ENHANCING DRINKING WATER QUALITY IN REMOTE MÄORI COMMUNITIES - MAI Journal
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DOI: 10.20507/MAIJournal.2019.8.2.1
ENHANCING DRINKING WATER
QUALITY IN REMOTE MÄORI
COMMUNITIES
Climate change, microbes and mätauranga Mäori
Wendy Henwood*
Troy Brockbank†
Helen Moewaka Barnes‡
Elaine Moriarty§
Christian Zammit||
Tim McCreanor¶
Abstract
This article reports the findings of a two-year transdisciplinary research project that explored
the implications of climate change for the security and safety of drinking water supplies in three
communities in Te Hiku o te Ika in Aotearoa New Zealand. In this region, potable water comes
mainly from “roof and tank” systems. The project was designed as integrative Kaupapa Mäori
* Te Rarawa, Ngäi Tupoto, Ngäti Here, Tahäwai. Researcher, Whariki Research Group, Massey University, Auckland,
New Zealand. Email: tirairaka@outlook.com
†
Te Rarawa, Ngäti Hine, Ngäpuhi. Kaitohutohu Matua Taiao/Senior Environmental Consultant, WSP OPUS, Auckland,
New Zealand.
‡
Te Kapotai, Ngäpuhi-nui-tonu. Director, Whariki Research Group, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand.
§
Senior Research Scientist, Institute of Environmental Science and Research Ltd, Christchurch, New Zealand.
||
Hydrologist, NIWA, Christchurch, New Zealand.
¶
Researcher, Whariki Research Group, Massey University, Auckland, New Zealand.98 W. HENWOOD ET AL.
research utilising climate science, microbiology and social science to develop community-oriented
approaches for dealing with the complex issues at the nexus of climate change.
Evidence-based advice and practical suggestions tailored to specific locations were developed
by drawing on climate change projections, local mätauranga Mäori and drinking water stud-
ies. Interviews with kaumätua surfaced long-standing knowledge and experience of the climate
and its variations in Te Hiku. Computer-based scenario modelling—using both automated and
community-collected data on precipitation and temperature—produced 80-year climate change
projections of water security. Health-focused Escherichia coli studies revealed the current water
quality and used climate data to predict future water quality. Overall, this research reinforces
arguments in the literature that the findings of transdisciplinary studies can provide more explana-
tory power than single-discipline research.
Keywords
mätauranga Mäori, drinking water, climate change, water quality, security, E. coli
Introduction for community action cycles (Kerr, Penney,
Moewaka Barnes, & McCreanor, 2010) that
In this article we present the findings of a col- delivered new knowledge on climate change
laborative and integrative Kaupapa Mäori and drinking water, contributed to capabilities
study that utilised climate science, microbiology within the participating communities, and pro-
and social science to understand the challenges duced serendipitous gains from the interchanges
of maintaining potable water supplies for among communities and researchers. The out-
remote Mäori communities in Te Hiku o te comes provide inspiration for both institutional
Ika in Aotearoa New Zealand as climate change researchers and Mäori communities as to what
begins to make an impact. The two-year project can be achieved with integrative work, the kinds
was funded by the government’s Deep South of parameters in play and the expectations par-
Challenge (DSC) as part of its commitments ties can reasonably have of each other in the
to Vision Mätauranga, a government science context of such collaborations.
