A NEW MODEL OF MARS AS A FORMER CAPTURED SATELLITE: BI-MODAL DISTRIBUTION OF KEY FEATURES DUE TO ANCIENT TIDAL STRESS?
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
A NEW MODEL OF MARS AS A FORMER CAPTURED SATELLITE:
BI-MODAL DISTRIBUTION OF KEY FEATURES
DUE TO ANCIENT TIDAL STRESS?
Richard C. Hoagland
(Principal Investigator, Enterprise Mission)
Michael Bara
(Executive Director, Formal Action Committee on Extraterrestrial Studies).
ABSTRACT
Conventional models of Mars, based on measurements by initial Mariner unmanned spacecraft,
found an arid, apparently ancient environment without current liquid water. This prompted sub-
sequent, highly negative assessments regarding Mars’ history, and the difficulty for the origin
and/or evolution of higher forms of life. Later, the unmanned Viking missions (as well as the
1997 Pathfinder Lander) seemed to confirm this barren model. Complex, sometimes contradic-
tory geologic theories to explain this desolate Mars environment have been proposed, based on a
wide variety of observed surface phenomena and features. A new model that reconciles major
puzzling contradictions among past models is now put forth, using new observations from MGS
high-resolution images of Mars and a reevaluation of certain Viking era experiments. Small-
scale surface features are identified which, it is proposed, are the direct product of wide spread
ancient and recent bursts of subsurface liquid water. These water “stains” are shown to cluster
(beyond statistical chance) in an unmistakable tidally-determined, bi-modal distribution on the
planet: centered near the Tharsis and antipodal Arabia “bulges.” A revaluation of Mars ancient
history is therefore proposed, suggesting that Mars (well after solar system formation) was cap-
tured into synchronous orbital lock with a larger planetary companion (“Planet V”), accounting
for the clustering of present day water bursts around the former beds of two bi-modally distrib-
uted “Mars ancient oceans” as a direct result. The current Tharsis and Arabia mantle uplifts are
shown to be an inevitable additional fossil signature of such former tidal stresses, induced by a
close gravitational relationship with Planet V. Other heretofore inexplicable Martian surface fea-
tures are shown to be consistent with such a simple "tidal model": Valles Marineris (as an eroded
ancient tidal bore, formed immediately post-capture); the presence of the extremely flat terrain
covering the northern hemisphere (via deposited sediments from the once tidally supported
oceans, when released); and the current trench or "moat" around the Tharsis bulge (from relaxa-
tion of Tharsis back into the mantle, after tidal lock was broken). The long-mysterious “Line of
Dichotomy” is explained as a remnant of a “blast wave” of debris from this sudden severing of
the former orbital lock relationship with Planet V, due to either a catastrophic collision or explo-
sion. Chemical signatures of this extraordinary destruction event on Mars are shown to be con-
sistent with the model; including the distribution of olivine preferentially below the line of di-
chotomy; the presence of primitive mantle and core materials such as iron and sulfur in unusual
abundance on Mars surface; and the concentration of proposed “water stains” in areas bereft of
olivine. Mars unusual magnetic field “striping” is now shown to be another unique southern
hemisphere signature of this destruction event, caused by standing P and S waves reverberating
through the planet’s crust as a result of the massive simultaneous impacts from Planet V debris.
Recently published research showing unprecedented outflow channels from the Tharsis and Ara-
1
TIDAL BULGES ON MARS: R.C. Hoagland and M. H. Bara
bia bulges are shown to be consistent with the sudden relaxation of the two tidal oceans, as is the
sculpting of huge amounts of material by fluvial processes north of the Arabia bulge. Two pos-
sible mechanisms for the destruction of Planet V and the breaking of this tidal lock are outlined.
Finally, a new timeline for Mars geologic evolution is proposed that is consistent with these ob-
servations, placing these events between capture ~500 MYA and the destruction of Planet V at
65 MYA.
Introduction: Man’s fascination with available liquid water on the Martian surface
Mars has led to many fanciful and romantic – a key prerequisite for life. This general
notions about the planet’s genesis. Early dismissal of the LRE results was immediately
popular (and even some scientific) specula- challenged by the LRE’s Principal Investiga-
tions focused on a planet populated by exotic tor, Gilbert Levin. Levin3 showed that liquid
creatures if not warring advanced civiliza- water could flow on the present day Martian
tions; these were based in large part on surface, if the available water was restricted
Lowell’s turn-of-the-Century model of a to the lower 1-3 km of atmosphere, rather
harsh and frigid Mars, one that was still hab- than being evenly distributed throughout its
itable, though dying. It was not until the depth. Meteorological data from Mars Path-
1964 Mariner 4 mission that the general pub- finder later confirmed the Levin model for
lic and the scientific community got their first atmospheric water distribution.4
close-up view of the real Mars -- as Mariner 4
flew by at a distance of 6,118 miles. The 21 One remarkable development in this re-
images telemetered back to JPL surprisingly gard has been the rediscovery of 25-year-old
revealed a cratered terrain more akin to the “lost” NASA data from Levin’s own experi-
lifeless lunar surface than anything on Earth. ment. Joseph Miller, a neurobiologist at the
With these first insitu spacecraft Mars data, University of Southern California, recently
hopes for finding anything approaching an- presented evidence that the radioactive C02
other “Earth” elsewhere in this solar system release that was the heart of Levin’s experi-
were permanently dashed. Subsequent mis- ment exhibited a clear 24.66-hour Martian
sions confirmed that the Martian atmosphere diurnal cycle – precisely the circadian rhythm
was much too thin and the temperatures too to be expected of living Martian microbes in
low to allow for the presence of surface liquid the soil.5 If confirmed, this would strongly
water, eliminating almost any remaining hope indicate current microbial organisms on Mars
of finding current life. – despite a quarter-century of disclaimers and
the apparent dearth of liquid water.
Eleven years later, biology experiments
conducted in 1976 by the Viking Landers (in- In striking contrast to the current apparent
cluding one termed the Labeled Release Ex- aridity of Mars, analysis of images from
periment, or LRE), produced positive results Mariner 9 and Viking’s later Orbiters did re-
for life bearing organisms in the samples.1 veal evidence of large and catastrophic an-
However, these findings were directly contra- cient water flows on Mars. They also re-
dicted by other instruments’ results, which vealed evidence of a violent geological past --
indicated that the biology data were “false with huge volcanoes, extensive cratering in
positives,” generated by a non-biological the southern hemisphere, and a massive can-
chemical reaction with the Martian soil.2 yon system (Valles Marineris) stretching al-
Among the principal reasons cited for con- most one-quarter of the way around the
sensus against the LRE was the absence of planet.
