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SDG16DI Global Report
Cover Photo by pexels-kelly-lacy
This report was produced by the members of the SDG16 data initiative:
SDG16DI
Global Report
With support from the following tap network members
SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 4 SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 5
Photo by pexels-markus-spiske
Contents
Executive summary 07
Global violent deaths and 10
sex-disaggregated data
Official and non-official data 16
for conflict related deaths
Trade-Related Illicit financial 22
flows in Argentina, Bangladesh
and Côte d’Ivoire
Global corruption barometer: 28
unveiling SDGs 16.5 and 16.6
in Latin America and the
Caribbean
Towards a valid and viable 32
measurement of SDG
target 16.7: responsive,
inclusive, participatory and
representative decision-making
Ensuring access to 38
Information: Independent
national reviews for 16.10.2
Academic survey research 44
for SDGs:filing the data gap
on peace, justice, and strong
Institutions
SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 6 SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 7
Civil society has a crucial role to play
in supporting and complementing the
Executive Summary
work of governments in collecting, Five years ago, the United Nations’ data gaps in SDG16 data and reduce While these and other governance
monitoring, and reporting on data for (UN) Member States adopted the
ambitious Sustainable Development
the capacity strain on NSOs through
innovative methodologies and
challenges are on the rise, NSOs’
capacity to monitor these issues
SDG16. Goals (SDGs) to reach by 2030,
including Goal 16’s promise of
strategic partnerships with official
data collectors. Second, many civil
is simultaneously diminished by
the global health crisis. This is due
peaceful, just, and inclusive societies. society data producers face fewer to reduced human and financial
Founded in the same year, the bureaucratic challenges to collecting capacity for data collection, as
SDG16 Data Initiative (SDG16DI) is and publishing data, allowing them to many governments grapple with
a consortium of 17 organizations pilot new methodologies and produce shrinking GDP and the need to direct
dedicated to the implementation and timely, high frequency data. Lastly, resources to the immediate public
open tracking of progress toward the civil society data producers are less health response. The pandemic also
SDG16 targets. likely to face less internal resistance introduces obstacles to gathering
to producing data on politically administrative data from overwhelmed
The SDG16DI is pleased to present sensitive issues, such as femicide, gun state institutions, as well as survey-
its fourth annual Global Report, part violence, and corruption. For these based data via face-to-face methods.
of a series aimed at evaluating global reasons, the official data discussed in In light of these challenges, the
progress towards realizing the 2030 this and previous Global Reports are importance of using non-official data
Agenda’s promise of peaceful, just, complemented by a peer-reviewed to monitor SDG16 is greater now than
and inclusive societies. The Global compilation of methodologically ever.
Report provides governments, UN robust non-official data for the SDG16
officials, and civil society stakeholders targets. Notwithstanding these concerning
with a resource to help understand trends, the 2020 Global Report
progress on the SDG16 targets. It Since its inception, the SDG16DI has showcases positive developments
also provides an evidence base underscored the importance of SDG16 at the country level across several
for identifying gaps in both the in realizing the broader Sustainable SDG16 indicators, with a particular
implementation and monitoring of Development Agenda and the vital focus on partnerships between NSOs,
SDG16, and for altering course to role of civil society in monitoring civil society, and efforts to mainstream
accelerate implementation where the implementation of SDG16. The SDG16 indicators into broader data
needed. In addition, by relying on current global COVID-19 health crisis collection processes. This Global
both official data collected by National has only made this more apparent Report aims to demonstrate how
Statistical Offices (NSOs) and robust by intensifying many pre-existing these positive developments tie
non-official data collected by civil challenges to achieving peace, justice, into the Decade of Action and
society, the Global Report provides a and inclusion. For example, there is Accountability, building on several
holistic view of progress under each of a growing evidence that quarantines insights highlighted in the three
the SDG16 targets. have increased rates of domestic previous SDG16DI Global Reports
violence (target 16.1),1 and that the covering the availability of data on
Civil society has a crucial role to play economic fallout from the crisis is all 12 SDG16 targets (2017); the triune
in supporting and complementing the creating more legal needs related to aims of SDG16 for peace, justice,
work of governments in collecting, housing, medical debt, and bankruptcy and inclusion (2018); and the state of
monitoring, and reporting on data (target 16.3).2 Furthermore, emergency SDG16 globally according to non-
for SDG16. There are a number of laws are delaying elections and leaving official data for all 12 targets (2019).
strategic advantages presented by civil little room for parliamentary oversight This year’s Global Report will also
society data (i.e. third-party, unofficial, (target 16.7),3,4 and the desire to control reinforce how non-official data is more
or complementary data not collected the flow of unfavorable information important than ever in monitoring the
by NSOs, henceforth referred to as about the pandemic has led to attacks governance impact and response to
“non-official data”). First, non-official on the media and whistleblowers COVID-19 .
data collected by civil society can (target 16.10)5,6
fill methodological and conceptual
SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 8 SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 9
The year ahead will mark five years of
» Household surveys conducted of UN member states adopting decision-making and a wide range
by Transparency International Access to Information (ATI) laws, in of other Political Science concepts
complement governments’ accord with the official indicators and indicators such as social and
data collection on SDG16 and present a SDG 16 monitoring efforts by
capturing corruption in a holistic
for SDG16.10, the specialized NGOs
in this field are increasingly focused
political trust, support for different
types of regime, confidence in
vital window for producing data on the manner (16.5) and illustrating the
relationship between vote-buying
on improving and measuring
“implementation” of these statutes,
political institutions, as well as to
evaluate the item’s reliability in
new SDG16 indicators recently adopted
and trust in government (16.6). as required. The Global Forum for international context, including
Transparency International’s (TI) Media Development (GFMD) is both democratic and authoritarian
by the Inter-Agency Expert Group on
Global Corruption Barometer coordinating efforts with local and states.