policy framework. Our aim was to deliver We begin by outlining the challenges posed
evidence-based advice and suggestions relevant by climate change and its impact on drinking
to these long-standing but often impoverished water supply in the small rural settlements in
and poorly serviced settlements. Both the cli- this study. Climate change is threatening the
mate science and the microbiology elements ability of households to provide enough con-
of the work entailed comparing standardised tinuously available, safe and clean water for
techniques and systems with relevant measure- those in residence. We then explore integrative
ments systematically recorded by local resident methodologies, discuss how Kaupapa Mäori
investigators in each community, providing theory aligns with such methodologies, and
a strand of “reality testing” for conventional present the findings from each of the collabora-
science (Henwood, Moewaka Barnes, Zammit, tive components of the project. We argue that
Moriarty, & McCreanor, 2018). Kaupapa Mäori and integrative theory and
The researchers conceptualised the entire approaches form a strong foundation for the
project within a Kaupapa Mäori participa- constructive work urgently needed to adapt to
tory research framework, providing a basis the effects of climate change, contributing to
MAI JOURNAL VOLUME 8, ISSUE 2, 2019Enhancing drinking water quality in remote Mäori communities 99
the long-term viability and survival of remote conditions as Te Hiku begins to experience the
Indigenous communities. hotter, drier patterns of weather that model-
Te Ropu Whariki at Massey University has a ling predicts (Ministry for the Environment
long track record of working closely with Mäori & Stats NZ, 2017; NIWA, 2017). Along with
communities, reflecting its commitment to using other harmful effects of climate change—sea
the power of Mäori public health science to con- level rise, species migration/extinction, increas-
tribute to the aspirations of the people. Through ing storm intensity, oceanic acidification, for
a decades-long association with Te Hiku o te example—lower average rainfall means that
Ika, Te Ropu Whariki is connected to a grow- already stressed potable water supplies may
ing network of Mäori researchers with strong threaten the viability of households and even
links to particular iwi and Mäori communi- whole communities. Adding to these difficulties
ties, many of which can trace their origins to are the implications of climate trends for the
the Polynesian voyagers who first settled these presence and impact of microbial pathogens,
lands. Colonisation, immigration and popula- particularly those with animal vectors such as
tion growth have seen many of these towns birds, opossums and rodents, which commonly
and villages decline through politicised eco- contaminate rooftop water collection surfaces.
nomic change, urbanisation, marginalisation Higher water temperatures in storage tanks
and neglect by the Crown (Kearns, Moewaka- provide conditions that favour the prolifera-
Barnes, & McCreanor, 2009; Kelsey, 1995). tion of microorganisms, increasing the danger
Weak economic development, low employ- of infection and enteric illness.
ment, severely reduced social services and
infrastructure divestment (Te Hiku Development
Trust, 2014) have left numerous settlements Integrative theory
with no reticulated water supply (or wastewater
removal), leaving households responsible for Complex, challenging issues of the kind under
their own provision and therefore vulnerable study require a paradigm shift from the dis-
during land-and water-related emergencies. ciplinary, silo-bound practices favoured by
Over 10% of Aotearoa’s population rely solely entrenched academic science enterprises.
on roof collection for drinking water (Abbott, Innovative thinking in the area of transdiscipli-
Moore, & Golay, 2011). The characteristic nary or integrative approaches (Bammer, 2015;
arrangement in such districts is almost exclusive Wickson, Carew, & Russell, 2006; Wilcox &
dependence on “roof and tank” systems for Kueffer, 2008) is generating both rigorous cri-
each household, meaning that the people are tique and exciting possibilities. Multiple voices
subject to the vagaries of rainfall patterns for (Parkes et al., 2005; Stokols, 2006; Zinsstag,
the most fundamental requirement of human 2012) are arguing for integrative approaches
survival—clean drinking water. Although the that transcend academic disciplines, institu-
storage capacity may have been adequate when tional practices and state conventions. From
installed, it is now commonplace for households their review of literature in the EcoHealth/One
and Mäori community facilities such as marae Health domain, Min, Allen-Scott and Buntain
to have to pay for expensive tanker loads of (2013) outlined critical steps towards trans-
drinking water over the summer months, neces- disciplinarity, stressing the need for research
sitated by changing rainfall patterns. funding, leadership, conceptual work, capa-
To these already difficult circumstances, bility building, participatory methods and
ongoing climate change (Ministry for the evaluation of initiatives. In the context of this
Environment, 2016, 2018) adds the unwelcome article, the convergence of social, ecosystem
burden of uncertainty and potentially worsening and climate change research is revealing the
MAI JOURNAL VOLUME 8, ISSUE 2, 2019100 W. HENWOOD ET AL.