2
ters (on average) higher than the northern
Despite evidence of wide-spread water sparsely cratered lowlands.
flows on Mars, the general scientific consen-
sus now is that any liquid water on the planet Somewhat limited by existing theories of
has been confined to the very distant past solar system formation, planetary geologists
(circa 3 plus billion years -- GYA), when a have tried to explain these major discrepan-
much denser atmosphere allowed it to flow cies on Mars in terms of familiar models.
freely across the surface. The presence of Since the northern hemisphere accounts for
large numbers of eroded craters in the south is 50% of the land mass but only 7% of the cra-
cited as proof that the planet has been geolog- ters, the latest idea is that Mars must have lost
its “primordial crust” in the northern hemi-
sphere to an ancient period of “vigorous con-
vection and high heat flow”7 early in Martian
history, at a time well after the last heavy
bombardment period. However, the lack of
smaller craters on the northern plains (based
on relative dating of similar cratering statis-
tics from the Moon) paradoxically implies a
relatively recent date for this proposed
“event.”
An Alternative Model of Solar System
Evolution -- In 1978, Naval Observatory as-
Figure 1 - MOLA colorized image of Mars showing tronomer and celestial mechanics expert,
the heavily cratered southern highlands (yellow and Thomas Van Flandern, put forth the idea
orange) and the smooth, sparsely cratered northern (based on an original model by Olbers) that a
lowlands (blue and green).
relatively recent “exploded planet” in the as-
teroid belt between Mars and Jupiter was re-
ically dead for at least 3 billion years -- the
sponsible for the origins of most comets and
time since the last “heavy bombardment” of
asteroids in the solar system.8 This notion,
the inner solar system.6
called the Exploded Planet Hypothesis
Other surface features present more diffi- (EPH)9, has found little support in the plane-
cult problems for geologists. There are vast tary science community, but its lines of evi-
differences in crater densities between the dence since its initial publication over twenty
northern and southern planetary hemispheres. years ago have become increasingly compel-
In the North, medium-sized craters are rarely ling. Part and parcel to this hypothesis is the
seen, with significant distances between idea that half Mars visible surface was devas-
them. This is in distinct contrast with the tated by this proposed explosion event, neatly
South, where craters are so numerous that accounting for the cratering dichotomy be-
they overlap each other, making it difficult to tween the northern and southern hemispheres,
distinguish between individual impacts. This and the loss of a once dense and possibly life
stark difference is mysteriously emphasized sustaining atmosphere.
by a “Line of Dichotomy”: a separation line
running around the circumference of the More recently, writer Graham Hancock
planet at about a 35-degree angle to the Equa- has popularized an alternative catastrophic
tor. The southern, heavily cratered side of the theory, which supports the conventional view
line, is also (mysteriously) nearly 30 kilome- that the north was stripped of several layers of
primordial crust.10 Hancock argues that a
3
TIDAL BULGES ON MARS: R.C. Hoagland and M. H. Bara
large comet or planetoid somehow wandered • It possesses a large offset of center of
into the Roche limit zone of Mars and was figure from the center of mass
drawn into the planet in the Hellas basin, ef-
fectively tearing away the older surface of the • The shape is not in equilibrium with
northern hemisphere via secondary bom- its current spin
bardment, and depositing the remnants of its
• The “crustal dichotomy” boundary is
shattered bulk into the southern highlands.
nearly a great circle
Hancock’s idea is based on Donald W. Patten
and Samuel L. Windsor’s research,11 who • The northern hemisphere has a
surmise that this object was in fact a “rogue smooth, 1-km[sic]-thick crust; the south-
planet” they call “Astra,” described in their ern crust is over 20-km thick
book “The Scars of Mars.” There are how-
ever numerous problems with the “Astra” • Crustal thickness in the south de-
concept – for instance, it cannot account for creases gradually toward the crustal
the presence of the asteroid belt, while the dichotomy boundary
EPH does so intrinsically. The authors of this
paper believe that the EPH is the much • Lobate scarps occur at the boundary
stronger hypothesis (if appropriately modi- divide, compressed perpendicular to
fied), and that it has already demonstrated a the boundary
capacity to survive serious falsification ef- • Huge volcanoes arose where uplift
forts, qualities not shared by “Astra.” pressure from mass redistribution is
maximal
Extension of the EPH – Recently, Van
Flandern has extended the EPH to include the • A sudden geographic pole shift of or-
notion that several “planets” (Pluto, Mercury, der 90° occurred
and Mars) are actually former moons of cur-
rent or destroyed planets. Evidence to sup- • Much of the original atmosphere has
port this hypothesis is extensive, but for our been lost
purposes we will focus exclusively on the
• A sudden, massive flood with no ob-
evidence for Mars. Of these lines of evi-
vious source occurred
dence, we will address here only a few as
relevant to our proposal. A more complete • Xe129, a product of nuclear fission, has
analysis will be left to a follow–on paper. an excess abundance on Mars
Some of the evidence, as compiled by Van
Flandern: Previous to this, Dorman & Woolfson
(1977), writing in the Philosophical Transac-
• Mars is much less massive than any tions of the Royal Society of London, re-
planet not itself suspected of being a sented a model called “the Capture Theory of
former moon Planetary Formation.” They proposed that
Mars was once an original (not captured)
• The orbit of Mars is more elliptical
moon of one of two colliding “protoplanets”
than any other major planet (Pluto
in the early accretion solar system phase.12
notwithstanding)
They even provided one specific piece of evi-
• Its spin is slower than larger planets, dence to support their idea that Mars began as
except where a massive moon has in- such a satellite: Mars density is much closer
tervened to that of some of the Galilean satellites than
it is to Venus, the least dense inner planet.
This implies a genesis more in common with
4
Io, Europa and Earth’s Moon than with the similar to what we are proposing led to Mars
terrestrial planets. initial capture as a satellite, and then the de-
struction of its “foster parent,” Planet V.
