THE 20-MINUTE SUBURB A PLANNING FRAMEWORK FOR CONNECTED COMMUNITIES
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THE 20-MINUTE SUBURB A PLANNING FRAMEWORK FOR CONNECTED COMMUNITIES
CONTENTS
Introduction: The Suburbs are Changing 03
Chapter 1: Context and Challenges 04
An Outdated Development Model
21st Century Suburbs: Changing
Demographics, New Challenges
What Does Reform Look Like?
Chapter 2: Precedents and Best Practices 07
Carlos Moreno’s 15-minute City
Chapter 3: The 20-Minute Suburb 14
Framework Overview
Amenity
Density
Connectivity
Conclusion 29
References
Acknowledgements
2
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Recommended Design Guidelines
The distinctive built fabric of American suburbs has largely Key 15-Minute Current 20-Minute
Elements
depended on car travel and single-use zoning for decades. City Model American Suburb
Suburbs
In the process, this pattern of development has increased
Amenity Provide 6 essential 75% of the Provide diverse and
sprawl, exacerbated our carbon footprint, and heightened functions: urbanized area in affordable housing
segregation within communities. Living, Working, U.S. cities is zoned options
Commerce, for residential use
Healthcare, only Provide neighborhood
Education, and amenities and
Entertainment prioritize services
As the global COVID-19 pandemic continues to shape ↪ Site-specific design interventions to guide
for underserved
migration patterns, and suburbs face new pressures suburban municipalities across three typologies:
communities
and demands from their changing populations, mixed-income residential suburbs, suburban
this report proposes a framework for a “20-minute periphery/underserved communities, and local
suburb” designed to retrofit suburbs into places where town centers Density N/A 1 - 8 DU / AC Average 8 DU / AC
residents can meet all of their daily needs within a
20-minute walk. Connectivity 10-15 min walking Incomplete 20-minutes walking or
A summary of our recommended design guidelines
is indicated to the right and explained further in the or biking pedestrian and bike biking
In order to re-envision our suburbs as more affordable, following chapters. Transforming American suburbs network
interconnected, accessible, and equitable places to live, is a long-range effort that will require consensus- First and last mile travel
this framework provides: building and participation from many stakeholders; solutions
we have created this report as a resource for planners,
↪ A brief history of the development of American policymakers, elected officials, and community
suburbs and the lasting impact of this legacy Multimodal network
leaders. We hope you find the 20-minute suburb a
connections
↪ Emerging demographic trends within suburban useful framework to begin thinking about how to
populations, particularly through the lens of the improve amenity, density, and connectivity within your
pandemic community.
↪ Ongoing reform and policy measures that enable
better design and planning decisions
3
INTRODUCTION THE SUBURBS ARE CHANGING Photo Credit: David Jay Zimmerman/Corbis Documentary/Getty Images 4
INTRODUCTION
Post-pandemic Moving Trends Net Population Change
Net Population Change in 2020–2021 Loss Gain
In many major urban areas across
the US, the onset of the global pandemic
has driven people to relocate from cities
to the surrounding suburbs in search of Chicago
SONOMA NAPA
affordability, space, and access to nature. SOLANO
MARIN
Austin
CONTRA COSTA
SAN FRANCISCO
Notably, the increase in moves during 2020 was driven by young, affluent and highly
ALAMEDA
educated urban dwellers—reports in late 2020 indicate 48% of millennials and 49%
of Gen Z living in suburbs, up from 44% and 41%, respectively, in 2019. SAN MATEO
New York
This demographic is mobile and prone to relocating, especially in the context of an
increasingly remote and hybrid work environment. A recent report that accounts for SANTA CLARA
2020 US Census data revealed an increase from 14% to 16% from 2019 to 2020 of
residential moves, the first increase in over a decade.
Los Angeles San Francisco Bay Area
5
INTRODUCTION
Many of these newcomers to suburban
areas desire a level of multi-modal access
to green space and amenities on par
with the connectivity they experienced
in urban settings, but is largely absent in
most American suburbs.
As suburbs expand and their demographics shift, how can policymakers and planners
establish frameworks for improving diversity, density, and connectivity, while preserving
affordability and preventing displacement?