influence of these factors on the health and for Business Innovation and Employment’s
wellbeing of human and animal populations. investment processes, outlining a number of
Our research design therefore speaks to the expectations around relationships, Mäori
expressed priorities for the fields under study. knowledge and capability (Ministry of Research
While not attempting a formal evaluation of Science and Technology, 2007). Within the
the outcomes of the project, we do report on DSC, the Vision Mätauranga science pro-
the successes we achieved and challenges we gramme focuses on the implications of changing
encountered in the hope that our account will be climate conditions for Mäori society. After
of interest and value to others with similar aims. some consultation and debate, the research
team, comprising three social scientists, a cli-
mate scientist and a microbiologist, suggested
Research setting a focus on participatory action and water. In
discussion with community members and the
Te Hiku o Te Ika is the territory of five north- DSC, the research settled on potable water
ern iwi—Ngäti Kuri, Ngäti Kahu, Te Aupöuri, supplies in unreticulated Mäori communities,
Te Rarawa and Ngäi Takoto—that spans from a widely acknowledged problem in terms of
the north shore of the Hokianga Harbour, safety, inconvenience and expense (NIWA,
including the vast Mangamuka and Warawara 2017). This led to more detailed discussions
ranges, and the Aupöuri Peninsula, up to the about the participation of three communities.
northernmost point of the country, Te Reinga. Motukaraka, Pawarenga and Te Kao—span-
Four of these tribes completed a Treaty settle- ning some 125 kilometres on an approximately
ment process that returned assets in land, cash north–south axis (see Figure 1)—all agreed to
and other resources in late 2015. As noted join the drinking water monitoring and com-
above, neglect and exploitation of the area by munity participatory project.
the Crown has left the population, environ- Motukaraka is a community on the north
ment and infrastructure in poor shape, and shore of the Hokianga Harbour, centred on
over the years a number of initiatives attempted the Ngäi Tupoto Marae. Here we recruited
to address problems in health, education, 26 households (84 people) that were exclu-
employment, economic development and sus- sively reliant on roof and tank supplies for
tainability. These culminated in the Te Hiku drinking and other water. At Pawarenga, a
Social Accord (Te Hiku Iwi Development coastal settlement about 45 kilometres north-
Trust, 2013) between the Crown, 11 ministries west of Rawene, we engaged 36 households
and agencies, and Te Hiku Iwi Development (114 people), most of which are dependent on
Trust—a collective settlement mechanism com- roof and tank systems with an additional sup-
prising trustees appointed by each participating ply for marae from a small lake situated in the
iwi. Among other things, the Accord produced Warawara Forest. At Te Kao, which is about
the Te Hiku Well Being Report (Te Hiku Iwi 65 kilometres north of Kaitaia, we worked
Development Trust, 2014), which details dis- with 32 households (86 people), and again roof
parities between the district and the rest of the and tank systems were their primary source of
country and acts as a baseline for monitoring drinking water.
progress for Mäori of the rohe.
In 2016 the DSC undertook a contest-
able funding round, calling for proposals that Methodology
related to parameters of climate change and
Vision Mätauranga. Vision Matauranga is a Within a broad Kaupapa Mäori participatory
policy document embedded in the Ministry research framework (Kerr et al., 2010) that
MAI JOURNAL VOLUME 8, ISSUE 2, 2019Enhancing drinking water quality in remote Mäori communities 101
FIGURE 1 Map of Te Hiku region showing the location of the study communities: Motukaraka,
Pawarenga and Te Kao
encourages and supports community engage- safety of drinking water. The study aimed to
ment, we focused on the ability of households to develop knowledge as a basis for action, bring-
provide enough safe, clean water for residents. ing community participation into collaboration
In each participant community, we needed to with social scientists from Massey University
consider water supply systems and how key (Wendy Henwood [WH], Helen Moewaka
dimensions of climate change might affect them Barnes, Tim McCreanor), a microbiologist
in order to produce a suitable research design from the Institute of Environmental Science and
to explore the local issues around security and Research (Elaine Moriarty [EM]), a hydrologist
MAI JOURNAL VOLUME 8, ISSUE 2, 2019102 W. HENWOOD ET AL.
