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Chinese Journal of Natural Medicines 2021, 19(7): 505-520
doi: 10.1016/S1875-5364(21)60050-X
•Review•
A systematic review of pharmacological activities, toxicological
mechanisms and pharmacokinetic studies on Aconitum alkaloids
MI LiΔ, LI Yu-ChenΔ, SUN Meng-Ru, ZHANG Pei-Lin, LI Yi*, YANG Hua*
State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, School of Traditional Chinese Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing
210009, China
Available online 20 Jul., 2021
[ABSTRACT] The tubers and roots of Aconitum (Ranunculaceae) are widely used as heart medicine or analgesic agents for the treat-
ment of coronary heart disease, chronic heart failure, rheumatoid arthritis and neuropathic pain since ancient times. As a type of natur-
al products mainly extracted from Aconitum plants, Aconitum alkaloids have complex chemical structures and exert remarkable biolo-
gical activity, which are mainly responsible for significant effects of Aconitum plants. The present review is to summarize the progress
of the pharmacological, toxicological, and pharmacokinetic studies of Aconitum alkaloids, so as to provide evidence for better clinical
application. Research data concerning pharmacological, toxicological and pharmacokinetic studies of Aconitum alkaloids were collec-
ted from different scientific databases (PubMed, CNKI, Google Scholar, Baidu Scholar, and Web of Science) using the phrase Acon-
itum alkaloids, as well as generic synonyms. Aconitum alkaloids are both bioactive compounds and toxic ingredients in Aconitum
plants. They produce a wide range of pharmacological activities, including protecting the cardiovascular system, nervous system, and
immune system and anti-cancer effects. Notably, Aconitum alkaloids also exert strong cardiac toxicity, neurotoxicity and liver toxicity,
which are supported by clinical studies. Finally, pharmacokinetic studies indicated that cytochrome P450 proteins (CYPs) and efflux
transporters (ETs) are closely related to the low bioavailability of Aconitum alkaloids and play an important role in their metabolism
and detoxification in vivo.
[KEY WORDS] Aconitum alkaloids; Pharmacological activities; Toxicity; Pharmacokinetics
[CLC Number] R284, R917 [Document code] A [Article ID] 2095-6975(2021)07-0505-16
sites in their structures, aconitines can be further classified in-
Introduction to diester-diterpenoid alkaloids (DDAs), monoester-diterpen-
Aconitum alkaloids are bioactive components with com- oid alkaloids (MDAs), and hydramine diterpenoid alkaloids
plex chemical structures that mostly exist in plants of the two (HDAs) [9-11]. With the sequential hydrolysis of ester bonds at
genera Aconitum and Delphinium [1, 2], including the charac- C8 and C14, their toxicity was substantially reduced [12, 13]. In
contrast, C18-diterpene alkaloids are the least distributed
teristic active and toxic components of diterpene alkaloids.
Aconitum alkaloids, and classified into lappaconitines and
According to their chemical skeletons, diterpene
ranaconitines [14-16]. Compared with lappaconitines, the hydro-
alkaloids can be divided into C18-, C19-, and C20-diterpene al-
gen at C7 site of ranaconitines was substituted by oxygen-
kaloids, and their chemical structures are presented in
containing groups. Furthermore, the chemical skeletons of
Fig. 1. C19-Diterpene alkaloids, the main types of Aconitum C20-type diterpene alkaloids are complex and diverse, with
alkaloids, include aconitines [3], lycoctonines [4], pyro-types [5], the common structural types of hetisines [17, 18], hetidines [19],
rearranged-types [6], 7, 17-seco-types [7], and lactone types [8]. atisines [20], denudatines [21], veatchines [22] and napellines [23].
Based on the esterification of hydroxyl groups at C8 and C14 For exmaple, songorine is a typical active napelline-type C20-
diterpene alkaloid extracted from Aconitum carmichaeli [24].
[Received on] 23-Jan.-2021 A large number of studies have confirmed that Aconitum
[Research funding] This work was supported by the National Natur- alkaloids are the characteristic bioactive components of
al Science Foundation of China (No. 81673592). Aconitum species, which exhibit substantial analgesic, anti-
[*Corresponding author] E-mail: liyi20087598@163.com (LI Yi); inflammatory, antioxidant and anti-tumor activities [25, 26].