Photo Credit: Photo Beto/iStock Unreleased/Getty Images 6
INTRODUCTION Taking a holistic view of these issues, our urban design and planning team posits a planning model that we have termed the “20-minute suburb.” Through careful and strategic interventions, we believe that existing suburban communities can be transformed to become places where residents can meet all of their daily needs within a 20-minute walk. This is a radical reinvention of a suburban planning model that has historically marginalized low-income communities and people of color—instead, we envision the 20-minute suburb as a framework for reconnecting communities and expanding economic and social mobility. Photo Credit: monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Getty Images 7
CHAPTER 2 CONTEXT + CHALLENGES Photo Credit: George Rose/Getty Images 8
AN OUTDATED DEVELOPMENT MODEL Initially, the expansion of American suburbs was enabled by the extension of street car rail lines beyond city limits, making daily commutes possible. By the end of WWII, however, suburban By the 1960s, many Blacks were migrating from populations grew exponentially as car a segregated South to the north and west of ownership increased and federal infrastructure the country in search of jobs and educational bills, such as the Highway Act of 1956, opportunities. These movements fueled racial supported the construction of extensive tensions, and drove many white city-dwellers highways throughout the country. During this to the suburbs. The growth and corresponding time, cheap, mass-produced housing abounded, segregation of the suburbs were enshrined by enabled by the standardization of household discriminatory zoning policies such as redlining, appliances and prefabrication of construction which prevented investment and lending within materials. This development model is perhaps and near Black communities, and provisions best exemplified by Levittown, an early that ensured development would largely remain prototype for suburbia that promised a pathway zoned for single-family use. to home-ownership for most white Americans. The passing of the G.I. Bill further guaranteed affordable housing with low down payments and interest rates for returning veterans. Photo Credit: iofoto/shutterstock 9
21ST CENTURY SUBURBS:
Population Residing in Suburbs, Race-Ethnic Groups White Asian Hispanic Black
CHANGING DEMOGRAPHICS,
Major Metropolitan Areas*, 1990–2020
NEW CHALLENGES
75.8 76.6
75.8 76.6 76.0
76.0
73.4
73.4
In a notable shift from the white flight of the 56.9
56.9
61.5
61.5
63.1
63.1
58.4
58.4
61.4
61.4
54.3
54.3
1960s and 70s, a majority of contemporary
53.4
53.4 52.9
52.9
49.5
49.5 50.2
50.2
42.8
42.8
suburban dwellers are people of color. In
36.6
36.6
fact, most large suburbs often contain more
diverse populations than the closest major 1990
1990 2000
2000 2010
2010 2020
2020 1990
1990 2000
2000 2010
2010 2020
2020 1990
1990 2000
2000 2010
2010 2020
2020 1990
1990 2000
2000 2010
2010 2020
2020
metropolitan areas.
Primary City and Suburb Race-Ethnic Profiles White Asian Hispanic Black
Major Metropolitan Areas*, 1990–2020 American Indian 2+ Races Other
White
White Asian
Asian Hispanic
Hispanic Black
Black
American
AmericanIndian
Indian 2+2+
Races
Races Other
Other
Primary Cities Suburbs
7.97.9
9.2
9.2
Data from the 2020 US Census reveals that more than 50% of white, Asian-American, 24.5
24.5 9.0
9.0
10.6
10.6 11.2
11.2
23.9
23.9 22.1
22.1 20.1
20.1
Latino or Hispanic, and Black Americans now reside in the suburbs, and for the first time 3.5
3.5 12.8
12.8
17.4
17.4
the majority of suburban dwellers under the age of 18 are people of color. While white 4.8
4.8 20.2
20.2
17.1
17.1 6.5
6.5
suburban populations have remained consistent since 1990, the past thirty years have 22.1
22.1 26.1
26.1 27.1
27.1 8.2
8.2
seen a distinct increase in suburban population for all other major race-ethnic groups. 5.6
5.6
7.17.1
8.5
8.5
10.3
10.3
79.1
79.1
70.9
70.9
63.0
63.0
52.1 55.4
55.4
52.1
44.0
44.0 40.4
40.4 37.5
37.5
1990
1990 2000
2000 2010
2010 2020
2020 1990
1990 2000
2000 2010
2010 2020
2020
*Major metropolitan areas are 56 metropolitan areas with populations exceeding 1 million in 2020.