from a commercial entity (Troy Brockbank; the quality of drinking water in community
also of local iwi) and a NIWA climate change households. A household infrastructure sur-
modelling specialist (Christian Zammit). WH vey was adapted from earlier surveys used by
lives and is well known within the research site team members to understand amenities and
communities and was able to provide regular issues impacting on household water supply.
support to the community researchers. Through discussions with community research-
To meet the aims of the project and build ers, the survey was adjusted to explore water
community capability, we developed a three- quality and tailored for the communities under
part design involving the security and safety study. The survey consisted of a site visit to each
of water supply and mätauranga Mäori. We participating household in each community,
used multiple methods, including qualitative where observations of roof, guttering, pipes and
interviews, climate scenario impact modelling tank were made and a questionnaire completed
and drinking water surveys. Team discussions by householders.
synthesised understandings from all sources as For the second strand of the investigation,
we explored a range of predictions, options and laboratory testing for Escherichia coli (E. coli)
challenges to develop both critical insights and was planned for samples taken from kitchen
practical suggestions to address drinking water supply taps in participating households. The
issues at household and community level. original intensive sampling design was modi-
fied due to logistical difficulties and the cost
Drinking water security research of getting samples to the laboratory. As a
design result, the study became a field-pilot for the
use of a commercially available home water-
This part of the project involved scenario testing kit known as the Compartment Bag
modelling to create locality-specific predic- (CB) test, which was developed in the United
tions for climate change in Te Hiku. We used States by Aquagenx (2018). To the best of
the average of six pre-existing climate models our knowledge, this was the first field test of
that were based on slightly different assump- the technology in Aotearoa, and our research
tions about the changes entailed in climate therefore pioneered the use of affordable, user-
change (Henwood et al., 2018; Ministry for friendly testing of drinking water by community
the Environment, 2016). All the projections people and researchers.
(that is, the regional-scale climate models) were
downscaled monthly based on the monitored Participatory research design
difference between regional current climate data
from NIWA’s Virtual Climate Station Network Kaumätua interviews were conducted to give
(VCSN) and local weather conditions (commu- longer-term perspectives on climate change and/
nity researchers). The findings also contributed or variability, and also to promote discussion
to the development of a user-friendly aid to of the topic in communities. As noted above,
decision-making tool for adjusting household collaborative work between professional and
and community roof water supply parameters, community researchers was central to the par-
functions of household population require- ticipatory design of this component, which
ments, and roof water supply system design. involved integrating the several strands of inves-
tigation. Community researchers gathered the
Drinking water safety research design temperature and precipitation data (used to
bias-correct regional information to local set-
Two key elements of the project were designed tings) on a daily basis, carried out the water
to shed light on local issues that might affect infrastructure surveys in each community, and
MAI JOURNAL VOLUME 8, ISSUE 2, 2019Enhancing drinking water quality in remote Mäori communities 103
completed the sample collection for both labo- For Motukaraka, the variance was up to
ratory and CB testing as well as undertaking the 6 degrees and 1.4 millimetres for precipitation,
CB measurements. Hui and other networking with annual rainfall of 1,766 millimetres. The
processes were used to engage the communities community-based research was invaluable in
and present an outline of the research designs, that it highlighted temperature and rainfall vari-
report findings and discuss mitigating actions. ations across different locations within Te Hiku.
The rainfall data show a difference of nearly
600 millimetres per annum between Te Kao and
Findings Pawarenga, while the temperature range shows
the latter has a warmer microclimate.