interviews ordinary people international partner groups to
worldwide and provides periodic conduct independent assessments Overall, the 2020 Global Report
SDG Indicators (IAEG-SDGs) in 2020. nationally representative measures of the use and enforcement of ATI demonstrates a number of positive
of citizens’ experience and laws in all regions of the world to developments in efforts to monitor
perceptions of corruption. This supplement official government progress toward peaceful, just and
data is not only crucial to tracking reporting on public access to inclusive societies. The year ahead
progress towards SDG 16.5, but information. will mark five years of data collection
can also be used to provide on SDG16 and present a vital window
The case studies in this report far not systematically collected GFMD’s groups also rely on reports for producing data on the new SDG16
additional insights on the interplay
highlight a number of positive data on. This is especially true and data from independent indicators recently adopted by the
between corruption and other
developments on the following for SDG 16. To achieve this, the NGOs to monitor press freedom Inter-Agency Expert Group on SDG
targets. The TI case study on Latin
SDG16 issues and targets: agenda sets out a clear role for civil around the world – one of the Indicators (IAEG-SDGs) in 2020. The
America and the Caribbean, for
society, academica, and NGOs in “fundamental freedoms” which UN SDG16DI intends, therefore, for the
instance, finds some evidence that
» New sex-disaggregated data and producing data. Such ‘non-official’ member states pledged to protect data, methodologies, and promising
vote-buying, a form of corruption
gender-relevant analysis on armed data production needs to be of the in SDG 16.10. In 2019, the official case studies discussed in this and
relevant to target 16.5, is negatively
violence is now available: This highest quality and is integral to UN indicator for press freedom previous Global Reports to serve as a
associated with citizens’ trust in
section provides recent data on SDG efforts. In this section we argue progress – documented killings of foundation for a retrospective on the
government, itself a proxy for target
trends on violent deaths (target 16.1) that the space for non-official data working journalists - registered a first five years of gathering SDG16 data
16.6 on effective and accountable
and analysis on gender-relevant as a fundamental part of monitoring significant and welcome decline, in 2021. While the global community
institutions.
information on armed violence and tracking SDG 16 needs to be but a worrisome deterioration in faces unprecedented challenges for
from the Small Arms Survey. It protected and supported. Without press freedom conditions in most data collection and governance more
» Responsive, inclusive, participatory,
describes progress made in the civil society, getting reliable and regions of the world continued last broadly in 2020, it is the SDG16DI’s
and representative decision-
production, collection and analysis timely data on many SDG 16 year, including in several long- hope that the case studies in this
making (target 16.7) is a crucial
“ Using publicly of sex-disaggregated data on dimensions will be impossible.
prerequisite for achieving all policy
standing Western democracies. report offer promising and innovative
lethal violence, based on multiple approaches to monitoring these
available outcomes aspired by the SDGs.
sources, including official and » Leveraging new and existing » New survey analyzes interlinkages challenges and supporting the
international trade unofficial - using the Small Arms technologies to support more
International IDEA has developed a
between SDG16 targets on Decade of Action and Accountability
data from the Survey Global Violent Deaths open and transparent trade in
set of indicators measuring target
responsive and inclusive decision- that lies ahead.
16.7 as part of its Global State
United Nation database. It will also touch upon the Argentina, Bangladesh and Côte
of Democracy Indices, covering making, strong institutions and
Comtrade database, link between arms trade (in relation d’Ivoire. Using publicly available
162 countries. These Indices can support for democracy in multiple
GFI’s analysis to target 16.4) and gender, with the international trade data from the
function as valid and viable proxy countries throughout the world.
example of the Arms Trade Treaty United Nation Comtrade database,
demonstrates that indicators of the hitherto missing The World Values Survey (WVS)
and gender-based violence risk GFI’s analysis demonstrates that in cooperation with the UNDP
trade misinvoicing assessment. trade misinvoicing is a persistent
official indicators
has conducted a pilot of a new
is a persistent challenge to significantly reducing measure of SDG indicator 16.7.2 on
» New assessment gathers timely
challenge to » Use of high-resolution geo-spatial illicit financial flows across inclusive and responsive decision-
information on backsliding in
significantly reducing data improves data collection on nations, as called for in SDG 16.4.
Right to Information and Access to
making. The project has been
illicit financial flows violence and conflict at the local However, new developments in
Information (RTI/ATI) commitments
implemented within the 7th round
price-filter and distributed ledger
across nations, as level in Syria, Colombia, Global.
during the COVID-19 pandemic
of the WVS surveyed worldwide
The sustainable development technology offer an array of tools in 2017-2020. The new WVS
called for in SDG agenda incorporates an ambition for government and customs
in Canada, Indonesia, Mongolia,
survey data available for scholars,
16.4.” to produce new and novel data officials to create systems of open
Pakistan, Serbia, Sierra Leone,
policymakers and NGOs in free
South Africa, Tanzania, Tunisia and
on a range of topics that the and transparent trade and overall access allows exploring correlations
Ukraine. With a growing majority
international community has so greater financial transparency. between inclusive and responsive
SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 10 SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 11
Photo by Jay Rembert on Unsplash
Chapter
The collection and analysis
of sex-disaggregated
data on violent deaths is
essential for understanding
and responding to various
kinds of violence.
COUNTRIES
Global
The Small Arms Survey is a global The collection and analysis of
centre of excellence that generates sex-disaggregated data on violent
impartial, evidence-based, and deaths is essential for understanding
RELEVANT SDG16 policy-relevant knowledge and and responding to various kinds of
TARGET(S) analysis on all aspects of small arms violence. Lethal violence, including
16.1: Significantly reduce and armed violence for governments, firearm violence, is highly gendered,
all forms of violence policymakers, researchers, and civil with the majority of both victims and
and related death rates society. The Survey is an associated perpetrators being male, and with
everywhere 16.4: By 2030, programme of the Graduate Institute most of the female victims killed as a
significantly reduce illicit of International and Development result of gender-based violence (GBV)
financial and arms flows, Studies in Geneva, Switzerland and committed by men. The Small Arms
strengthen the recovery
has monitored armed violence since Survey Global Violent Deaths database
and return of stolen assets
its inception in 1999. (GVD) estimates that 596,000 people
and combat all forms of
organized crime lost their lives to lethal violence in
This section will provide new data on 2018, including 93,700 (16 percent)
violent death trends (target 16.1) as well women. In absolute numbers, this
as offer an analysis on gender-relevant is the third highest figure of women
information regarding armed violence. victims since 20047. This case study
If used to measure impacts, data
Global violent deaths
describes progress made in the
should not only serve as a diagnostic, production, collection, and analysis
but become part of the solution. With of sex-disaggregated data on lethal
DATA METHOD
this in mind, the role of non-official
and sex-disaggregated
violence in conflict and non-conflict
Multiple-source database data is key in measuring armed settings, based on multiple sources—
analysis violence, especially when it comes to both official and unofficial.