Source: Brookings Metro 1021ST CENTURY SUBURBS:
Carbon Footprint per Service Population
CHANGING DEMOGRAPHICS,
NEW CHALLENGES
Present-day American suburbs are largely
zoned for single-use and remain car-centric— Low-Density Residential
FAR up to 0.5
Low-Density Office
FAR up to 0.5
Mid-Density Mixed Use
FAR up to 1.5
Service Population: up to 3,000 Service Population: up to 2,000 Service Population: 10,000- 20,000
this pattern of development has inevitably led
to a rising carbon footprint through increased
energy use, pollution, and traffic congestion.
Mid-Density Office Mid-High Density Mixed Use High-Density Mixed Use
FAR up to 1.0 FAR up to 4.0 FAR higher than 6.0
Service Population: 2,000 - 5,000 Service Population: 20,000- 40,000 Service Population: 100,000 - 150,000
Carbon Emissions per Capita (Service Population)
San Francisco Bay Area, 2022
15,00 tons
A study conducted by SOM in 2022 on decarbonizing communities in the San Francisco Bay Area
and its outlying suburbs reveals a carbon footprint per service population (which accounts for both
residents and commuters) in the Bay Area's outlying suburbs as much as three times larger than
the city’s downtown per capita footprint. As indicated in the chart to the right, the study compared
10,000 tons
six different areas from low-density residential to high density mixed use, and considered buildings,
roadways, utilities, transportation and open space as part of its carbon calculations.
5,000 tons
Low-density Low-density Mid-density Mid-density Mid-high High Density
Residential Office Mixed Use Office Density Mixed Use
Mixed Use
1121ST CENTURY SUBURBS:
CHANGING DEMOGRAPHICS,
NEW CHALLENGES
While the socioeconomic diversity within
suburbs has undoubtedly increased,
affordability still remains a central obstacle
for residents seeking alternatives to the
rising cost of city living.
Approximately 75% of developed areas in the US remain zoned for residential use,
limiting development to single-family homes or one unit per lot. Minimum parking
requirements have further driven up the cost of housing construction, disincentivized
affordable housing, and increased dependency on car travel. American households
average more than one vehicle per household, and in many suburbs, bike lanes and
sidewalks are few and far between or non-existent, severely limiting walkability and
multi-modal access.
A lack of affordable housing policy in the suburbs and the legacy of exclusionary
zoning has also increased the socioeconomic divides between cities and suburbs,
and disproportionately limited low-income families’ paths to home ownership.
Photo Credit: David Jay Zimmerman/Corbis Documentary/Getty Images 12WHAT DOES REFORM LOOK LIKE?
In recent years, civic and government
leaders have introduced policy initiatives
to address these interconnected
challenges to suburban development.
Our San Francisco-based planning studio Enacted in 2022, the California Home Act
began by looking at federal and local Senate Bill 9 (SB 9) streamlines the process
Californian precedents to better understand for a homeowner to create a duplex or
emerging trends and priorities to inform policy subdivide an existing lot, with the goal of
making in other contexts. increasing housing density and affordability.
Passed in 2021, President Biden’s Bipartisan In San Jose, Opportunity Housing is the city’s
Infrastructure Law calls for cities to limit solution for enabling multi-unit housing on
single-family zoning and instead build more properties with a Residential Neighborhood
housing. The resulting $5-billion Housing General Plan land use designation, which
Supply Action Plan bestows grants and tax generally covers single-family neighborhoods.
credits to local governments to eliminate These measures can improve access to San Francisco Bay Area
exclusionary zoning rules. In the process, housing and affordability by increasing the Zoning Map
the program aims to bolster more equitable City’s housing supply over time in response to
access to affordable housing. housing shortages and lack of multi-use land. Single Family
Residential Zoning
Other Residential Zoning
https://belonging.berkeley.edu/single-family-zoning-san-francisco-bay-area 13WHAT DOES REFORM LOOK LIKE? Across the country, accessory dwelling units (ADUs) have increasingly become viable solutions for increasing density in single-family-zoned areas, providing more accessible and affordable housing options in the process. Los Angeles in particular has successfully championed ADUs; after statewide legislation went into effect, permits increased from 71 to 6,747 from 2014 to 2019. Statewide, California has seen an 11-fold increase in permit requests from 2017- 2019. For moderate- and low-income homeowners, however, experts advise greater government involvement—whether in the form of loans, subsidies, easing regulatory requirements or streamlining the permitting process—to make ADU construction more affordable and accessible for all homeowners. Photo Credit: Tom Rumble/Unsplash 14
CHAPTER 3 PRECEDENTS + BEST PRACTICES Photo Credit: Bim/Getty Images 15
CARLOS MORENO’S 15-MINUTE CITY
Our study builds upon urbanist Carlos
Moreno’s concept for a “15-minute city,”
in which decentralized city growth ideally
connects residents to six essential functions:
living, working, commerce, healthcare,
education and entertainment, all within a 1
15-minute walking or cycling distance.