Tel/Fax: 86-25-8327-1220, E-mail: yanghuacpu@126.com (YANG
Hua) However, due to a narrow therapeutic window, they may
∆
These authors contributed equally to this work. cause toxicity to the heart, liver, muscle tissues and nervous
These authors have no conflict of interest to declare. system [27, 28]. Thus, the use of Aconitum in herbal prepara-
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13 13 12
16 12 16
12 14 11 13
17 17 20 16 17
14 1 10
1 10 1 9 14
2 2 9 8
9 11 2 15
R 11 15 R N 8 15 R N 10
N 8 3
3 4 5 4 5 3 4 7
7 5
6 7 6 6
18 19 18 19
R R 18
C18-diterpene alkaloids C19-diterpene alkaloids C20-diterpene alkaloids
aconitine type napelline type
H OH O
O
O O O
O O
OH
R1 N OH
N
OH O OH
R2
O O O O N
O
H OH
N
O
Lappaconitine Acotinine R1 = C2H5 R2 = OH Songorine
Mesacotinine R1 = CH3 R2 = OH
Hypacotinine R1 = CH3 R2 = H
Fig. 1 Classification, general structures and numbering systems for C18-, C19- and C20-diterpenen alkaloids and chemical struc-
tures of classical diterpene alkaloids
tions is limited in Europe and the United States [29]. In recent kaloids, so as to provide evidence for further development
years, to elucidate the absorption and metabolism character- and clinical application of Aconitum drugs.
istics of active or toxic alkaloids in the body, pharmacokinet-
Pharmacological Activities of Aconitum Alkaloids
ic studies have been widely performed, which indicate that
Aconitum alkaloids can be quickly absorbed and widely dis- Effects on the cardiovascular system
tributed in the body [30]. But the bioavailability of Aconitum Aconitum plants have long been used for the treatment of
alkaloids is extremely low, while highly toxic alkaloids can heart failure and poor circulation [29, 34], and Aconitum alkal-
be converted into less toxic metabolites and soluble derivat- oids are the main active ingredients for cardioprotective ef-
ives [31, 32], playing an important role in their metabolism and fects (Table 1). For instance, Fuzi total alkaloid (FTA) signi-
detoxification in vivo. ficantly decreased myocardial damage and infract size in rats
Recently, many efforts have been devoted to reviewing with myocardial infraction, which stabilized the cardiomyo-
the phytochemical characteristics of Aconitum and its active cyte membrane structure through improving myocardial en-
components as well as related pharmacological activity and ergy metabolic abnormalities, phospholipids levels and distri-
bution patterns [35]. Moreover, fuziline and neoline showed
analytical methods. For instance, Zhou et al. [26] presented an
pronounced activity against pentobarbital sodium induced
investigation concerning the safety application of Aconitum
damage in cardiomyocytes, which was characterized in re-
by summarizing the phytochemical and pharmacological
stored beating rhythm and improved cell vitality [36]. C19-
activity and toxicity of Aconitum. Furthermore, Elshazly M et
Diterpenoid alkaloids such as mesaconine, hypaconine and
al. [33] focused on liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry
beiwutinine showed remarkable cardiac effects on the isol-
analysis of Aconitum and its Chinese herbal medicine. Wu et
ated bullfrog hearts. Notably, the protective effects of mesa-
al. [32] illuminated the application of Fuzi as personalized conine were achieved by improving the inotropic effect and
medicine from the respect of pharmacokinetics. So far, there left ventricular diastolic function in rats with myocardial
has been no comprehensive and systematic review of Acon- ischemia-reperfusion injury [37]. Higenamine, a benzyltetrahy-
itum alkaloids. Therefore, in the current review, we summar- droisoquinoline alkaloid, showed inhibitory effects on both
ize the up-dated, comprehensive, and systematic information human and rat platelet aggregation, which was achieved by
about the pharmacological activity and toxicity of Aconitum increasing the recovery rate in a mouse model of acute throm-
alkaloids in the cardiovascular system, nervous system, liver, bosis, and lowering the weight of thrombus in an arterio-ven-
and other organs, as well as the absorption and metabolic ous shunt (AV-shunt) rat model[38]. Meanwhile, higenamine
characteristics of Aconitum alkaloids, and discuss the toxicity- was proved to increase the fibrinogen level, decrease fibrino-
efficacy relationship and pharmacokinetics of Aconitum al- gen/fibrin degradation product (FDP) level and prothrombin
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Table 1 Effects of Aconitum alkaloids on the cardiovascular system
Component/Dose/Duration Cell type/Animal model Effects Mechanisms Ref.