gendered aspects of such violence.
data
However, despite Agenda 2030’s
DATA SOURCE pledge to ‘leave no one behind’, sex-
http://www.smallarmssurvey. disaggregated data are still lacking for
org/about-us/highlights/2020/ SDG indicators, including Target 16.1.
highlight-gvd-update-2020.html
SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 12 SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 13
While the overall proportion of female
FIGURE 1
Global violent deaths (GVD) disaggregated by sex and instrument, 2018.
victims of lethal violence remained at
16 per cent globally, the 93,700 women
and girls who lost their life to violence
GVD among women 8% 16%
GVD by firearm among women
in 2018 were nearly as many as in 2017, GVD among men
which was the highest number recorded GVD by firearm among men
since 2005.
The gender relevance of most reflected a decrease in the number
violent deaths datasets is currently of male victims. Nevertheless, men
“ A majority of low. A majority of countries have continue to be much more likely than
countries have only recently started to provide women to become victims of lethal
only recently sex-disaggregated homicide data, violence, with a 5:1 ratio. In addition,
started to provide while the numbers of female fatalities they are also overrepresented among
in ongoing armed conflicts are victims of firearm-related killings,
sex-disaggregated almost completely unknown8. The making up 92 percent of such victims
homicide data, GVD database recorded a substantial in 2018, globally9.
while the numbers reduction in lethal violence between
of female fatalities 2017 and 2018. On the basis of the The 2020 update of the GVD database
is the first edition that allows for
in ongoing armed available data and estimates, however,
analysing disaggregated data on
conflicts are the number of women killed did not
decrease at the same pace. While the female victims of firearm killings for
almost completely overall proportion of female victims of 2004–18. While the rate observed
unknown” lethal violence remained at 16 per cent in 2018—0.59 per 100,000 female
globally, the 93,700 women and girls population—is in line with women
who lost their life to violence in 2018 victimization trends regarding firearms
were nearly as many as in 2017, which killings across the time monitored, the
was the highest number recorded absolute number of women killed with
since 2005. The reason why the a firearm in 2018 (17,200 globally) is, by
substantial reduction in lethal violence a small margin, the highest during this
from 2017 to 2018 did not translate 15-year period.
into an equally decreased number of
female victims is due to the fact that 92% 84%
most of the reduction came from
de-escalating armed conflicts. Most
of those dying directly from conflict-
related violence are men; thus, most
of the 2018 reduction in violent deaths
SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 14 SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 15
The 2020 update of the GVD database is
Femicide10 is—or may be becoming— a Secondly, states are encouraged
distinct form of violence that is to support research that helps to
“Currently, numerous particularly visible in areas or countries increase our understanding of the
the first edition that allows for analysing countries collect
data on femicides,
that are otherwise relatively peaceful.
In several European countries, for
gendered impact of armed violence
in the context of the ATT. These
disaggregated data on female victims of either as anonymized
statistics or in the
example, the number of women killed
through homicide exceeds that of
recommendations are echoed in
a number of recent UN General
firearm killings for 2004–18.
men; and a majority of homicides Assembly First Committee and UN
form of registries with women victims can be counted Security Council resolutions15. Better
(or memorials), with as femicides. Currently, numerous data in line with relevant indicators
the latter including countries collect data on femicides, would help ATT states parties to more
victims’ names and either as anonymized statistics or in accurately assess GBV risks in the
the form of registries (or memorials), context of arms transfers, in line with
the circumstances
with the latter including victims’ names ATT Article 7(4). While femicide is one
of the killings, thus and the circumstances of the killings, obvious indicator that exporting states
acknowledging thus acknowledging those who fall should consider, the reality is that due
those who fall victim victim to such violence. Femicide to sporadic reporting and recording,
to such violence.” observatories have been established making risk assessments of this kind is
in many countries, as the UN Special extremely difficult16.
Rapporteur on Violence Against
Women has called for11, and serve a mix Sex-disaggregated data is key for
of monitoring and advocacy-oriented adding context and granularity to
FIGURE 2
functions12. the SDG indicators. Many of the SDG
Global female violent deaths, 2004-2018 16 indicators, however, start from
In line with SDG Targets 16.1 and 16.4, pioneer data collection, often lacking
small arms control instruments, such disaggregation. This also applies to key
as the Arms Trade Treaty (ATT), also data on violent death rates, as per SDG
highlight the gendered aspects of Indicators 16.1.1 and 16.1.2. Civil society
2,94 armed violence, as well as the need and academia therefore play important
3.00 for disaggregated data and gender roles in collecting and analysing this
2,78
2,69 2,67 analysis. The ATT explicitly recognizes data. Ultimately, both official and
2,61 2,60 2,59 2,60 2,62
2,57 2,58 the connection between the arms independently generated data will be
2.50 2,51 2,52
2,48
VIOLENT FEMALE DEATH RATE
2,43 trade and GBV, as expressed in ATT needed to produce a picture of the
Article 7(4)13. In preparation for, and gendered impacts of lethal violence
( PER 100,000 WOMEN)
2.00 during, the Fifth Conference of that is simultaneously holistic and
States Parties to the ATT (CSP5) in detailed. This is increasingly more
1.50 2019, states and civil society alike pressing, as the Covid-19 pandemic
focused on the implementation and may have adverse impacts on armed
practicalities of Article 7(4), i.e. how violence as well. A rise in demands for
1.00 to assess—prior to authorization for small arms17, exacerbation of conflicts,
0.59 0.57 0.58 0.57 0.58 0.60 0.60 0.61 0.62 0.61 0.62 0.59 0.60 0.61 0.59
export—the risk of arms being used and an increase of domestic violence
0.50 in GBV in the importing country. Two cases18 are all examples of negative
action points in the CSP5 final report possible effects related to lethal
are particularly relevant. Firstly, states (armed) violence. Civil society and
0.00
parties are encouraged to: consider academia can contribute and support
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018
gender aspects; collect disaggregated the collective efforts through unofficial
data and include it in their national data, research, and analysis.