To quote Woolfson (1984): “As part of
the [Capture Theory] scenario, it has been The relevance of water – If Mars, prior to
suggested that Mars was originally a satellite its capture (in our model) formerly had a
of one of the colliding planets. The densities denser atmosphere that provided for liquid
of the terrestrial bodies and some larger satel- water on the surface, it is likely that this water
lites are shown in support of this suggestion – dependent on the amount -- was distributed
(Figure 2). Connell & Woolfson (1983) have in lakes or oceans, much as it is here on
ascribed the hemispherical asymmetry of Earth. If this was the case, there should still
Mars, like that of the Moon, to abrasion by be pockets of this water trapped beneath those
high-speed ejecta from the planetary collision former lake or ocean beds, relatively close to
of that face of the satellite turned toward its the surface, dependent on how long ago the
primary. This will give rise to a thinning of water actually flowed. If extensive “fields”
the crust and for Mars such features as the of this frozen or (sometimes) liquid water
centre-of-mass centre of figure offset are well were discovered near the surface, this would
explained by this. If Mars as a satellite was strongly imply such former “lakes” or
in synchronous rotation about its primary then “oceans” were the source.
this mechanism would suggest that its spin
axis should be contained in the plane of Besides Levin’s atmospheric model, the
asymmetry, but it is actually 55 degrees [the best evidence for current liquid water near the
35 degree line of dichotomy, minus 90 de- surface of Mars (until recently) was provided
grees] to that plane [emphasis added].” by Dr. Leonard Martin of the Lowell Obser-
vatory. Martin, in 1980, compared two im-
Van Flandern’s EPH Model proposes that ages of Mars taken from the Viking Orbiters
there were formerly two massive planetary that clearly showed an erupting water spout.13
bodies in the current orbits of Mars and the This implied active geothermal heating of a
Asteroid Belt, respectively. Both exploded. source of water not too far below the current
The first (Planet K) detonated in the orbit of Martian surface.
the current Belt “several hundred million
years ago.” The second (Planet V) exploded In June 2000, Michael Malin and Ken
near the present day orbit of Mars, some 65 Edgett of MSSS published a paper in Sci-
million years ago (MYA). In Van Flandern’s ence14, proposing that grooved features on
theory, additional impact damage was done to cliffs and gullies on Mars were fossil evi-
Mars when a much smaller second former dence of prior erosive runoff from liquid wa-
moon of Planet V exploded in Mars vicinity ter. They placed the events as recently as 1
3.2 MYA. In our modification of the EPH, MYA, but conceded the bursts could also in-
we will show that it is not necessary to invoke clude present day occurrences.
a literal planetary “explosion” to produce all
the subsequent effects Van Flandern has pro-
posed, including the formation of asteroids
and comets, and the escape of most of the re-
maining mass from solar influence. In doing
so, we will draw upon new data not available
when Van Flandern originally formulated his
EPH ideas, specifically, observations of cer-
tain Extra Solar planets that follow orbits
5
TIDAL BULGES ON MARS: R.C. Hoagland and M. H. Bara
cally map the locations of these “seep” im-
ages relative to Mars surface coordinates, to
see if there was a global pattern to their dis-
tribution. As a control, they also mapped
randomly-selected “non-stain” images until a
representative and statistically valid sampling
had been completed.
Immediately, two striking global patterns
emerged: both pointing to present day liquid
water as a source of the “stains” or “seep-
ages.” In the first pattern, the map showed
Figure 3 – Proposed fossilized water runoff channels. that seepage images seem to appear preferen-
(MSSS/NASA) tially near equatorial latitudes, mostly be-
tween 30 degrees North and South; none were
In 1998, one of a growing number of “in-
found above 40 degrees North and South.
dependent researchers,” Byran Butcher, no-
This implies that the phenomenon is restricted
ticed and published on the Internet a curious
to warmer areas of Mars, which would be ex-
“dark area.” He casually suggested it might
pected if these were truly water flows. An
be “a coffee stain, water, or a shadow.”15 In
equatorial pattern is also inconsistent with the
July 2000, the authors published a much more
“dust avalanche” model put forth by Malin
specific model, based on an MOC image of
and NASA as an explanation for these fea-
an unusually dark, highly elongated “stain”
tures.18
emanating from an exterior point source on a
crater wall, proposing that it was a current
The second, more important pattern dis-
water flow consistent with the model Malin
covered was that the water flows seemed to
and Edgett had put forth a few days earlier.16
cluster preferentially around two pronounced
They quickly found numerous additional ex-
geological features on the Martian surface:
amples.
the Tharsis and Arabia mantle uplifts
(“bulges” -- Figure 5). The theoretical factors
behind this second (and very pronounced) bi-
modal “stain” distribution pattern are the pri-
mary subjects of this paper.
Mars as a Tidal Locked Moon of a
Companion Body – The authors are propos-
ing in this paper that Mars, at some point ear-
lier in solar system history, was captured by
one of two larger planetary bodies orbiting
near the present day orbit of Mars. This sce-
Figure 4 – Proposed point source liquid water burst nario is an extension of the Capture Theory
image from MO4-00072 (MSSS/NASA) model of solar system formation put forth by
Subsequent to this, Palermo, England and Dorman & Woolfson (1977), as well as Van
Moore also found that surface “stains” were Flandern’s Exploded Planet Hypothesis
inconsistent with aeolian features, mass wast- (1978). It is also based on current observa-
ing or other non-fluvial processes.17 At the tions of significantly elliptical orbits for many
suggestion of one of the authors (Hoagland), newly-discovered Extra Solar planets around
Palermo et-al then proceeded to systemati- nearby stars, as reported by Butler, et-al.19
6
One relevant example is the Jupiter-massed Jupiter and Mars, they would have incorpo-
planet orbiting the nearby K-type star, Epsi- rated significantly more water than did Earth.
lon Eridani. With an orbital period of 6.9 And, given the increased likelihood of multi-
years, an orbital eccentricity of 0.6, and an ple glancing collisions in the early planetesi-
average distance from its star of 3.4 astro- mal phase for this region of the solar sys-
nomical units (AU), this planet’s orbit would tem,22 they probably possessed multiple natu-
take it as far out as Jupiter and as close as ral satellites as well. An encounter of Mars
Mars if it orbited in our own solar system.20 with such a system, billions of years after its
formation (as we are proposing), would thus
It is our proposal that two previous planets have a reasonable probability of encountering
in the vast “gap” between the current orbits of a satellite as well. This type of encounter has
Jupiter and Mars, with orbital eccentricities a much higher probability of happening than
far less than the Epsilon Eridani planet, after the previous scenario presented (the three-
several billion years were gradually perturbed body interaction of Planet K, Planet V, and
into a series of close encounters. This even- Mars). But, this second type of encounter
tually resulted in the low-probability but pos- could also result in Mars being captured by
sible “three-body capture” of a third object, Planet V – via the ejection of one of Planet
the formerly freely orbiting Mars, and mil- V’s own moons. Calculations examining
lions of years later, the actual collision of the similar scenarios have been performed in
two larger planets. As noted, such theoretical connection with the anomalous Neptune sys-
former solar system members have been re- tem – which consists now of a major planet-
ferred to as “Planet K” and “Planet V” in Van sized satellite (Triton) in retrograde orbit, and
Flandern’s original EPH model, the latter es- a smaller moon (Nereid) in a highly elliptical
timated to possess approximately 4-5 Earth one. This has been viewed for years as
masses. prima-facie evidence for a highly unusual
Neptune encounter earlier in solar system his-
We propose that, like theoretical models tory with an outside object in heliocentric or-
invoked now to explain some Extra Solar bit, which reversed Triton’s orbit and ejected
System observations of formerly interacting a previous moon from the system entirely.