Improve myocardial energy metabolic
Radix Aconiti Lateralis Preparata
abnormalities, change phospholipids
extract (RAE) and Fuzi total Rats with myocardial Anti-myocardial
levels and distribution patterns, and [35]
alkaloid (FTA) 1.6, 0.8, and 0.4 infarction infarction effect
stabilize the structure of cardiomyocyte
g·kg−1 for 14 d
membrane
Against pentobarbital
Fuziline and neoline 10, 1, and Neonatal rat Recover beating rhythm and increase
sodium induced damage [36]
0.1 μmol·L−1 for 24 h cardiomyocytes cell viability
in cardiomyocytes
Mesaconine and hypaconine 5 Optimal cardiac action on
mg·mL−1 for 30 s (isolated Isolated bullfrog isolated bullfrog hearts
Increase the average rate of amplitude,
bullfrog hearts), 1 nmol·L−1 for 10 hearts,and isolated rat and inhibiting myocardial
and improve the inotropic effect and [37]
min (isolated rat hearts), and hearts after ischemia- ischemia-reperfusion
left ventricular diastolic function
beiwutinine 5 mg·mL−1 for 30 s reperfusion injury in isolated rat
(isolated bullfrog hearts) hearts (measconine)
ADP, collagen and Inhibit epinephrine-induced platelet
epinephrine-induced aggregation, increase the recovery rates
Antiplatelet aggregation
Higenamine 50 and 100 mg·kg−1 human and rat platelet from acute thrombotic challenge in
and anti-thrombotic [38]
for 3 d (mice) aggregation, and collagen mice, and lower the weight of thrombus
effects
and epinephrine induced within the arteriovenous shunt (AV-
acute thrombosis in mice shunt) tube of rats
Ameliorate the decrease of fibrinogen
A disseminated Therapeutic potential for level in plasma, increase
Higenamine 10, and 50 mg·kg−1
intravascular coagulation DIC and/or accompanying fibrinogen/fibrin degradation product [39]
for 10 d
(DIC) model in rats multiple organ failure (FDP) level and prolong prothrombin
time (PT)
Mesaconitine 30 mmol·L−1 for Stimulate Ca2+ influx via the Na+/Ca2+
Rat aorta Relaxation in the aorta [40]
0−40 min exchangers in endothelial cells
Oxidized low-density
Hypaconitine 24, 48, and 90 Suppress the apoptosis of The histone deacetylase-HMGB1
lipoprotein (oxLDL) [41]
μmol·L−1 for 21 h endothelial cells pathway
induced endothelial cells
C19-Diterpenoid alkaloids 2.5 or 5
Structure-cardiac activity
mg·mL−1 for 30 s or 10 Isolated bullfrog hearts Increase the average rate of amplitude [42, 43]
relationship
mmol·mL−1 for 30 s
time (PT) in a model of disseminated intravascular coagula- teristic active components of Fuzi, are multi-targeted, which
tion (DIC) in rats[39]. Mesaconitine, as another active Acon- are achieved by restoring myocardial cells vitality, improv-
itum alkaloid, induced vasorelaxation in the aorta of rats ing the inotropic effect and left ventricular diastolic function,
through promoting Ca2+ influx and activating nitric-oxide and inhibiting platelet aggregation. Therefore, the clinical ap-
synthase [40]. Furthermore, hyaconitine targeted the histone plication of Fuzi and Aconitum drugs in the treatment of car-
deacetylase-high mobility group box-1 pathway to inhibit the diovascular diseases is closely related to the cardiotonic bio-
oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL)-induced apoptos- activity of Aconitum alkaloids.