Data were collected for each strand and analy- The climate projections based on the scenario
ses were synthesised to address the aims of the modelling spanning a 20-year time slice centred
study. The findings from each strand of the to mid-c entury (2040s) and end of century
research are presented below. (2090s) suggest that temperature will increase
across the rohe by 1–3 degrees by the end of the
Drinking water security modelling century. The aid to decision-making tool can be
tailored for any time slice, but we worked with
Temperature and precipitation data were gen- the above two for consistency with Ministry
erated from VCSN, which generates (based on for the Environment frameworks. Our findings
existing climate information) automated climate also predict that, while rainfall volumes may be
information at 5-kilometre nodes on a grid that similar, patterns may be different; precipitation
overlies the entire country (Tait, Henderson, overall will tend to decrease but in mid-summer
Turner, & Zheng, 2006). To account for local it is likely to increase due to extreme weather
variation in these measures, a community events. The modelling suggests that by the end
researcher in each location recorded temperature of the century there will be an increase in the
and rainfall daily for 18 months. Our analyses annual volume of roof-available water of up
showed that there were some interesting diver- to 20% for roof water tanks. While this may
gences between the automated and the manual seem to contradict the use of the broad notion
datasets. We computed monthly adjustments of that the climate will be “drier”, this term is still
precipitation and temperature for each local- appropriate because, except for extreme events
ity before running analyses within the climate in the summer months, the overall outcome will
projections. What follows are brief descriptions be less precipitation.
of what we learned for each location, together
with NIWA’s end-of-century projections for Drinking water safety
changes in temperature and rainfall.
At Te Kao the local average monthly meas- The household survey was developed to obtain
urements for temperature differed from the information about household occupancy, water
VCSN data by up to 5 degrees Celsius, while system infrastructure and issues of concern
rainfall measurements varied by up to 1.4 mil- about drinking water in each of the project loca-
limetres per month, with annual precipitation tions. Community researchers carried out the
at 1,343 millimetres. At Pawarenga, average questionnaires to 94 households (inhabited by
temperatures were up to 12 degrees higher than 284 people) across the three communities. The
the VCSN estimation (potentially reflecting of surveys provided quantitative data relating to
the location of the local monitoring point) and drinking water storage and delivery. Collation
up to 2 millimetres greater for precipitation of the surveys across the three communities
with the cumulative total at 1,927 millimetres. revealed that many households supplemented
MAI JOURNAL VOLUME 8, ISSUE 2, 2019104 W. HENWOOD ET AL.
roof water with puna supply and commercially searched for alternatives and recommended the
purchased drinking water. The lack of certainty CB test, which allowed E. coli measurements to
around a sustainable supply of drinking water be carried out in the community. The CB test
was of concern to many participants. The abil- involved adding the sampled water to the sup-
ity to maintain water infrastructure was also plied compartment bag and then placing it in the
a major concern across all three communities; incubator provided with the kit for 24 hours.
cost and access were cited as the main prob- Any change to a blue/green range in the bag
lems for these isolated communities. Many indicates E. coli presence and the level of con-
individual household systems—tanks, roofs, tamination is assessed by colour matching with
guttering, pipes—needed urgent repair or even the chart supplied. The reliability of the CB test
replacement, and there was a need for addi- was validated through testing a smaller set of
tional water storage. water samples at a local laboratory to com-
Reports of contamination of roof water pare with the CB test bags. We found a strong
supplies from road dust, pine pollen, animal match between the results from laboratory and
fouling, agricultural fertiliser, pesticide and CB testing, which is a potentially invaluable
weed control sprays were commonplace; many breakthrough that could be of great interest to
households in one community talked about a many rural community settings where water testing
1080 rodent poison drop in the locality. In some presents significant logistical challenges.
instances, water was described as discoloured, For the household testing, EM provided the
smelly or muddy during particular climatic equipment and instructions on the use of the
conditions or weather events. CB test to WH and the community research-
Responses demonstrated the resourcefulness ers at each site. Each community researcher
of the people who made the best of what they took water samples from six households in the
had. Some had installed small additional tanks three communities and repeated the sampling
for outdoor supplies and saved grey water for weekly over three weeks, conducting 54 tests in
garden use. Many whänau boiled their drinking total. The results of the CB testing showed that
water as a precaution and a few had filtering E. coli counts in the community samples from
systems. There were whänau who never ran Te Kao ranged between 0 and 6 organisms per
out of water by conserving and managing their 100 millilitres of water. Very similar data were
supply, particularly during droughts. reported from Pawarenga, where the range was
The second strand of the research design between 0 and 5 organisms per 100 millilitres.