planets,21 a rare multi-planet encounter oc- That “escaped satellite” is now known as
curred late in solar system history between “Pluto.”23
two planets formerly occupying the current
gap between Jupiter and Mars: two massive Regardless of the precise methodology of
terrestrial planets termed “K” and “V.” As a capture, the subsequent, strong tidal relation-
result, Mars was robbed of a critical portion ship between Mars and the more massive
of its solar angular momentum, allowing cap- Planet V (Figure 6) would have resulted in a
ture in an extreme elliptical orbit as a new further, rapid loss of Mars spin angular mo-
satellite of Planet V. mentum, from a “free” rotation period in solar
orbit on the order of ~12 hours down to the
An alternative scenario involves only one presently observed ~24. This estimate is
former solar system member – Planet V. based on models of Earth’s primordial rota-
tion slowed by early lunar tides ( Figure 7). 24
Given the parameters of existing solar sys- In the model, inevitable tidal evolution not
tem members -- distance, density, and mass, only ultimately circularized Mars orbit
especially Mars’ low density compared to the around Planet V, it resulted in Mars finally
other terrestrial planets (Figure 2) -- it seems rotating/revolving around Planet V synchro-
reasonable to assume that if two additional nously, in approximately 24 hours -- with one
Earth-massed planets had formed between
7
TIDAL BULGES ON MARS: R.C. Hoagland and M. H. Bara
side always facing Planet V, as Earth’s Moon clined about 55 degrees to that rotational axis
does today. -- instead of being focused on the Tharsis re-
gion itself (see details, below).
It is the authors’ central proposal in this
paper that it was this verifiable “Mars tidal Original capture model and conse-
lock relationship” with Planet V that accounts quences – After capture, as this close orbital
for a host of previously inexplicable and even relationship between Mars and Planet V
contradictory Martian surface features, that evolved and the orbit circularized over hun-
otherwise will remain perpetually mysterious. dreds of thousands or even millions of years,
any surface water of oceanic volume would
This begins with the otherwise baffling have “sloshed” back and forth across the sur-
present-day Tharsis and Arabia antipodal up- face of Mars twice every Martian “day,” just
lifts on the planet, which are located precisely as lunar tides do here on Earth. We assert,
180 degrees opposite (Figures 8 and 9). In based on this intrinsic tidal process, that Mars
this tidal model, the Tharsis “bulge” -- a huge at the time of capture had to have been a
upwelling in the mantle and crust of Mars, “warm, wet world” with both a denser atmos-
unique in the solar system – is explained as a phere and a copious supply of flowing liquid
combination of the extended gravitational water, otherwise it would not evidence the
tidal influence of the larger Planet V acting major surface signatures of tidal movement
for a significant period of time on that hemi- we will demonstrate.
sphere, in concert with pre-existing internal
mantle upwellings. As would be expected But first: as an intrinsic aspect of this
from such a tidal situation, a smaller but still model, we begin by proposing that the puz-
significant “anti-bulge” would inevitably be zling “mantle uplift” of Tharsis began long
raised at the antipodal location to Tharsis -- before this dynamic capture sequence culmi-
which accounts for the Arabia uplift precisely nated. Once Mars was captured and oriented
180 degrees around the planet. with the pre-capture “heavy side” (Tharsis)
pointed “down” (toward Planet V), the uplift
All formerly fluid or partially fluid bodies process was then further and extensively
in the solar system, including the inner moons augmented by the “stretching” gravitational
of Jupiter and Saturn, show signs of such tidal forces of Planet V close by. Further, we sug-
evolution (Figure 10). Io, in particular, has gest that this process resulted in the relatively
significant bi-modal tidal bulges, similar to brittle crust of Mars weakening at the eastern
the model we are proposing now for Mars.25 base of the now stretched Tharsis rise, result-
We additionally postulate that other hereto- ing in a series of radial fissures opening up –
fore inexplicable geologic features, such as one of which was then radically enlarged to
Valles Marineris and the Elysium Mons, were become the Valles Marineris canyon system.
also an extended result of this former tidal
mechanism. The authors also propose that, In the model, this original tension crack
when this tidal lock relationship was severed was inevitably expanded by the erosive ef-
-- by the events directly leading to the de- fects of a massive volume of directed tidal
struction of Planet V -- Mars rotational polar waters – termed a “tidal bore”26 (Figure 11) --
axis obliquity, relative to the plane of its sat- rushing back and forth (at several hundred
ellite orbit, dramatically shifted. This sudden kilometers per hour!) the entire ~ 1600 kilo-
obliquity shift, as part of this rapidly timed meter plus length of the original fissure, twice
sequence of events, is responsible in the each Martian day, in direct response to the
model for the apparent discrepancy of the original spin rate of Mars and the massive
“Line of Dichotomy” blast wave being in- gravitational tides caused by Planet V. Be-
8
fore Mars’ tidal lock with the larger planet
was achieved, this enormous surge would This assumes that Mars, like the other
have flowed, always westward, around the planets of the solar system, prior to its capture
circumference of Mars in the direction oppo- had a prograde spin. Thus, the tides induced
site Mars spin, until it piled up against the by Planet V forced the rising and falling wa-
immobile eastern side of the pre-capture ters to always assault the eastern side of
Tharsis bulge. At that point, when “high Tharsis – which is precisely where Valles
tide” passed, the released waters would have Marineris formed.
rushed (under Mars gravity) back down the
canyon system toward the east, scouring the The newly-found bi-modal clustering of
floor once more, until the next “high tide.” “stains” (current water flows) exclusively in
This almost unimaginable force of rushing the Tharsis and Arabia regions of the planet
water, through an expanding canyon system by Palermo (2001), 180 degrees apart, is an
of parallel fissures eventually opened up by additional major indicator that this model is
the fluvial erosion, would have recurred twice correct. This accounts not only for tidal bi-
each Martian “day,” possibly for several mil- modal crustal deformation of the planet, as
lion years -- until Mars’ rotation was finally predicted by the satellite model, but also im-
stationary relative to Planet V. plies that major quantities of unevenly dis-
tributed fluid (water) once also existed on the
surface. Presumably, this water primarily re-
sided after “tidal lock” in two opposing “tidal
ocean bulges” – with possible dry land be-
tween -- because of the inevitable bi-lobed
tidal forces experienced by Mars as an ulti-
mately synchronously rotating satellite of
Planet V.