is of endothelial cells [41]. According to the structure-activity Effects on the nervous system
relationship data, the structures of Aconitum alkaloids neces- The nervous system can monitor and respond to the
sary for cardiac activity included an α-methoxyl or hydroxyl changes in the internal and external environment, participate
group at C-1, a hydroxyl group at C-8 and C-14, α-hydroxyl in critical physiological processes such as learning, memory,
group at C-15, and a secondary amine or N-methyl group in cognition and initiate all autonomous movements [44, 45]. A
ring A. Additionally, an α-hydroxyl group at C-3 also con- large number of studies have confirmed that Aconitum alkal-
tributed to cardiac activity [42, 43]. oids exert remarkable protective effects on the nervous sys-
Fuzi is the processed lateral roots of Aconitum carmi- tem (Table 2). Neuropathic pain is a highly debilitating
chaeli Debx. (Ranunculaceae), and has been used in tradition- chronic pain directly caused by various lesions or diseases af-
al Chinese medicine for the treatment of chronic heart failure, fecting the somatosensory nervous system [46], which is char-
hypotension, coronary heart disease and acute myocardial in- acterized by spontaneous ongoing pain and hyperalgesia [47].
farction owing to its remarkable effects of restoring yang and Aconitum plants have been widely used for analgesia since
saving adversity [29]. A large number of studies have shown ancient time. C18-Diterpenoid alkaloids (weisaconitines D)
that the cardiotonic effects of Aconitum alkaloids, the charac- isolated from Aconitum weixiense and two sulfonated C20-
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Table 2 Effects of Aconitum alkaloids on the nervous system
Component/Dose/Duration Cell type/Animal model Effects Mechanisms Ref.
Weisaconitines D 50, 100 and A mouse model of Inhibit acetic acid-induced
Analgesic activity [48]
200 mg·kg−1 CH3COOH-induced writhing writhing in mice
Aconicatisulfonines A and B 0.1, 0.3 Inhibit acetic acid-induced
Acetic acid-induced mice Analgesic activity [49]
and 1.0 mg·kg−1 writhing in mice
A mouse model of
Prolong the time before
Songorine, napelline, mesaconitine, acetylcholine cramp and
manifestation of nociceptive
hypaconitine and 12-epinapelline N- inflammatory hyperalgesia Analgesic activity [50]
reaction and reduce the number
oxide 0.025 mg·kg−1 for 5 d induced by naloxone Freund’
of cramps
s adjuvant
Hot-plate method induced Improve the results of the hot-
Guiwuline 15 mg·kg−1 Analgesic activity [51]
mice plate test in mice (55 °C)
Alleviate the oxaliplatin-induced
Dorsal root ganglion neurons Alleviate neuropathic reduction of neurite elongation
Neoline 6 mg·kg−1·d−1 for 5 and 7 d [52]
isolated from normal mice pain and inhibit the induction of
mechanical and cold hyperalgesia
Ameliorate the mechanical
Neoline 10 mg·kg−1·d−1 for 7, 9 and A mouse model of Relieve neuropathic
threshold of von Frey test and [53]
21 d mechanical allodynia pain
eural plasticity
A mouse model of CCI- Stimulate the expression of
Isotalatizidine 0.1, 0.3 and 1 mg·kg−1 Attenuate the
induced neuropathic pain, microglial dynorphin A mediated
for 30 min, 1, 2 and 4 h; hypersensitivity of [54]
and BV-2 and primary by the ERK/CREB signaling
isotalatizidine 25 μmol·L−1 for 1 h somatic pain
microglial cells pathway
A rat model of neuropathic
Lappaconitine 0.3, 0.7, 2 and pain and bone cancer pain, Antihypersensitivity Stimulate the expression of spinal
[55]
7 mg·kg−1 for 1 h interval primary microglial cells and in chronic pain microglial dynorphin A
neurons
A rat model of neuropathic