around the safety of water supply involved There was a contrast between these readings
testing household drinking water sources for and those for Motukaraka, however, where
microbes. EM provided a list of significant four CB test readings showed up to 100 organ-
organisms that could contaminate supplies. isms per 100 millilitres of water, giving cause
We decided to focus exclusively on the bacte- for concern. The Drinking-water Standards for
rial indicator of water quality, E. coli. This New Zealand (Ministry of Health, 2008) state
organism is an appropriate species to monitor that a level of less than 1 E. coli organism should
because it is waterborne, commonplace in the be present in 100 millilitres of drinking water.
environment, concentrated in animal faeces, This is to ensure the water is safe for human
relatively easy to test for, and a useful indicator consumption and will not result in any ill-health
of the presence of other, less common, harmful effects to the consumer.
pathogenic microorganisms. To examine the Motukaraka results more
While our intention was to use laboratory closely, a further nine CB test samples from
testing for E. coli, as noted above, the logistics five homes were taken. This was followed with
rendered this impractical and expensive, so EM samples taken for laboratory testing from four
MAI JOURNAL VOLUME 8, ISSUE 2, 2019Enhancing drinking water quality in remote Mäori communities 105
homes. These results concurred with the CB test seen as having a major influence on both supply
findings, and the households were advised of and quality. Unseasonal weather, particularly
the results and possible remedies, including torrential rain, was blamed for siltation that
boiling supplies, while longer-term solutions affected the rivers, harbours and the sea con-
were put in place. nected to the three communities. The biggest
change kaumätua identified was that the sea-
–
Kaupapa Maori participatory research sons were now unpredictable and no longer
distinct. They described stronger-than-usual
We now report on two integrative components winds and flood events that could arrive at
that grounded the research in community-based any time, rather than being usually confined
knowledge, needs and possible actions. Both to winter.
have the potential for wider applicability. People who fished regularly were acutely
aware of change and concerned about the
HE MÄTAURANGA NÖ TE HIKU impact on whänau who relied on the sea to
In this section we report the experiences and feed their families. Seasons determined local
knowledge of local kaumätua who shared their kaitiakitanga practices and harvest times.
stories for the project. They had lived on the White-baiters noticed seasonal changes affect-
land in the participating communities most of ing the cycle of that species; the season used to
their lives; one kaumätua was 94 years of age be June–July in one community, and it is now
and had never lived anywhere else. Water was late August and September. The timing of gar-
viewed holistically so that household drink- dening and farming routines had also changed,
ing water could not be viewed in isolation. It and this has begun to impact on the ability of
was a taonga “that was precious, and it still whänau to be self-sufficient. The impact of the
is precious”. Drinking water was part of the storage life of vegetables such as potato and
environment, the land and the people, and had kümara, which need dry summer conditions
whakapapa to Rangi-nui and Papatüänuku. leading up to harvest, was noted. The current
Participants always observed and lived by climatic conditions had also seen an increase in
the weather, acknowledging the vital con- new pest species (flora and fauna) and diseases.
nection between climatic conditions and the Kaumätua clearly made the connection
environment. Their experiences and observa- between climate change and detrimental land-
tions included knowledge related to farming, use practices of the past and present. Using
gardens, orchards and fishing. Water was and caring for the land in ways that enhanced
the basis for land-use decisions, and lifestyles the environment and mitigated climate change
revolved around water, both fresh and salt. posed challenges for communities in areas of
While climate change and the part that people high unemployment and minimal infrastruc-
had played in it were acknowledged, kaumä- ture. Maintenance of household water supply
tua had grown up working with the natural infrastructure was not a priority where house-
environment and had local knowledge and holds were struggling in difficult socioeconomic
mätauranga to guide and prepare for any adap- conditions; upkeep tended to be crisis-driven
tations required. Kaumätua saw climate change rather than preventative.