crime and health statistics, including
disaggregated data on the gender of
Global female violent death rates Global rate of women killed by firearm victims of armed violence and conflict;
and make this data publicly available14.SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 16 SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 17
Photo by Chuttersnap on Unsplash
Chapter
Throughout its 75-year
history the UN has never
officially and systematically
collected data on where
wars are happening, how
many are killed, and what
the broader consequences
of these wars are.
UN and data on war
COUNTRIES
Syria, Colombia, Global This summer marked the 75th Throughout its 75-year history the UN
anniversary of the signing of the has never officially and systematically
Charter of the United Nations started collected data on where wars are
collecting signatures. The first happening, how many are killed, and
line of the Charter states that we what the broader consequences of
‘the peoples of the united nations these wars are. Perhaps paradoxically,
determined to save succeeding in the last decades anyone has
RELEVANT SDG16 generations from the scourge of been able to access the impressive
TARGET(S) war’19 At the very heart of the of the UN data catalogue and get up to
UN’s mission from the very start were date information on a vast range of
SDG 16.1.2: Conflict-
attempts to prevent or, if prevention social, demographic, and economic
related deaths per
100,000 population, by was not possible, manage wars and indicators. You want to know what
sex, age and cause the destruction and carnage that the population growth and infant
follows in the wake of war. To this mortality levels were in the Central
core effort, the UN also added an African Republic (CAR) last year,
Official and non-official
ambition to promote economic and no problem: just go to http://data.
social advancement – as a necessary un.org/. But if you want to know how
tool for achieving peace. For many people were killed in war in
data for conflict related
economic and social advancement, CAR last year, no such luck.
DATA METHOD the UN promptly and diligently built
an extensive system for collecting
deaths
News sources, expert
and aggregating the data needed
coding, registry data
to track, monitor, and understand
how to achieve such advancement.
Yet, no comparable effort was made
to extend such efforts to war and
conflict.SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 18 SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 19
Since the pioneering work of Lewis
Fry Richardson researchers have been
compiling lists and databases of conflict
and war.
FIGURE 3
It’s all political
Battle related deaths, global aggregate, 1946 - 201824
“ It’s ‘troubles’ in The reason for this is quite simple. Instead someone else stepped into
Northern Ireland and Though it should be straightforward, the void. Since the pioneering work
UK, ‘armed conflict’ following international law, to classify of Lewis Fry Richardson researchers
in Colombia, or something as ‘a war’ the act of have been compiling lists and 600000
invariably, terrorism doing this is inherently political and databases of conflict and war.20 And
550000
intensely sensitive. Consequently, the since the advent of the University of
(probably the modal 500000
UN has never been able to compile Michigan based ‘Correlates of War’
category, from the a list of active wars. You could infer project which started collecting 450000
US, via Spain, to
BATTLE DEATHS
such a list, to a large extent, from and updating data on war in 1963, 400000
Russia and so on and Security Council discussions, but you everyone has been able to access 350000
so forth).” wouldn’t find it readily accessible reliable, transparent, and routinely
300000
anywhere. updated data on where wars occur
250000
and who are engaged in them.21
Especially when it concerns civil wars Presently, the most widely used such 200000
states rarely want to say that they are database is the Uppsala Conflict Data 150000
experiencing war. Instead they get Program (UCDP) and Peace Research 100000
creative. It’s ‘troubles’ in Northern Institute Oslo (PRIO) Armed Conflict
Ireland and UK, ‘armed conflict’ in 50000
Database.22 This database, which has
Colombia, or invariably, terrorism since been expanded and made more 0
(probably the modal category, from granular and is now regularly updated 1946 1952 1958 1964 1970 1976 1982 1988 1994 2000 2006 2012 2018
the US, via Spain, to Russia and so by UCDP, records wars, between
on and so forth). Of course, it could countries and within countries,
all simply be called war. Since the and battle deaths for all the world’s
founding of the UN states have countries from the present going
protected their right to ultimately back to 1946. It is, of course, free and
label something as war or not. open to anyone and everyone who
Consequently, the UN has never been wants to use it. And users routinely
allowed to say for themselves that include UN organizations, see for
this is war, and for the same reason instance discussions of trends in
they have never been able to compile conflict in the UN and World Bank
a list or to monitor when and where Pathways for Peace report.23
wars happen. This doesn’t mean that
the UN at the country and operational
level doesn’t monitor, for instance,
people killed in battle, but it doesn’t
happen systematically at the political
level.SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 20 SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 21
Since the escalation of violence started
in Syria in 2011, the country has suffered
a devastating war that has crippled
infrastructure and state institutions.