Bulleyaconitine A 10, 30, 100, 300 Block painful Activate spinal k-opioid receptors
pain and bone cancer pain,
and 1000 ng for 1 h (rat) or 100 neuropathy caused by and stimulate the expression of [56]
primary neuron and glial
nmol·L−1 for 2 h (cell) the spinal nerve dynorphin A in spinal microglia
cells
Adjuvant for
Bulleyaconitine A 10 μmol·L−1 for Inhibit Nav1.7 and Nav1.8 Na+
HEK293t cells prolonged cutaneous [57]
3 ms currents
analgesia
Block tetrodotoxin-sensitive
Bulleyaconitine A 5 nmol·L−1 for Antineuropathic pain voltage-gated sodium (Nav1.7
Dorsal root ganglion neurons [58]
15 min effect and Nav1.3) in dorsal root
ganglion neurons
Treat chronic pain
Bulleyaconitine A 10 μmol·L−1 for
Clonal GH3 cells and rheumatoid Reduce neuronal Na+ currents [59]
4 ms
arthritis
Pyroaconitine, ajacine,
Potential anti-
septentriodine, and delectinine 10 CHO cells Inhibit Nav1.2 channel [60]
epileptic activity
μmol·L−1 for 8 ms
Aconorine and lappaconitine 50, 75
and 100 μmol·L−1 for 15 min;
heteratisine and hetisinone 50, 75,
Cholinesterase
100, and 125 μg·mL−1 for 30 min; ACh and BCh - [64, 65, 67]
inhibitory effect
heterophyllinine A and
heterophyllinine B 0.2 mmol·L−1 for
15 min
Hemsleyaline IC50 471 ± 9 μmol·L−1
for 30 min; kirisine G, kirisine H, Acetylcholinesterase
ACh - [15, 66]
gigaconitine and aconicarmichinium inhibitory effects
C 10 μL for 30 min
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Continued
Component/Dose/Duration Cell type/Animal model Effects Mechanisms Ref.
Higenamine augments the
release of both nerve- Higenamine increases ACh release
Higenamine 10 μmol·L−1 evoked and spontaneous through activation of β-adrenoeptor and
Mouse phrenic nerve-
and cnryneine 100 ACh, and muscle tension. cnryneine and depresses ACh release [68]
diaphragm preparation
μmol·L−1 Coryneine reducea the by preferentially acting at the motor
nerve-evoked release of nerve terminal
ACh
Activate voltage-dependent Na+
Mechanically dissociated
Modulate the membrane channels, depolarize the presynaptic
Aconitine 3 × 10−6 mol·L−1 ventromedial
excitability of VMH membrane, activate voltage-dependent [69]
per 10 s hypothalamic (VMH)
neurons in rats Ca2+ channels and increase
neurons in rats
intraterminal Ca2+ concentration
Correct scopolamine- Improve conditioned passive avoidance
Songorine 5, 25, and 100 Scopolamine-traumatized
induced abnormalities of response (CPAR) and normalize [70]
μg·kg−1 for 5 d mice
mnestic function behavior activities
Albino outinbred mature
Reduce the time of immobilization in
Napelline and songorine, female mice and a mouse Antidepressant and
the tail suspension test and modulate [75]
0.025 mg·kg−1 for 5 d model of serotonin- antiexudative effects
the sensitivity to serotonin
induced edema
Diterpenoid alkaloids from
the roots of Aconitum With remarkable disaggregation
- Neroprotective activity [76]
pendulum Busch 25 potency on the Aβ1−42 aggregates
μmol·L−1
Anti-rheumatic, anti- Attenuate ATP-induced BV-2 microglia
Bullatine A 1, 10, 20 and
ATP-induced BV-2 cells inflammatory and anti- death/apoptosis via the P2X receptor [77]
50 μmol·L−1 for 24 h
nociceptive effects pathway
Diterpenoid alkaloids from
the Lateral Root of Serum deprivation- Treat neurodegenerative
Increase cell viability [78]
Aconitum carmichaelii 10 induced PC12 cells disorders
μmol·L−1
Triton-treated synaptic
Enhance the excitatory Activate the D2 receptor (for excitation)
Songorine 0.1−300 membranes of CA1
synaptic transmission in and block the postsynaptic GABAA [79]
mmol·L−1 hippocampal neurons in
rat hippocampus receptor (for disinhibition)
rats
Increase the number of punished drinks
Songorine 0.25 and 2.5