as nature’s response to man-made change, and Water that came from mountains and native
therefore they had an obligation to work with bush areas provided a level of security. Kaumätua
it. They cited the whakataukï “tiakina te taiao, recalled sustainable water supplies from vari-
tiakina te iwi” (look after the environment, and ous sources, including drawing from puna for
it will look after the people). distinct purposes such as cowsheds, households
The changes to local water catchments were and gardens. They were considering reinstating
MAI JOURNAL VOLUME 8, ISSUE 2, 2019106 W. HENWOOD ET AL.
local puna for supply. This meant drawing on solutions that reduce the load of microbes arriv-
knowledge passed down to them about the ways ing on water collection surfaces. Possum and rat
their catchments worked, and their responsibil- trapping by households would cut down on the
ity to maintain rangatiratanga over the land. As rooftop traffic of these animals and thereby the
one kaumätua reflected: “Change isn’t new in amount of faecal contamination. Ongoing mon-
Te Hiku; people are resourceful.” itoring using the CB test can be implemented at
community or household level to test for E. coli
COMMUNITY HUI presence and ammonia. Proprietary products
Two gatherings were held in Kaitaia, and site can then be applied to reduce microbe counts
visits were made to each of the three com- as required (HealthEd, 2018). In the absence
munities. The first Kaitaia meeting involved of any of these actions, the old recourse to the
discussion of the issues, research design, com- boiling of drinking water is a fail-safe way of
munity engagement and benefits of the project. eliminating microbial contamination.
The second outlined the findings and explored
options for dealing with the challenges pre-
sented by climate change. Discussion
In terms of water security, two main pos-
sibilities surfaced: increasing storage capacity This integrative research project brought
at household level and investing in community- together local mätauranga Mäori, Kaupapa
based reticulation, from either local sources or Mäori social science, microbiology and cli-
regional supply. These options require financial mate science to improve our understanding of
outlays by households or by community organi- the complex issues related to Te Hiku drink-
sations to mobilise common resources, although ing water supplies—the infrastructures, the
community initiatives could help keep the costs pressures and the threats—in the context of
down through bulk purchasing options. climate change. We argue that the transdiscipli-
In terms of safety, a number of actions that nary approach we adopted was able to deliver
could occur at household level were discussed, deeper insights than the individual knowledge
beginning with repairs and maintenance, tidy components could have done on their own
ingup of overhanging vegetation, upgrade of and—critically—that it has resulted in highly
pipes, de-sludging of tanks and ensuring suf- practical suggestions and advice. The prevail-
ficient distance from septic tank fields or other ing opinion that climate change accentuates
potential sources of pollution. Another initia- certain vulnerabilities for communities and will
tive well worth pursuing is the use of first-flush continue to do so is reinforced by our findings.
diverters. These are inexpensive, self-installed This research project ran over a two-year
devices that redirect the initial water to fall on a period. During this time, through a combina-
roof to another storage tank for productive use tion of discussion, engagement, participation,
in gardens. This automated system effectively employment, hui and interviews, we raised
washes the roof, disposing of the contami- awareness of, interest in and preparedness for
nated “first flush” before delivering the rest climate change in general and drinking water
of a rainfall event into the household drinking security and safety in particular. The work
water storage tanks. More expensive, high-tech enhanced and increased research capability and
solutions involve filtration at the tap—a cost of capacity within the communities involved, with
hundreds of dollars—or ultraviolet treatment community researchers carrying out significant
that can cost thousands and involves other parts of the climate measurement, infrastruc-
expenses in terms of retro-fitting equipment. ture survey and CB testing. In this way the
It might also be useful to consider partial research helped to grow their sense of the value
MAI JOURNAL VOLUME 8, ISSUE 2, 2019Enhancing drinking water quality in remote Mäori communities 107
of research when conducted appropriately that preventative measures should be consid-
within Kaupapa Mäori guidelines. ered urgently.