Long Term Stasis – The evidence argues
that, once Mars lost its remaining spin mo-
mentum and established this stable synchro-
nous orbital relationship, this was not broken
or adjusted significantly until the catastrophic
destruction of Planet V. The constant tidal
tugging on the two opposing hemispheres of
Mars from this synchronous orientation now
Figure 12 – Valles Marineris, a heretofore inexplicable resulted in a continual uplift of the Tharsis
trough extending one quarter of the circumference of region, and to a lesser extent Arabia, antipo-
Mars, is the largest canyon in the Solar System. The
authors submit that this a fluvial trench generated by
dal to the Tharsis rise. The formerly racing
tidal bore action during Mars’ “captured satellite” tides would also then have stabilized, and the
phase. tidal erosion of Valles Marineris would have
totally subsided. At this point, the only addi-
It is our proposal that this “scrubbing ac- tional fluvial erosion processes likely on the
tion” eventually resulted in a radical deepen- planet would have been wind-induced wave
ing of the original narrow cleft to form the action and severe storms. Evidence of the
present day ~7-km-deep, ~4000-km-long former should still present itself on some key
canyon system known as “Valles Marineris” surface features not altered by the subsequent
– a system (Figure 12) now stretching one Planet V destruction.
quarter of the way around the planet Mars.
9
TIDAL BULGES ON MARS: R.C. Hoagland and M. H. Bara
to similarly vertical, wind/wave action fea-
tures on Earth. Ironically, this idea was first
proposed in a somewhat modified form in
1973, by University of Pennsylvania geolo-
gist, the late Henry Faul. Titled romantically
“The Cliff of Nix Olympica” (the pre-Viking
name for Olympus Mons), the paper was
never accepted for publication “because of
the paucity of data.”28 The Viking and MGS
missions have now remedied that situation,
and we hope that Henry Faul’s remarkable
idea is finally given its appropriate hearing.
Figure 13 – Artists conception of Mars as it might have The “White Cliffs of Dover” (Figure 15)
appeared during its “Garden of Eden” period, after are a prime terrestrial example of such fea-
capture by Planet V.
tures. These lime-rock vertical cliffs are cre-
ated by the action of the waters of the English
One potential candidate for such erosive
Channel. High winds in the Channel create a
signatures is Olympus Mons itself. Olympus
constant bashing action on the shore rocks,
Mons rises some 24 kilometers high and
eventually beating the rocks to a vertical face.
measures 550 km in diameter, making it the
Similar features are seen across the Channel
largest shield volcano in the solar system.
on the coast of France.
According to our model, a significant portion
of this volcano most likely stood above the
water-line of this ancient “Tharsis Ocean,”
and should still display signs of aeolian wave
action.
Figure 15 – The White Cliffs of Dover, a vertical, ae-
olian wave action feature on Earth.
Figure 14 – Olympus Mons 3D perspective image
showing prominent vertical scarp at the base of the
lower flanks (NASA).
Further evidence that the Olympus Mons
scarp feature is due to the wind-driven action
Remarkably, Olympus Mons is almost of an ocean can be found in the fact that it
completely encircled by a very steep, nearly envelops the entire mountain (Figure 16); if a
vertical escarpment. This scarp ranges from hypothetical ocean surrounded such a rising
between 2-10 km high,27 indicating that it was tectonic feature, the wind/ocean patterns
carved out over time as the volcano was would be expected to erode a mostly uniform
pulled/pushed upward by the continuing tidal scarp such as the one we see.
force of Planet V aiding internal planetary
uplift. The vertical walls of the scarp suggest
that it was created by this proposed aeolian
wave action, as it bears a strong resemblance
10Stain Distribution - A major, long-term
consequence of this eventual Mars synchro-
nous rotation around Planet V is the present
bi-modal distribution of subsurface water
stains. The tidal forces from Planet V would
have pushed water into sub-crustal fissures
and cavities at right angles to the exerted tidal
stress between Mars and Planet V (Figure
18). Over time, this would have driven addi-
tional Martian water in between the two “tidal
oceans” deep underground and toward one of
the two “water poles” at either end of the line
Figure 16 – Overhead view of Olympus Mons from Mars connecting Mars with Planet V.
Global Surveyor. Prominent vertical scarp nearly encircles
the base (NASA/MSSS). This important theoretical detail is neatly
confirmed by the crucial observation that the
It is also likely the scarp was formed after stain flow images are clustered only in the
Mars assumed synchronous tidal lock around Tharsis region and Arabia, exactly 180 de-
Planet V, since it does not appear to be a re- grees opposite. Any water apparently resid-
sult of directional tidal forces. If the scarp ing in between these two locations seems to
was tidal, it is likely the cliffs on its circum- have been driven underground by the pro-
ference would be significantly more pro- posed tidal stresses on the planet. So deep, in
nounced on the eastern side. Intriguingly, fact, that it is now unable to leave any surface
Arthur Clarke several years ago created a indications between these two former tidal
computer-generated image (Figure 17) depict- “poles.”
ing precisely such an “Olympus Ocean.” Al-
though projected to a time when humans have Another observation consistent with the
terraformed the planet Mars, his depiction – idea that the stains reflect current water reser-
especially the waters swirling around the voirs just below the surface, relates to the
22,000 foot-high cliff around the mountain – “line of dichotomy” itself. Stains observed
are eerily accurate to our own model of a on Tharsis seem only to occur north of this
former “tidal Mars.”29 line of demarcation. This implies that the
smoother hemisphere to the north is the older
geologically, as on Tharsis it possesses the
majority of the subsurface water/surface
stains now remaining from one of the two
tidally separated oceans. If the material mak-
ing up the more heavily cratered southern
hemisphere is due to superimposed material
on the smoother, more eroded original crust
(Figure 19), then we would likely not now
find much water near the surface in those re-
gions – even under the former Tharsis tidal
Figure 17 – Arthur C. Clarke’s projection of an “Olympus ocean.