Trends in conflict
Using this data, we can easily look at we have seen upsurges in both the War (1946–1949) and the Korean War Syria is an extreme case, but the In any case, both these examples
trends in conflict deaths over time. number of conflicts and the severity (1950–1953). Wars, such as Vietnam, world all routinely sees wars of highlight that it is incumbent on
Note that the chart shows ‘battle of war. Does this portend an end to Iran-Iraq, Afghanistan, DRC, and “In 2015 Human this size and scope. It is absolutely us, the international civil society, to
related deaths’ which is narrower in the waning of war? We also know Ethiopia-Eritrea account for the Rights Watch inconceivable that a Syrian National produce such data, using standards
scope than the ambition of SDG 16.1.2 that battle casualties do not follow subsequent peaks. The general pattern reported that a statistical office would be able to just as strict and rigorous as those
to record all conflict related deaths the same pattern as the number of is one of decline, with each peak falling collect reliable and updated data on used by state agencies for other
number of people
and to disaggregate this by sex, age, armed conflicts. The number of battle short of its predecessor. The small rise battle casualties in such a situation. types of data. As the SDG 16 Data
and cause. We know, because of casualties peaked in the early 1950s. in battle casualties evident since 2011
had been killed Yet, it is precisely during conflict that Initiative, its many members, and the
this, that since the end of the Cold Despite the low number of conflicts, results mostly from the civil war in as guerillas by updated statistics on deaths is most many organizations working on this
War, the trend in armed conflict has this period contained some of the Syria, as that was winding down battle Colombian armed needed, meaning we have to think not part of the Data Initiative, have
been generally downward as seen most deadly wars in the post–World deaths are again declining. forces when in differently. For the second reason, shown, we do that just fine.
in the above figure. Yet since 2011, War II era, notably the Chinese Civil fact they were not we have to acknowledge that even
countries with ostensibly democratic
combatants at all”
regimes will be tempted to present
biased statistics of conflict deaths.
The sustainable development agenda
This could involve the pattern of
labelling deaths as part of police
No indicator on war was included in the the world. But at least the UN member to. Second, for most SDG 16 indicators actions and not as conflict casualties,
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). states now agreed that such data we can not simply trust the states to thus biasing the number of deaths
Some countries pushed for one, but it should exist.25 produce reliable information. They downward, but it could also be the
was vetoed. In the final MDGs report, will have all manners of incentives to opposite. In 2015 Human Rights
then Secretary General Ban-Ki Moon Moreover, the sustainable development disguise, bias, or circumscribe data on
declaration clearly and unequivocally Watch reported that a number of
wrote that ‘war remains the largest conflict deaths, human rights abuses, people had been killed as guerillas by
obstacle to development’ and the gave civil society a voice and a role in or the extent to which their institutions
production of data for the agenda. That Colombian armed forces when in fact
member states were finally able to are accountable. they were not combatants at all.26 This
agree that such an indicator should be is, production of such data is not under
the essential and sole purview of states For the first reason, present day Syria became known as the ‘false positives’
part of the sustainable development scandal where the Colombian army
agenda. The academic community, in and their National statistical agencies. represents an extreme case. Since
For conflict deaths, as well as for many the escalation of violence started in murdered civilians as labelled it as
particular, was somewhat dismayed regular conflict casualties to boost
that the Inter-Agency Expert-Group on other SDG 16 indicators, this role for Syria in 2011, the country has suffered
civil society is absolutely crucial. For a devastating war that has crippled their statistics. Thus, actually, biasing
SDGs voided 50 years of cutting-edge killings upwards.
research and decided that neither two reasons in particular. First, many infrastructure and state institutions.
methodologies nor data existed to countries most hit by for instance The Syrian government lost control
collect data, the official classification conflict quite simply will not have the over large parts of its territory and still
of a Tier III indicator, on and track the systems, the resources, or the time to does not control its entire country.
number of conflict related deaths in collect such data even if they wantedSDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 22 SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 23
Photo by Chuttersnap on Unsplash
Chapter
Trade revenues are critical sources UNCTAD and UNODC are currently
of income for developing countries.27 preparing the latest assessment
However, each year money is lost to of the conceptual framework
trade-related illicit financial flows, document that will detail the latest
which undercuts this valuable refinement of the indicators in a
revenue-generating activity. joint publication expected in July
2020. Work is progressing on actual
The act of trade misinvoicing, in methodological sets to be tested
which importers and exports seek in-country in 2021 and based on
to hide illicit flows within the regular these tests, final indicators will
commercial trading system by either be developed into guidelines for
under or over-pricing their imports countries to follow. UNCTAD and
or exports, is a major component UNODC will also jointly submit a
of illicit financial flows. Typically, report to the United Nations General
trade misinvoicing is undertaken to Assembly (UNGA) in September 2020
illicitly move proceeds from illegal to provide an overview of the mix
activities or corruption, and can of the work being done on statistics
also be used to evade income taxes, used for the indicators and by policy
customs duties, value-added taxes colleagues in both agencies.
COUNTRIES (VAT) and currency controls. From a
Argentina, Bangladesh, development perspective, it deprives So far, the agencies have been
Côte d’Ivoire developing country governments of delayed in part by trying to figure
an important source of tax revenues what the best data sets are to
that could be used to fund efforts to monitor the SDG16.4 indicators going
achieve the Sustainable Development forward. The corresponding lack of
Goals (SDGs) by the 2030 deadline. data has so far hindered the ability of
experts to comprehensively assess
This problem is relevant to SDG progress on SDG 16.4 and indicator
RELEVANT SDG16 16.4, “By 2030, significantly reduce 16.4.1 on estimating the total value
TARGET(S) illicit financial and arms flows, of illicit inflows and outflows. In
strengthen the recovery and return this respect, while methodologies
16.4: By 2030, significantly
of stolen assets and combat all are being devised by UNCTAD and
reduce illicit financial and
arms flows, strengthen forms of organized crime” and UNODC, non-official data gathered
the recovery and return of specifically indicator SDG 16.4.1 “Total by non-governmental organizations
stolen assets and combat all value of inward and outward illicit can help supplement the data gaps
forms of organized crime; financial flows (in current United in knowledge.