The research team is developing other pub- The remoteness of Te Hiku communities and
lications focusing on the CB test, because its the inadequacy of local authority investment in
user-friendly character and low cost ($10) per reticulated supplies of drinking water have been
test were crucial to this study, and it is likely to highlighted by the findings of the household
be of interest to a wide audience. We believe it survey conducted for this research. In terms of
will be particularly valuable in remote commu- supply, the forecasting of hotter, drier condi-
nities where drinking water safety is an issue in tions seasonally offset by heavier rainfall events
both private homes and public institutions such suggests a need for greater storage capacity
as marae, schools and community amenities. and possibly greater downpipe diameters to
The research showed that the people of Te optimise the use of such downpours. In relation
Hiku are adaptable and resourceful in the face to safety, the household infrastructure main-
of environmental change, and that they have tenance and the use of filtration to minimise
always understood the importance of manag- microbe contamination via animal vectors will
ing resources sustainably. From the final hui we be increasingly important as ambient tempera-
understood that the communities want to make tures rise.
use of the findings to improve drinking water Although the predictions are for change,
security and safety in their homes and lives. We being forewarned with knowledge specific to
hope that this article, backed by the technical communities or regions increases the confidence
report written for our funders, will be of use with which populations can approach adapta-
and inspiration to policy-makers within and tion. While our findings revealed confidence on
beyond Te Hiku as the country works together the part of communities in being able to adapt
to prepare for and adapt to climate change. to climate change, they also raise questions
The findings are highly relevant for communi- about addressing the issues in practical terms,
ties lobbying local authorities for long overdue given resource issues and support needs. This
improvements needed to ensure secure and safe is reinforced by the conditions highlighted in
drinking water supplies. the study in relation to roof and tank water
With climate change an advancing reality, systems and the tendency for these systems to be
security and safety of drinking water are key repaired or dealt with at crisis points rather than
concerns for remote rural communities. The regularly maintained, putting people’s health at
outcomes from the E. coli monitoring studies increased risk. The climate change predictions
converge with the climate change findings to suggest that these systems are likely to be viable
signal increased risk of contamination going as long as we invest in the safety and the sustain-
forward. Higher average air temperatures ability of supply. These individual systems can
combined with decreasing general rainfall be more cost-effective and leave communities
(excluding specific storm events) mean higher less vulnerable to adverse events than supply
water storage temperatures with water being systems that require large infrastructure devel-
held for longer periods in tanks, providing the opment. We argue that this investment needs to
conditions under which microbes can multiply be systematic and not rest solely on individual
to unhealthy levels in drinking water. Despite households that are already stretched.
the generally low levels of E. coli found in the
drinking water samples in this study, the above
convergence suggests that the risk of microbial
contamination of existing water supplies in
these communities will continue to grow and
MAI JOURNAL VOLUME 8, ISSUE 2, 2019108 W. HENWOOD ET AL.
Conclusion kaitiakitanga guardianship
kaumätua elders
The research reported here explored the sig- Kaupapa based within a Mäori
nificant challenges to the security and safety of Mäori worldview
drinking water presented by climate change in kümara sweet potato
the form of higher average temperatures and Mäori Indigenous peoples of
lower regular rainfall in small rural settlements Aotearoa New Zealand
in Te Hiku o te Ika. The integrative methodol- marae ceremonial courtyard; can
ogy and participatory Kaupapa Mäori methods include surrounding
used produced grounded findings in each com- buildings
munity, which can be used to adapt to this mätauranga Mäori knowledge
aspect of climate change. The findings show Mäori
that Kaupapa Mäori integrative approaches Papatüänuku Earth mother, wife of
provide a strong foundation for the constructive Rangi-nui
work urgently needed to meet the challenges puna underground spring
and contribute to the long-term viability and rangatiratanga right to exercise authority,
survival of remote Indigenous communities. chiefly autonomy
Rangi-nui sky father, husband of
Papatüänuku
Glossary rohe territory, area, border (of
land)
Aotearoa commonly used as Mäori taonga gift, treasure; precious
name for New Zealand; lit. Te Hiku o The Far North of
“the land of the long white te Ika New Zealand
cloud” whakapapa genealogy
hui gathering, meeting whakataukï proverb
iwi tribe, nation whänau extended family
MAI JOURNAL VOLUME 8, ISSUE 2, 2019Enhancing drinking water quality in remote Mäori communities 109
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