Vogel’s conflict test Anxiolytic activity and produce higher values of behavioral [80]
mg·kg−1 for 5 d
activity parameters
Dissociated CA1 Delay rectifier K+ channel in rat
Talatisamine 300 μmol·L−1 Alzheimer’s disease [81]
pyramidal neurons hippocampal neurons
diterpenoid alkaloid iminiums isolated from a water extract effects by activating the ERK1/2-CREB pathway and mediat-
of the Aconitum carmichaelii lateral roots produced obvious ing the expression of dynorphin A in microglia cells [54]. An-
analgesic activities against acetic acid-induced mice writh- other research proved that lappaconitine and bulleyaconitine
ing [48, 49]. Diterpene alkaloids extracted from Aconitum A exerted anti-hypersensitivity in spinal nerve ligation-in-
baikalensis presented substantial analgesic effects on the duced neuropathic rats through stimulating spinal microglia
naloxone-induced acetylcholine cramp model and rats with to express dynorphin A [55, 56]. In addition, bulleyaconitine A
inflammatory hyperalgesia induced by Freund’s adjuvant [50]. also played a role in anti-neuropathic pain via blocking
Furthremore, a novel franchetine type of norditerpenoid, Nav1.7 and Nav1.3 channels to reduce the hyper-excitability
which was isolated from the roots of Aconitum carmichaeli of dorsal root ganglion neurons caused by nerve injury [57, 58].
Debx, showed potential analgesic activity and less toxi- Bulleyaconitine A also displayed long-acting local anesthetic
city [51]. Neoline, the active ingredient in processed aconite properties both in vitro and in vivo, and often used in the
root, alleviated oxaliplatin-induced murine peripheral neuro- treatment of chronic pain [59]. Diterpene alkaloids isolated
pathy [52] and mechanical hyperalgesia induced by partial liga- from the roots of Aconitum moldavicum showed significant
tion of the sciatic nerve [53]. Isotalatizidine exerted analgesic inhibitory effects on the Nav 1.2 channel [60], suggesting po-
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tential anti-epileptic activity. delayed rectifier K+ channels in rat hippocampal neurons,
The cholinergic system is a major constituent of the cent- which was beneficial for Alzheimer’s treatment [81].
ral nervous system, which is closely related to learning, Aconitum has also been widely used as analgesic and an-
memory and sensory information [61, 62]. Acetylcholine (ACh) tispasmodic drugs since ancient times, and Aconitum alkal-
is the neurotransmitter used by cholinergic neurons at the oids exert prominent central analgesic effects without addic-
neuromuscular junctions and in the spinal cord, memory-re- tion, which are considered as the potential active ingredients
lated circuits in the brain and parasympathetic nerve termin- of new analgesics. At present, Wutou decoction and Shenfu
als, which plays a crucial role in the peripheral and central injection show significant therapeutic effects on angina pec-
nervous systems [62, 63]. Acetylcholinesterase can degrade acet- toris and pain of joints [29, 82]. In addition, Aconitum alkaloids,
ylcholine, block the excitatory effect of neurotransmitters on as a type of naturally active ingredients with significant anti-
the post-synaptic membrane, and ensure the normal transmis- cholinesterase activity and neuroprotective effect, have
sion of nerve signals [62]. According to recent reports, diter- shown potential therapeutic effects on a variety of nervous
penoid alkaloids in Aconitum such as aconorine, lappaconit- system diseases, and their clinical therapeutic effects remains
ine, and heteratisine exerted significant anti-cholinesterase to be further studied.