Ocean” lapping at the 22,000 foot-high-cliffs surround
Olympus Mons
11TIDAL BULGES ON MARS: R.C. Hoagland and M. H. Bara
timescales. Volcanoes, ice, and glaciers can
all erode features,” he said. “But on this large
of a scale these are unlikely explanations.”
Their puzzling observations are neatly ex-
plained by the sudden collapse of a former
“tidal ocean” previously maintained by Planet
V. When Planet V “exploded,” a massive
wall of water would have been released in a
few hours, rushing northward – taking a good
deal of Arabia Terra with it in the process –
exactly as Hynek and Phillips now conclude.
Figure 19 – MOLA generated 3D topography strip This, of course, also explains the current sur-
showing the dramatic difference in crustal elevation face presence of stain images in this region –
between the heavily cratered southern highlands and
the smoother northern lowlands. Possible water stain
they are the exhumed underground remains of
images appear only above the crustal “line of dichot- the subsurface waters from this former “Ara-
omy.” bia Ocean.”
The exception to this pattern would appear The Destruction of Planet V – We have
to be the location of the opposite “tidal freely used the phrase in this paper “when
ocean” – the Arabia Terra plateau, which is Planet V exploded” to describe the eventual
heavily cratered as if from the Planet V event, disappearance of Planet V and the release of
but possesses the second highest number of Mars back into a heliocentric (solar) orbit.
current water stain images (see Figure 5). Re-
cent scans from MOLA have shown that the In Van Flandern’s original model, Planet
crust is significantly thinner in Arabia than it K and Planet V disintegrated via literal explo-
is in most of the cratered southern hemi- sions, leaving only a residue of smaller frag-
sphere,30 accounting for the presence of rela- ments (the asteroids and comets); most of the
tively shallow water seepages beneath this material from these (and previous) planetary
former ocean. Additionally, researchers explosions, according to Van Flandern, was
Brian Hynek and Roger Phillips from Wash- completely ejected from the system by the
ington University in St. Louis, interpreting highly energetic nature of the events them-
this new altimeter evidence from Mars Ob- selves or subsequent encounters with Jupiter.
server, conclude that an enormous amount of In terms of the actual mechanism, some pre-
surface material was somehow excavated viously unknown “physics process” Van
from the planet's western Arabia Terra re- Flandern has argued, is responsible for de-
gion.31 stroying single planets well after their forma-
tion. This insistence on a heretofore unmod-
“We argue that this entire region has been eled, “mysterious energy release” mechanism
massively eroded," said Hynek. "The region has played a major role in Van Flandern’s
used to look like the rest of the [southern] less than enthusiastic reception by the plane-
highlands, but a vertical kilometer of material tary science community, in spite of the many
— enough to fill the Gulf of Mexico — has other recent confirmations of his model.
been relocated downslope and spread out into Since the evidence Van Flandern has mar-
the northern plains." According to Hynek, shaled for the after effects of this Event is far
the most likely erosional force of this magni- more important here than the precise destruc-
tude is flowing water. “Lots of things can tion mechanism he’s proposed, we believe a
erode planets. Wind is very effective on long shift of emphasis could retain the best fea-
12tures in this instance, while avoiding the non- Earth's climate corresponding to natural fluc-
testable aspects of Van Flandern’s original tuations in its orbit. To probe this cycle’s in-
EPH model fluence on Earth's climate over the past 100
million years, Runnegar’s team constructed
It is our opinion that the eventual destruc- computer models based on known variations
tion of Planet V was occasioned by a simple in planetary orbits, their proximity to the Sun
and direct (if not long overdue) collision with and their interactive perturbations. In running
the other proposed major planetary object in the models, they found that the known fluc-
Van Flandern’s celestial mechanics’ recon- tuations of the solar system's dynamics re-
struction: “Planet K.” Post Apollo models for mained constant going back to 65 million
the origin of the Moon have embraced a simi- years ago. Then, to their surprise, the fre-
lar concept. As the three leading pre-lunar quency of perturbations to the orbits of the
landing theories for lunar origin were tested inner planets suddenly changed.33
on the returning Apollo samples and found to
not fit the evidence, a radical new theory was “If the orbits of Mercury, Earth and Mars
proposed. In 1975, Drs. William K. Hart- were being shaken up at this time, maybe as-
mann and Donald R. Davis, writing in teroids were being shaken up too,” says Run-
ICARUS, suggested that the Moon was negard.
formed as a side effect of a catastrophic
“glancing collision” of the Earth with another Or, maybe they were being formed – in a
major planetary object. Their idea was that gargantuan collision.
“a Mars-sized planetisimal” collided with the
early Earth, spalling off enough lightweight Aspects of this model echo another source
crustal material to recondense to form the of surprising information about the solar sys-
Moon. In 1984, the first planetary conference tem: cuneiform records from the earliest
to specifically consider all aspects of this “high” civilization, the Sumerian. Zecharia
revolutionary theory was convened, titled Sitchin has written extensively about the
“Origin of the Moon.”32 It is our proposal that Sumerian’s uncanny “knowledge” of possible
a similar event, simply delayed by a quirk of collisional events from this earliest period of
celestial mechanics until very late in solar solar system history.34 With the latest dis-
system history, precipitated the destruction of coveries of radically different extra solar
two planets in the current Asteroid Belt planetary systems and current theoretical ef-
~65MYA. This event, we suggest, thus liber- forts to understand these systems in terms of
ated Mars from its temporary synchronous potentially interacting planetary orbits, the
orbit of Planet V to once again pursue a soli- relevance of Sitchin’s Sumerian translations
tary – if significantly more elliptical than any should take on new meaning.
other inner planet -- solar orbit.