4
2
1 Parking spots transformed into terraces and gardens 3
2 Streets made amenable for pedestrians and bicycles
5
3
4
A garden at your doorstep
Safe journeys for children
1
5 More local services
Photo Credit: N.Bascón/for Paris-en-commun 16CARLOS MORENO’S 15-MINUTE CITY
A successful 15-minute city further
incorporates density, proximity, diversity and
digitalization to improve connectivity and
access for all residents within this framework.
Introduced by Moreno in 2016 and revised in 2021 in response to the urban challenges posed
by the COVID-19 pandemic, the 15-minute city draws from seminal work by Jane Jacobs, Jan
Gehl, Christopher Alexander and W.H. Whyte, among others, on the benefits of hyper-local
community building, connectivity and proximity, and access to green space.
At this scale, as Moreno and his predecessors argue, development makes way for a more
localized way of living. Other popular models of contemporary urban development similarly
promote human-scaled urban design and the importance of networks and connectivity, such
as New Urbanism, Smart Growth, Project for Public Spaces and the smart city movement.
Photo Credit: leezsnow/E+/Getty Images 17CARLOS MORENO’S 15-MINUTE CITY
15-minute City Model Comparison
服务-类型丰富、便捷可达的社区服务
Paris Shanghai
对于新建地区，建议参照理想设施布局模型，确保各类人群都能步行 Melbourne
便捷的使用各类设施；对于已建成地区，结合实际情况和居民需求，尽可能
15-Minute City 15-Minute Living Circle
完善主要人群的设施圈和步道通联。 20-Minute Neighborhoods
The 15-minute city concept is currently 图 5.8 社区设施圈层布局示意 中学
being deployed at different scales in cities 社区卫生服务中心
幼儿园
小学
around the world and has gained momentum
小型商业
儿童游乐场
社区行政设施
菜场
家
since 2020, when the C40 Cities Climate
公园
分 养老设施 大型超市
五
钟 社区文化设施
室内体育场馆
Leadership Group announced a 15-minute
十
分
钟
五
十
分
钟
city pilot program for five global cities. 设施类型
儿童常用设施
设施服务圈
60-69岁老人日常设施圈：以菜场为核心，与绿地、
小型商业、学校及培训机构等设施临近布局
儿童&老人常用设施
Population Density Population Density
老人常用设施
儿童日常设施圈：以各类学校为核心，与儿童游乐场
及培训机构等设施有高关联度
Population Density
上班族周末设施圈：以文体、超市等设施形成社区文
上班族常用设施 化、娱乐、购物中心，引导上班族周末回归社区生活
24 DU/Acre 30 DU/Acre
养老设施：由于本次调查，70岁以上老人样本量较少，目前考虑老人对于养老设施的短距离步行
需求，将其布局于5分钟设施圈，待后续扩充样本后校核。
15 DU/Acre
目标
构建一个高效复合、共享共赢的设施圈。根据各类设施的布局要求和
使用需求，鼓励综合设置各类设施，整合社区内可共享的功能空间，制定高
Catchment Area Catchment Area
效灵活的利用机制。 Catchment Area
In Paris, the 15-minute city was a central component of the Mayor Anne Hidalgo’s
规划要求
successful re-election campaign and the city is currently targeting bike lanes on every
street by 2024 and converting over 70% of on-street parking for community-centered 38
activities. Shanghai, grappling with higher population density, is envisioning a series of
“living circles” at 5-, 10- and 15-minute scales to provide a range of services in both urban
and suburban contexts. In Melbourne, a relatively smaller city compared to Shanghai 3/4mi | 1,200m 1/2mi | 800–1,000m
1/2mi | 800m
15 min 15 min
and Paris, similar principles are being scaled to 20 minutes, with the goal of providing 10 min
essential functions at the neighborhood level.