16.4.1: Total value of inward States dollars), which suffers from
and outward illicit financial a lack of officially reported data. In As part of its work to analyze
flows (in current United October 2019, at the tenth meeting non-official data pursuant to
States dollars) of the Inter-agency and Expert measuring progress on SDG 16.4.1,
Trade-Related Illicit
Group on Sustainable Development Global Financial Integrity (GFI), a
Goal Indicators (IAEG-SDGs), Washington, D.C.-based think tank,
indicator 16.4.1 was reclassified as examined 4,860 bilateral trade
financial flows in
a Tier II level indicator, with United relationships for trade-related illicit
Nations Conference on Trade and financial flows across 135 developing
Development (UNCTAD) and United countries and 36 advanced
DATA METHOD
Argentina, Bangladesh
Nations Office on Drugs and Crime economies by trading partner,
Partner-Country method of (UNODC) listed as potential host commodity, region and percent of
analyzing international trade custodian agency(ies).28 total trade, among other indicators,
data to identify the value
and Côte d’Ivoire
to identify the scale and scope of
gaps which are indicative of trade misinvoicing in the global
trade misinvoicing economy.29SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 24 SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 25
Since the escalation of violence started
in Syria in 2011, the country has suffered
a devastating war that has crippled
infrastructure and state institutions.
It is important to note that while the in 135 countries, this case study FIGURE 4
term “illicit financial flows” (IFFs) may discusses findings for three countries
“For example, if Sums of the Value Gaps Identified in Trade Between Argentina, Bangladesh and Côte
include many types of activities, such chosen at random across three
d’Ivoire and 36 Advanced Economies, 2008-2017, in USD Millions
Ecuador reported as trade misinvoicing, smuggling, tax continents: Argentina, Bangladesh
exporting US$20 evasion, etc., this analysis focuses and Côte d’Ivoire, to demonstrate the
on trade misinvoicing, or the trade- breadth of trade-related IFFs.
million in bananas
related aspects of illicit financial flows.
to the United States It does not address all forms of IFFs Table A below provides three
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Average
in 2016, but the US and is therefore not a full picture of samples of GFI’s value gap findings,
reported importing the total value of IFFs, which is likely showing the data for Argentina,
Argentina 6,105 4,055 5,404 6,476 6,246 6,496 5,693 4,765 4,473 4,717 5,443
Bangladesh and Côte d’Ivoire. For
only $15 million in to far exceed these estimates. This
example, in the first row for Argentina
bananas, this would point further exemplifies the need
for the year 2008 is the figure
Bangladesh 2,558 2,457 3,091 3,358 3,198 3,799 N/A 4,578 N/A N/A 3,291
for greater official and non-official
reflect a mismatch, $6.1 billion, representing the sum Côte d’Ivoire 1,522 1,493 1,347 1,397 1,160 1,160 1,424 1,309 1,262 1,357 1,343
data alike in measuring the total
or value gap, of value of IFFs globally, given that GFI’s of all of the value gaps identified
$5 million in the estimates of trade misinvoicing, one within Argentina’s bilateral trade Note: N/A indicates a year for which there was no reporting to UN Comtrade by the country.
reported trade of this facet of the IFF problem, are so large. relationships with each of the 36
advanced economies. In other words,
product.”
For its analysis, GFI evaluated trade there was a value gap of $6.1 billion
statistics supplied by individual between Argentina and all of its
FIGURE 5
country governments to the United advanced trading partners in 2008.
Nations Comtrade database30 in The far-right column provides the Total Value Gaps Identified Between Argentina, Bangladesh and Côte d’Ivoire and 36
order to identify the “value gaps,” or average US dollar amount for the Advanced Economies, 2008-2017, as a Percent of Total Trade
mismatches, in the reported data. sums of value gaps identified for each
For example, if Ecuador reported developing country’s bilateral trade
exporting US$20 million in bananas between 2008-2017.
to the United States in 2016, but
Correspondingly, Table B shows the 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 Average
the US reported importing only $15
million in bananas, this would reflect a value gaps as a percent of a country’s
total bilateral trade with the 36 Argentina 18.60 16.74 17.35 16.92 16.76 17.51 18.02 17.55 15.75 16.23 17.14
mismatch, or value gap, of $5 million
in the reported trade of this product. advanced economies for each year
Bangladesh 15.62 14.57 15.30 13.82 13.25 14.58 N/A 15.18 N/A N/A 14.62
While the available data is not perfect examined, as well as the ten-year
and country figures are not exact, average. For example, the first row for Côte d’Ivoire 22.71 23.53 20.76 19.61 17.50 17.07 18.66 17.97 16.69 16.03 19.05
the resulting value gap estimates Argentina for the year 2008 shows
provide an order of magnitude view 18.6 percent, meaning that the value Note: N/A indicates a year for which there was no reporting to UN Comtrade by the country.
of each country’s trade misinvoicing gap denoted in Table A ($6.1 billion) is
challenge, reflecting the scale of the equivalent to 18.6 percent of the value
problem. Additionally, while the full of Argentina’s total trade with the 36
report examines trade misinvoicing advanced economies in 2008.SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 26 SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 27
In its full analysis of 135 developing While developing countries wait for
countries, GFI identified a total value such technology to be commercially
gap of $8.7 trillion in trade between available, viable and affordable, non-
developing and advanced economies official data such as GFI’s analysis of
between 2008-2017. Comtrade records can help fill the gap in
official SDG 16.4.1 data reporting.s.
Analyzing value gaps as a percent of One of the most significant When the declared value is more While developing countries wait for
total trade is illuminating, because challenges in assessing the problem than one or two orders of magnitude such technology to be commercially
“One of the the size of value gaps in dollars may of trade misinvoicing is that those off the recent prevailing global available, viable and affordable,
most significant often reflect the size of a country’s who engage in it are trying to average price, it is a strong indication non-official data such as GFI’s
challenges in economy, and less so the amount of hide it. This limits even the best of attempted trade misinvoicing analysis of Comtrade records can
potential illicit activity. For instance, assessments and overall estimates of and thus can be flagged for further help fill the gap in official SDG 16.4.1
assessing the
despite the fact that Argentina’s macro-level analyses of international investigation. Likewise, attention has data reporting. Such non-official
problem of trade average value gap is $4 billion trade data. However, it is possible been drawn to efforts to develop data sources and analysis can help
misinvoicing is that greater than Côte d’Ivoire’s, a larger to identify trade misinvoicing by distributed ledger technologies, such experts better understand the
those who engage percent of Côte d’Ivoire’s total trade using micro-level transaction data as blockchain, to create a new type problems of illicit financial flows
in it are trying to is routinely misinvoiced, at 19.05 to cross-reference the invoices of of comprehensive international trade and their corrosive impacts on
hide it.” percent, compared to 17.14 percent importers and exporters in both the ledger to better track the distribution, financing sustainable development.