In our Mars tidal model, the result of such
Remarkably, at a June, 2001 Earth Sys- an unimaginable collision of two massive
tems Processes Global Meeting in Edinburgh, planetary objects (remember, at least 4-5
Scotland, astrobiologist Bruce Runnegar of Earth masses each) would be almost indistin-
the University of California in Los Angeles guishable from a literal planetary explosion.
presented some striking independent evidence The effects of the collisional destruction of
that “something” major happened in the solar Planet V and K on a nearby captured Mars,
system ~65 million years ago. Runnegar and orbiting less than 100,000 kilometers away,
his colleagues had previously identified evi- would have been almost inconceivable. In
dence of a 400,000-year cycle in ancient addition to the discovery of suddenly “shaky
ocean sediments, indicating changes in planetary orbits” at ~65 MYA, such an Event
13TIDAL BULGES ON MARS: R.C. Hoagland and M. H. Bara
should have left a number of predictable sur- almost 90 degrees to the current orientation.
face features on Mars itself – other unmistak- Such a situation is termed “polar wander,”
able signatures of vast destruction. and involves the long-term mechanical re-
alignment of a planet’s spin axis (relative to
Signatures of a Catastrophe -- Assuming surface features) after a new mass distribution
that only the top 1% of Planet V and K’s is imposed – either internally (long-term con-
lithospheres survived this disruptive Event -- vective flow) or externally (material accreted
as accelerated chunks of various- sized crustal from major impacts).35 This “wander” con-
debris moving outward from the site of the tinues until a new rotational equilibrium is
collision -- large amounts of much smaller established under the influence of the new
materials from the exposed high temperature mass distribution, with a new resulting pole
mantles and cores of the respective planets position.
would have been ejected at high speed di-
rectly towards Mars in this Event. In looking The nature of this “new mass redistribu-
for resulting evidence of their impacts on tion,” which subsequently forced Mars to as-
Mars, we should expect to see signatures of sume its current pole position, was assumed
rapid surface heating and then freezing; catas- in this case to be the sudden addition of sig-
trophic water and associated mudflows; a ma- nificant crustal mass from the disintegrating
jor loss of atmosphere along with huge quan- Planet V. If Mars’ “pre-explosion” spin axis
tities of water; and finally – hemispherical had been perpendicular to this incoming wave
cratering on Mars from a vast amount of blast of blast debris, so this theory proposed, the
debris from Planet V. momentum of the impacts coupled with the
unbalanced additional mass piled on the
Mars shows all these signatures and more. planet’s “side,” would have initiated a “polar
wander scenario” – until Mars “toppled over”
The strongest direct evidence of a debris- to reach its current position of new rotational
filled “explosion Event” occurring close to equilibrium, relative to its current surface fea-
Mars, is the mysterious “line of dichotomy” tures.
separating the northern and southern hemi-
spheres at that angle of 35 degrees. Logi- Our tidal model, and the evidence support-
cally, if Mars was in synchronous orbital lock ing it presented here, emphatically forbids
with Planet V when the “explosion” came, such an “easy” dynamical solution to this ma-
then evidence of a wave of impacts from the jor problem. The alignment of Mars prior to
destruction of the Planet should be plastered Planet V’s destruction is now firmly deter-
all over Mars’ one “side,” at right angles to mined: it must have been with the Thar-
the incoming debris. It is not. Instead, the sis/Arabia line aimed directly toward Planet
line of dichotomy is aligned (~60 degrees) to V (Figure 6). The spin poles would then have
the current Mars spin axis. And the authors been at right angles to this immovable align-
acknowledge that this presents some serious ment. So, the debris from the “explosion”
problems for this entire model. should have smashed into the planet at right
angles to the current Mars Equator – which
Without the narrow orientation constraints the line of dichotomy shows it clearly did not.
now imposed by the Mars tidal model pre-
sented in this paper, some previous workers It has been argued that some major debris
have attempted to explain away this serious – huge ejected “pieces” of Planet V’s disinte-
geometric discrepancy by proposing a com- grating crust -- reached Mars first. That these
pletely different pole position for the “pre- planet-busting impacts, which left the major
explosion” Mars: an original rotational axis scars known as the “Argyre” and “Hellas”
14basins, literally “rolled Mars over on its side” planet. Shortly after that, the largest, conti-
before the blast wave of smaller (but more nent-sized fragment -- which created the 2300
numerous) debris arrived. This however, is kilometer wide, 5 kilometer deep Hellas ba-
not at all likely. The smaller pieces would sin, the largest on the planet Mars – impacted
have been accelerated fastest, and would have south of Arabia Terra (Figure 21).36
arrived first … followed by the largest pieces
last. Simple Newton’s Laws:
F = MA.
So, what is our solution?
We propose that as it was approaching
Planet V toward its ultimate collision, Planet
K passed close by Mars in its orbit around
Planet V (Figure 20). This close encounter
gravitationally interfered with the tidal lock
between Mars with Planet V. In fact, it began
a radical, gravitationally induced reorienta- Figure 21 – Hellas’ 2300 km impact basin
tion of the entire Mars’ spin axis relative to
Planet V. This was NOT internal “polar wan- Approximately 12 hours since the collision
der” relative to surface features, but an entire of Planet’s K and V had now elapsed.
change of the obliquity of Mars (spin axis tilt)
relative to Planet V. The effects on Mars of such an unimagin-
able collision/explosion “right next door”
After initiating this first major change in would not be limited to massive, visible im-
Mars’ orientation in perhaps several hundred pacts on the surface. The effects of countless
million years, Planet K continued inward to- megatons of smaller, accelerated mantle and
ward it’s catastrophic rendezvous with Planet core material from Planet’s K and V, entering
V. This impact initiated an almost inconceiv- the Martian atmosphere at hypersonic speeds,
able release of energy – the equivalent of Van would literally superheat that atmosphere and
Flandern’s EPH explosion – and the shattered then blow a major fraction of it into space.
fragments of the crust of both worlds, accel- Any surface waters would literally boil from
erated by the enormous blast, began their the shockwaves and radiant heating of incom-
spherical, outward journey through the solar ing high-velocity debris, and a major fraction
system. Some of them, a tiny fraction of the of that water would then join the atmosphere
total mass of both exploding planets, in the in its escape. With the immediate loss of a
space of a few hours eventually reached significant percentage of the atmosphere,
Mars. But, by the time the first major wave temperatures on the surface would plummet,
of fragments had arrived, Mars had tipped resulting in any remaining liquid water
over by some ~60 degrees, presenting almost quickly freezing. Shallow underground res-
the entire southern hemisphere to the “explo- ervoirs would remain liquid for a longer in-
sion.” That’s why the “line of dichotomy” is terval, before also becoming ice.