24 DU / Acre
18CARLOS MORENO’S 15-MINUTE CITY The 15-minute city model has seen global success, particularly in urban contexts that already experience high levels of density and can accommodate the required infrastructure and infill. However, in the context of the American suburb, this model of development is incompatible with the scale of most suburban communities. Our vision for the 20-minute suburb considers the built fabric, zoning and legislative limitations and opportunities specific to the typical American suburb in order to deliver a scalable framework for retrofitting suburbia. Photo Credit: halbergman/E+/Getty Images 19
CHAPTER 4 THE 20-MINUTE SUBURB Photo Credit: Avi Waxman/Unsplash 20
FRAMEWORK OVERVIEW
Our 20-minute suburb
concept provides a site-
specific framework
that existing suburban
municipalities can use to
guide future development.
20-minute Suburbs
Suburban Town Center
Biking Distance
Walking Distance
21FRAMEWORK OVERVIEW
In order to recommend high-priority services and
interventions based on different socioeconomic
contexts, we organize suburbs into three types:
↪ Suburban Periphery/Underserved floor use, and prioritizing main street
Communities These communities are access to regional transit. An emphasis on
sometimes characterized by economic or creating safe open and recreational spaces
racial segregation. Service priorities should can also preserve the age diversity within
include diverse and affordable housing these communities.
options, community facilities and programs
↪ Local Town Centers These mixed-use
to provide essential services. An emphasis
districts provide daily amenities. They
on safe pedestrian and biking environments
should be connected to regional transit and
and improved public transportation options
within walking distance from residential
can better connect these communities to
neighborhoods. Priorities for future
local town centers and corresponding job
development should include creating and
and educational opportunities.
expanding local work hubs, distribution
↪ Mixed-Income Residential centers, and mixed-use high density. Since
Suburbs These communities should the pandemic, local town centers have
prioritize mixed-use commercial corridors, become increasingly crucial destinations for
and diverse and affordable housing options daily amenities and work spaces, allowing
to retain the diversity of the community. residents to reduce commute times and
Strategies include converting vacant lots, travel between suburban and urban areas.
retrofitting main streets with active ground
Photo Credit: SpVVK/ iStock/Getty Images 22FRAMEWORK OVERVIEW
Within the context of each community
type, our framework proposes
interventions according to three elements
critical to creating livable communities:
↪ Amenity A diverse array of functions should be available, enabling suburbs
to accommodate and co-locate businesses, commercial and cultural spaces,
housing, support services, and civic programs.
↪ Density New mixed-income housing, healthcare, education, and support
services should be created at key locations to expand affordability and to create
the density needed to support essential programs and functions.
↪ Connectivity Within a 20-minute walking distance, people should be able to
fulfill all their daily needs. First and last mile travel must be provided, and bike
and pedestrian networks should be integrated with existing transit infrastructure.
23AMENITY Increasing mixed-use development in the suburbs calls for a site-specific approach, as every community has different needs. While some neighborhoods may require significant affordable housing development, others may prioritize commercial space to revive downtowns and main streets. During the pandemic, for instance, many restaurant streeteries and parklets were actively used in mixed-income residential suburbs. In suburban periphery/ underserved communities, however, these spaces did not cater to the immediate needs of the community and were not maintained. Photo Credit: Yuening Pu 24
AMENITY
DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES
We propose strategies for increasing variety and a
mix of uses across these three suburban typologies.
Suburban Periphery/Underserved Community Mixed-income Residential Suburb Local Town Center
SERVICE PRIORITIES DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES SERVICE PRIORITIES DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES SERVICE PRIORITIES DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES
Diverse and affordable housing options Program and identify central, Main commercial mixed-use street Convert vacant lots to provide infill Main commercial mixed-use street Convert vacant lots to provide infill
accessible locations to provide safe development development
Community facilities and programs Diverse and affordable housing options Diverse and affordable housing options
and essential services
Affordable and subsidized child care Recreation and open space Retrofit main streets with active Recreation and open space Retrofit main streets with active
options ground floor use ground floor use
Prioritize main street access to Prioritize main street access to
regional transit regional transit
25DENSITY
Development strategies
For the 20-minute suburb to work, a typical
neighborhood should have an average of 8 Abolish exclusive/single-family zoning
dwelling units per acre (du/ac). In local town Flexible zoning to allow for multi-family housing
centers, where commercial services require a Streamline ADU legislation
minimum population to be financially viable, Encourage parcel subdivision
this density increases to 15 du/ac.