for Argentina. This indicates that exporting and importing countries. routes and quantities of globally Data is crucial to understanding and
despite having a smaller economy Unfortunately, getting access to such traded goods. In practice, all crates curtailing IFFs globally, particularly as
than Argentina, trade misinvoicing data can be difficult, akin to a needle and containers would have scannable developing countries struggle with
is happening at a higher rate in Côte in a haystack. barcodes accessible to customs funding shortfalls and the economic
d’Ivoire. officials and investigatory agencies brunt of the Covid-19 pandemic.
There are, however, promising the world over, that would reveal the
In its full analysis of 135 developing new uses of technology to help origin of the good and the destination
countries, GFI identified a total value customs agencies, central banks country, along with important tax and
gap of $8.7 trillion in trade between and tax authorities to identify tariff information. Trade data would be
developing and advanced economies trade misinvoicing – in real time recorded in a way that is transparent,
between 2008-2017. In just 2017 – when it can be stopped. Using a updating in real-time and very difficult
alone, the total value gap in trade method known as price-filtering, to falsify. Advancements in this area
between all developing and advanced new specialized database tools31 are slow, but hold much promise for
economies was $817.6 billion. can enable customs officials to increasing internationally available
cross-check the value of cargo as and accessible trade data.
declared on an invoice submitted by
an importer or exporter against the
prevailing average global price for the
same good.SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 28 SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 29
Photo by kobby-mendez on unsplash
Chapter
The potential of bribery
rates to shed light on
other manifestations of
corruption is limited.
COUNTRIES
Argentina, Bahamas,
Barbados, Brazil, Chile,
Colombia, Costa Rica,
Dominican Republic, El
Salvador, Guatemala,
Guyana, Honduras,
Jamaica, Mexico,
Panama, Peru, Trinidad
& Tobago and Venezuela Back in 2015, the Inter-Agency and Moreover, not only is it unrealistic to
(Latin America and the Expert Group on SDG Indicators expect that multidimensional targets
Caribbean). (IAEG-SDGs) selected two official for broad concepts like corruption
indicators for SDG target 16.5, which can be captured by two indicators
relates to the control of corruption. on bribery, as is the case for target
These are the proportion of persons 16.5, but in many countries around
(16.5.1) and businesses (16.5.2) within the world the necessary data is
a given country that had at least one simply not recorded.33 Additionally,
contact with a public official during topics like corruption are politically
RELEVANT SDG16 the previous 12 months who either sensitive, which may leave the
TARGET(S) paid a bribe or were asked for a bribe reliability of the figures provided by
16.5: Substantially reduce by those officials. national statistics offices open to
corruption and bribery in all question.
their forms 16.6: Develop Albeit important, these two indicators
effective, accountable and alone are insufficient to measure These three issues concerning
transparent institutions at all if and how well countries are SDG16.5 monitoring processes,
levels. “substantially reducing corruption namely the inadequacy of indicators
and bribery in all their forms”, as 16.5.1 and 16.5.2 alone to capture the
formulated in the wording of the complex phenomenon of corruption,
Trade-Related Illicit
target. Reported bribery rates the unavailability of official data as
are best suited to capturing the well as the potential unreliability
Global corruption
incidence of petty corruption, that of data that does exist can all be
Financial Flows in
is, the everyday abuse of entrusted at least partially addressed by
DATA METHOD power by public officials in their incorporating data produced by
barometer: unveiling
Global Corruption interactions with ordinary citizens, civil society organisations. Apart
Argentina, Bangladesh
Barometer, a nationally who are typically trying to access from plugging current data gaps,
representative public basic goods or services.32 The the Global Corruption Barometer
SDGs 16.5 and 16.6 in Latin
opinion survey conducted potential of bribery rates to shed light (GCB) developed by Transparency
and Côte d’Ivoire
mainly through face-to- on other manifestations of corruption International (TI) illustrates the
face interviews in the is limited. need for complementary data to
America and the Caribbean
local language (Computer reveal the extent of corruption
Assisted Personal and the effectiveness of national
Interviewing, CAPI). responses to it in both a holistic and
authoritative manner.SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 30 SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 31
Although Brazil presents one of the Better control of corruption requires
lowest bribery rates in the region, the better data.
number of respondents who have been
offered money or a favour in exchange
for their vote is remarkably high.
Since 2003, TI has carried out The GCB 2019 explored not only Latin But there is more – whereas Incorporating the GCB dataset allows likely to distrust the government when
ten editions of the GCB - a public Americans’ involvement with bribery vote-buying relates exclusively for not only an improved monitoring compared to those who were never
“Whereas no Latin opinion survey across the globe, when accessing public services but to elections, political corruption capacity of SDG targets 16.5 and bribed to cast a vote for a particular
American and asking ordinary citizens about their also their experiences with vote- encompasses many other arenas, 16.6, but also an assessment of the candidate or party.
Caribbean country experiences and views on corruption. buying. This measure helps to unveil a including fraudulent political funding, linkages between these targets. It is
The detrimental effect of one form of
TI’s GCB follows high survey facet of political corruption36 that the illicit lobbying, and in fact any plausible to hypothesise that high
officially reported corruption, vote-buying, on trust that
standards and yields periodic and SDG official indicators are unable to circumstance in which political actors levels of vote-buying correspond to
data on SDG 16.5.1 nationally representative measures capture: the extent to which political act for private gain to the detriment of low levels of trust in the government. this incipient analysis suggests for
in 2019, in the of bribery and attitudes towards integrity is compromised by one form the public interest. Political corruption Being bribed to vote might have an eight Latin American and Caribbean
same year the GCB corruption, amongst many other of election abuse. In Latin America as a whole is, in turn, merely one of impact on how individuals regard countries is particularly alarming
surveyed more than corruption-related topics. and the Caribbean, almost 25 percent many illicit forms of behaviour that fall the functioning of the country’s when taking into consideration
that dwindling citizen trust itself
17,000 citizens in Whereas no Latin American and
of the respondents were offered a under the overarching umbrella term government and the reliability of its
has the potential to cripple modern
bribe or a special favour to vote in a “corruption”. This complexity clearly politicians and other public officials.
