.
Most of the principles mentioned are not • More local renewable energy sources 8 A charge on methane and nitrous oxide is still not recognised
new, and there are many past and current for rural and peri-urban areas would within the ETS and will not be until 2025.
Page 32 – Policy Quarterly – Volume 16, Issue 2 – May 20209 Including Pinus radiata stands which currently account for first projects was an interim report from its Sustainable cited; especially those of Bargh concerning a ‘tika’ revolution
a very high proportion of forest production. Diversification Finance Forum setting out principles and characteristics of a (that which is right or just) that addresses Treaty obligations
away from this dependency on one species is necessary sustainable economy and financial system for Aotearoa New and Mäori world views, Nissen concerning intergenerational
but cannot be expected to be achieved any faster than on a Zealand. equity, and Frame concerning the political and democratic
decadal scale. 15 See https://www.gw.govt.nz/whaitua-committees/. requirements for accepted change.
10 The capacity for higher power delivery and greater capacity 16 The integrated catchment management plan approach 20 Some options for integrated planning within the RMA regime
of vehicle batteries is improving rapidly and could be in Aotearoa New Zealand is best exemplified by work in have been presented recently by the Resource Management
expected to enable a much greater use of renewable energy the 2,170km2 Motueka catchment west of Nelson. This Review Panel (2019), with a strong focus on spatial
within the next decade. was a multi-disciplinary, multi-stakeholder research planning options.
11 Aotearoa New Zealand’s national emissions profile is unusual programme which provided valuable information and
among OECD countries because of its very high proportion knowledge to improve the management of land, freshwater
of biogenic emissions, principally methane from our large and near-coastal environments in catchments with Acknowledgements
national herd of ruminant animals (especially cows and multiple, interacting and potentially conflicting land
sheep). The national cow herd’s total greenhouse emissions uses. The understanding and knowledge gained from the I have drawn on discussions on topics
(approx. 600 Mt C02-e) currently total nearly three times programme is impressive, especially its integrative approach
that of the national sheep herd (approx. 218 Mt C02-e), and linking community resilience and ecosystem resilience.
traversed here with many colleagues and
is trending upward while greenhouse gas emissions from However, nine years after the programme ended, specific friends over many years. Specifically in the
sheep are trending downward. implementation outcomes are elusive, perhaps showing
12 For example, one of the commissioner’s recommendations the length of time required to acquire and implement the drafting of this article, however, comments
is to ‘Develop the tools needed to manage biological sources understandings gained (Phillips et al., 2010; Fenemor et al.,
and sinks in the context of a landscape-based approach that 2011).
from Ralph Chapman, Clive Anstey,
embraces water, soil and biodiversity objectives’. 17 Including outdoor grass-based pastoral production systems Jonathan Boston, Ralph Chapman, Chris
13 A comprehensive analysis of ecosystem services in Aotearoa and low-tillage practices.These are relatively low-input
New Zealand, including their valuation, is provided in compared to very mechanised industrial farming systems Livesey, Norman Smith and an anonymous
Dymond, 2013. practiced in much of the Northern Hemisphere. reviewer have greatly improved the final
14 The Aotearoa Circle (see https://www.theaotearoacircle.nz/) 18 Even though per capita urban footprints are generally lower
is a recent partnership of public and private sector leaders than rural ones (Newman, 2006; Ombler et al., 2017). manuscript.
which aims to pursue sustainable prosperity and reverse 19 Huggard’s chapter is among a number of relevant chapters in
the decline of New Zealand’s natural resources. One of its A Careful Revolution (Hall, 2019) along with those already
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IGPS NEWSLETTER
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Following the 2008 global financial crisis, as a society There is no new orthodoxy sitting on a United States
we accepted an unemployment rate well above what shelf as Milton Friedman’s was when the Bretton Woods
we should have been at, for nearly nine years. The monetary system collapsed in the early 1970s. But Xi
coming recession threatens to be worse. We should would claim there is one on his shelf. That doesn’t mean
never inflict that sort of pain on people at the bottom China’s distorted capitalism is the next orthodoxy. But
of our society again. it does underline that the 500-year ascendancy, then
Simon Chapple, IGPS Commentary, April 2020 dominance, of ‘western’ thinking, from humanism to
neoliberalism, is under challenge.”
The size and suddenness of the COVID-19 shock has
Colin James, IGPS commentary, March 2020
highlighted just how far New Zealand has allowed the
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