Increase height limits
Ease or eliminate parking requirements in single family
residential zones
Photo Credit: MasaoTaira/iStock/Getty Images 26DENSITY
DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES
ADU
Several strategies can be applied across all suburban
typologies (suburban periphery/underserved
community, mixed-income residential suburb, local
town center) in order to increase density.
Parcel Subdivision
↪ Abolish exclusive/single-family zoning
↪ Implement flexible zoning to allow for multi-family housing
↪ Streamline ADU legislation
Multifamily Housing
↪ Encourage parcel subdivision
↪ Increase height limits
↪ Ease or eliminate parking requirements in single family residential zones
27CONNECTIVITY
Connectivity is the final piece of our framework, Strategies to address the issue
and an essential ingredient for realizing cohesive Neighborhood hubs (such as schools, main streets, civic or
and safer suburban communities. community centers) should double as local transit nodes and
provide access to local town centers
A minimum of two main pedestrian routes with dedicated bike
lanes to the local town center
A minimum five foot sidewalk width on main pedestrian routes
First and last mile travel—the distance between transit and your final destination—in First and last mile travel solutions where 20-minute walking
particular should be prioritized, as well as bike and pedestrian infrastructure, improved
catchments are unfeasible (e.g. scooters, on-demand transit
street lighting and sidewalk safety. Within this transit ecosystem, transit options every
two miles or less would be required in most suburbs to offset service gaps and support service)
15 to 20-minute walking distances.
Sidewalk lighting for pedestrian safety
However, expanding the catchment area to 20 minutes is not enough to service most
suburban populations. An aerial view of the typical suburb reveals the impractical
shape of American suburban built environments. Extensive culs-de-sac and dead-end
roads limit connectivity between and within communities, which in turn artificially Trail connections between cul-de-sacs and adjacent streets
increases distances between destinations. These longer distances disincentivize active should be provided wherever possible to improve access for
modes of travel, and ultimately increases the daily vehicle miles traveled. bicycles and pedestrians.
Photo Credit: photoschmidt/iStock/Getty Images 28CONNECTIVITY DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES Our recommendations for improving connectivity and walkability include: ↪ Neighborhood hubs (such as schools, main streets, civic or community centers) that double as local transit nodes and provide access to local town centers ↪ A minimum of two main pedestrian routes with dedicated bike lanes to the local town center ↪ A minimum five foot sidewalk width on main pedestrian routes ↪ First and last mile travel solutions where 20-minute walking catchments are unfeasible (e.g. scooters, on-demand transit service) ↪ Sidewalk lighting for pedestrian safety ↪ Trail connections between culs-de-sac and adjacent streets provided wherever possible to improve access for bicycles and pedestrians. Photo Credit: Kurumi Nishioka for Skidmore, Owings & Merrill 29
CHAPTER 4 CONCLUSION Photo Credit: Jandrie Lombard/Shutterstock 30
CONCLUSION
The 20-minute suburb framework has the potential to
transform American suburbs into denser, more diverse and
better connected communities within a broader network of
suburban and urban development. In the process, we can
design environments in which residents can meet all of their
daily needs within a 20-minute walk—from school and work,
to medical needs, shopping, food, or access to open space.
By reinventing the built form of our suburbs, we can begin to
dismantle decades of segregation, displacement, exclusion,
and carbon-intensive living in our built environment, and
instead foreground a planning practice centered on diversity,
connectivity, and equity.
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32ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CONTRIBUTORS
Ellen Lou
Joo Cho
Ran Li
Sushmita Shekar
Shu Pan
For more information on the 20-minute
Olivia Jia
suburb framework, please contact:
David Vanderhoff
Ellen Lou
ellen.lou@som.com
GRAPHICS
Grace Hsu Joo Cho
Nathan Bluestone joo.cho@som.com
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