18 countries in the Caribbean country officially reported democracies, which rest upon popular
certain way during the previous five demonstrates the need for a range To test whether this connection exists,
region.” data on SDG 16.5.1 in 2019,34 in the years. Countries with the highest of complementary data sources to TI used GCB data to run logistic legitimacy.40 Yet vote-buying patterns
same year the GCB surveyed more levels of reported incidences of provide an accurate picture of global regressions with trust in government in the region and their connection
than 17,000 citizens in 18 countries vote-buying are Mexico (50 percent), progress towards SDG 16.5. as the dependent variable and with citizen trust might have gone
in the region.35 The results revealed Dominican Republic (46 percent), vote-buying as the variable of interest. unnoticed were it not for TI’s
that the levels of bribery in the Brazil, and Colombia (both with 40 The data produced by the GCB is not These analyses controlled for the periodic surveys in the region. Better
region are relatively high. First, percent). limited to SDG 16.5. Citizens in Latin potential influences of age, gender, control of corruption requires better
citizens were asked whether they America and the Caribbean were income, education and whether the data, and progress towards SDGs
had contact with six key public Interestingly, although Brazil presents asked whether they had “a great deal”, respondent had paid a bribe for public 16.5 and 16.6 will be inadequately
services in their country during the one of the lowest bribery rates in the “a fair amount”, “not a lot” or “no trust services during the 12 months prior to documented and understood for
previous 12 months (the police, the region, the number of respondents at all” in the government (including being interviewed. as long as sources of non-official
courts, health care, schools, identity who have been offered money or a politicians, public servants or any kind data from civil society organisations
documents, and utilities), to which 76 favour in exchange for their vote is of government agency); the courts; The regressions were performed are not given due consideration by
percent responded affirmatively. Of remarkably high. Similarly, whereas and the police.37 Measuring the by country and survey weights national governments as part of SDG
these, more than one in five people Venezuela presents the highest levels of trust that individuals have in were applied.38 The results of these monitoring processes.
(21 percent) paid a bribe to obtain bribery rate in the entire region, state institutions is a useful proxy to analyses show that there is indeed an
basic services. Venezuela, Mexico, vote-buying seems to be a much less evaluate how effective, accountable inverse relationship between vote-
and Peru present the highest bribery widespread practice in that country and transparent these institutions are buying and trust in government that is
rates in the region, with 50, 34, and when compared to its Latin American (target 16.6). Taking the region as a statistically significant for Brazil, Chile,
30 percent respectively. On the counterparts (26 percent). This brief whole, a minority of people express Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican
other side of the spectrum, Costa comparison neatly illustrates the trust in the government (21 percent), Republic, Jamaica, Trinidad & Tobago
Rica (seven percent), Barbados (nine limitations of measuring complex courts (27 percent) and police (33 and Venezuela.39 In other words, after
percent) and Brazil (11 percent) are phenomena with unidimensional percent); in only two countries – controlling for bribery, socioeconomic
the Latin American and Caribbean indicators. Barbados and Guyana – did a majority and demographic variables, the
countries with the lowest overall of respondents state that they trusted nationals of these countries who
bribery rates. these institutions. experience vote-buying are moreSDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 32 SDG16DI 2020 Global Report Page 33
Photo by Raquel García on Unsplash
Chapter
To provide data, significant
funding will be required to
conduct opinion surveys
and collect administrative
data with a global coverage
The UN Member States have set extent to which the proportional
ten specific targets for Sustainable representation of various
Development Goal 16, the promotion demographic groups in (a) the
of just, peaceful and inclusive legislature, (b) public service, and
societies. Of these targets, target (c) the judiciary corresponds to
COUNTRIES 16.7 aims at ensuring “responsive, national distributions of the same
Hungary; 162 countries inclusive, participatory and groups. This is captured in indicators
globally representative decision-making at 16.7.1a-c. The second indicator set
all levels.” Among the 17 SDGs and measures the proportion of people
the 169 targets defined to achieve who (1) believe that they have a say
the Goals, target 16.7 may be viewed in what the government does and
as a key target, because it focuses (2) feel that the political system
on political decision-making, a allows them to have an influence on
crucial prerequisite for all of the politics. This is captured in indicator
RELEVANT SDG16 desirable policy outcomes defined 16.7.2. Both indicator sets are to be
TARGET(S) in SDG 16 and in the other SDGs. disaggregated by sex, age, disability
This chapter discusses the official status, population groups and levels
Towards a valid and viable
16.7: Ensure responsive,
inclusive, participatory and indicators for monitoring target 16.7 of government.
representative decision- and argues that the Global State
of Democracy Indices – a set of According to the metadata sheet
measurement of SDG
making at all levels
democracy measures developed prepared by the UN Statistics
by the International Institute for Division, the choice of indicators
Democracy and Electoral Assistance 16.7.1 a-c is based on the assumption
target 16.7: responsive,
(International IDEA)41 – can function that when parliament, public services
as valid proxy indicators. and the judiciary reflect “the social
diversity of a nation, this may lead
inclusive, participatory and
The UN Statistical Commission to greater legitimacy [of these
DATA METHOD has selected two indicators, or institutions] in the eyes of citizens,” as
Expert assessments; coded more precisely: sets of indicators their “members resemble the people
representative decision-
observational data to measure progress on target they represent in respect to gender,
16.7.42 The first set measures the age, ethnicity and disability.”43
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