tilted by that ~60 degrees, relative to Mars
spin axis. In fact, as Mars continued to heel It is a “snapshot” of these bi-modal, for-
over and larger, slower fragments continued merly flash frozen water concentrations at the
to arrive, this was when the material which moment of catastrophe – the locations of the
partially covered Arabia Terra reached the two former Martian tidal oceans -- that the
15TIDAL BULGES ON MARS: R.C. Hoagland and M. H. Bara
current “stain images” now seem to be con- For Mars presents us with a greater para-
firming. dox than sulfur. We must ask a far more ba-
sic question: why is it so red? Mars redness,
Chemical Signatures of a Collision we now know from TES data,39 results from
Event - Several current geochemical puzzles the extensive drifts of iron oxide strewn
regarding Mars are solved with the introduc- across the surface. A fundamental question
tion of this “Martian satellite model.” When then becomes: if the original iron source was
Viking carried out the first insitu surface metallic iron, from the exploding/colliding
composition measurements in 1976, one of planets’ cores, where did the free oxygen
the puzzling results was an unusually high come from to eventually oxidize that iron
percentage of sulfur in the soil. Compared to down on Mars? Even primordial free oxygen,
an average surface abundance on Earth of capable of oxidizing iron in geological strata
0.07%, Viking reported a Mars sulfur abun- termed “banded-iron formations” and “red
dance of over 3% -- 43 times more. Simi- beds” on Earth, it is agreed, derived from one
larly, iron on the surface of the Earth is 3.8%, main source: growing biological activity.40
while on the surface of Mars it measures over
15%.37 In the iron-rich, rusted sands of Mars, are
we seeing striking evidence of similar bio-
Models for planetary formation generally logical activity? Did the “rain of iron” falling
agree that iron and a host of other “heavy from the sky from the destruction of Planet V
elements” sink to the centers of newly form- encounter an atmosphere containing copious
ing worlds to form high-temperature cores.38 free oxygen – bringing to a tragic end a bio-
Another generally agreed upon core constitu- logical “Garden of Eden” era for the captured
ent, present to approximately 10%, is sulfur – Mars?
as FeS. In the awesome collision of two such
massive planetary bodies, it is inevitable that Mars Global Surveyor surface composition
copious amounts of these high-temperature data indicates another major surface anomaly
materials would be ejected directly into on Mars that supports this tidal model. Using
space. It is our proposal in this paper that not the information from TES, Robert N. Clarke
only did this occur, but that Mars swept up and Todd M. Hoefen, of the U.S. Geological
precisely these abundant core materials; Survey, have reported the identification of
which is why they now exhibit such unusual widespread abundances of olivine [(Mg, Fe)2
and misleading abundances in the surface SiO4] on the Martian surface (Figure 22).41
materials mantling the planet. As olivine (an iron-magnesium silicate)
quickly weathers into other minerals in the
Recent Surveyor composition data from presence of liquid water, its surprising abun-
the Thermal Emission Spectrometer (TES) dance according to all conventional Mars
has revealed that this anomalous sulfur is in models would indicate that the planet has
the form of sulfates, as opposed to iron sul- been “cold and dry” for the last several billion
fide – the form of the original FeS we are years. It’s widespread presence, according to
proposing. It is obvious, in our model, that Clark, seems to effectively preclude former
the original FeS falling out of space became models of a “warmer, wetter Mars.”
oxidized, turning into sulfates. A similar fate
seems to have befallen the anomalous iron Our interpretation is quite different: that
that also rained on Mars from this catastro- the source of Mars’ olivine (like its anoma-
phe. lous iron and sulfur) is totally external -- also
coming from the destruction of Planet V,
16rather than from conventional internal ancient fundamental problem. On a planet otherwise
volcanism. exhibiting abundant evidence of extensive
water flows and its attendant weathering of
Because olivine is thought to be a major olivine, how can the current surface distribu-
component of the mantles of the inner tion of this mineral support an ancient south-
“rocky” planets, its dispersion into space in a ern hemisphere? The answer is: it can’t.
major planetary collision would be inevitable. Thus, we take this wide-spread olivine as
Like the anomalous presence of iron and sul- strong confirmation that a) the source of this
fur in the Martian surface soils (in our model, material is new, and b) is external to Mars’
from the collisionally-exposed planetary underlying landscape; more precisely, that it’s
cores), we now propose that the unexpected simply accreted mantle material from the dis-
global abundance of olivine is also precisely integration of Planet’s K& V.
in accord with the hypothesis presented here:
that a collision/explosion of two major Earth- Point number two: by overlaying Pal-
type planets released enormous quantities of ermo’s “stain global distribution” with the
mantle material directly into space. And that USGS TES mineral map from Clark and Hoe-
Mars inevitably swept up a significant fen, we can easily assess the second correla-
amount of this rapidly condensed material. tion. As one can see (Figure 23), the “water
Because Mars’ climate radically changed stain” image clusters occupy – almost exclu-
immediately after this Event, and its remain- sively – areas with little or no olivine. This is
ing water froze, the presence of large quanti- also entirely consistent with the model we’ve
ties of unweathered olivine on Mars can only proposed, that these stains are evidence of
be another striking signature of. Mars’ former current, extensive, ground-based liquid water.
existence as a satellite of Planet V -- which
(the olivine confirms) was then catastrophi- Further corroborating evidence for this
cally destroyed. dramatic sequence of events comes from ad-
ditional TES data. As reported in
If our model is correct, there should be SCIENCE,42 two distinct surface spectral sig-
two additional observations strongly support- natures have now been identified on Mars
ing this assertion. First, the olivine that TES from low-albedo regions of the planet. Com-
detected should be primarily concentrated in parisons with spectra of terrestrial rock sam-
the areas defined as being from the blast wave ples indicate that the two compositions are a
pattern of Planet V’s destruction. Second, the basaltic mix dominated by plagioclase feld-
current water “stains” should cluster in areas spar and clinopyroxene, and an andesitic
with low current olivine detection. (silicic) composition dominated by plagio-
clase feldspar and volcanic glass. The distri-
Point number one: examination of the bution of these two distinct mineral composi-
global olivine distribution map from TES tions is, again, split roughly along the plane-
(Figure 22), shows that over 90% of this im- tary dichotomy line. The basaltic composi-
portant mineral is concentrated in areas south tion is confined to the heavily cratered terrain
of the “line of dichotomy” on Mars – where in the south, and the more silicic composition
impact debris from Planet V is also concen- is concentrated in the northern plains.
trated. Again, olivine in this amount would
normally be found in unweathered volcanic This separation of Mars into two distinct
fields newly erupted from the planetary man- mineralogical regimes, composed now of two
tle. Since the standard model for explaining very different surface materials – one consid-
Mars’ heavily cratered southern hemisphere ered “primitive” (because the chemistry is
assumes a very ancient surface, this presents a simple), and the other “complex” (because its
17You can also read