activity [64, 65]. In addition, the new diterpenoid alkaloids isol- Effect on the immune system
ated from Aconitum also showed probable inhibitory effects The immune system, consisting of immune organs, im-
against cholinesterase [66, 67]. Moreover, the four diterpenoid mune cells and immune factors, is a major defense mechan-
alkaloids extracted from the roots of Aconitum kirinense Na- ism to protect host homeostasis against the invasion of patho-
kai exhibited moderate anti-acetylcholinesterase activity and gens, toxins, and allergens. However, if the immune system
neuroprotective activity [15]. Interestingly, higenamine pro- cannot distinguish between itself and non-self, it will cause
moted the release of ACh via activating β-adrenoeptor, while excessive damage to own tissues [83, 84], resulting in autoim-
cnryneine preferentially acted at motor nerve terminals to in- mune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus [85],
hibit ACh release, exerting antagonistic effects on the release of rheumatoid arthritis [86], and cold agglutinin disease [87]. The
ACh [68]. In addition, aconitine depolarized the presynaptic protective effect of Aconitum alkaloids on the immune sys-
membrane via activating voltage-dependent Na+ channels, tem has been extensively studied (Table 3).
and enhanced the spontaneous transmitter release of the pre- A large volume of studies indicated that Aconitum diter-
synaptic nerve terminals by activating voltage-dependent pene alkaloids partly inhibited the proliferation and NO pro-
Ca2+ channels, which played an important role in modulating duction in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells [88-92]. Aconitine in-
the membrane excitability of ventromedial hypothalamic hibited RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation and the ex-
(VMH) neurons in rats [69]. Repeated administration of son- pression of osteoclast-specific genes via suppressing NF-κB
gorine improved conditioned passive avoidance response and NFATc1 activation in RAW264.7 cells [93]. What’s more,
(CPAR) conditioning and normalized behavioral activities total alkaloids of Aconitum tanguticum improved the patholo-
throughout the entire observation period, thereby correcting gical changes in the lungs, and reduced inflammatory cell in-
scopolamine-induced abnormality of mnestic function [70]. filtration and pro-inflammatory cytokine release via inhibit-
Neuroinflammation, chronic oxidative stress and neuron- ing the NF-κB activation in LPS-induced acute lung injury in
al damage contribute to the onset of neurodegenerative dis- rats [94]. 14-O-acetylneoline, isolated from Aconitum lacini-
eases such as Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease, atum, showed anti-inflammatory effect on colitis mice char-
amyotrophy lateral sclerosis as well as neuropsychiatric ill- acterized by decreasing weight loss, inhibiting macroscopic
nesses such as depression and autism spectrum disorder [71-74]. pathology and histological inflammation and reducing the
Current research confirmed that the diterpenoid alkaloids of colonic IFN-γ mRNA levels [95]. Moreover, Aconitum alkal-
Aconitum exhibited antidepressant properties through regulat- oid suppressed the proliferation and migration of SW982
ing the sensitivity to serotonin [75], and they also showed sig- cells through inhibiting Wnt-5a mediated JNK and NF-κB
nificant disaggregation potency on the Aβ1−42 aggregates, in- signaling pathways [96] and also inhibited ConA- and LPS-in-
dicating probable inhibitory effects against Alzheimer’s dis- duced splenocyte proliferation [97]. Benzoylaconitine sup-
ease [76]. Bullatine A, a diterpenoid alkaloid of the genus pressed IL-1β-induced expression of IL-6 and IL-8 via inhib-
Aconitum, attenuated ATP-induced BV2 microglia death/ap- iting the activation of the MAPK (ERK, JNK, and p38), Akt,
optosis via the P2X receptor pathway, thereby and NF-κB pathways in SW982 cells [98]. In type II collagen-
exerting neuroprotective effects [77]. Some other diterpene al- induced arthritis (CIA) mice, higenamine reduced the eleva-
kaloids extracted from the lateral root of Aconitum carmi- tion of clinical arthritis scores and inhibited inflammatory re-
chaelii also exerted neuroprotective effects [78]. For instance, actions, oxidation damage and caspase-3/9 activation, which
songorine was proved to be a non-competitive antagonist at was possibly related to the heme oxygenase (HO)1 and
the GABAA receptor in the brain of rat, which resulted in po- PI3K/Akt/Nrf2 signaling pathways [99]. In addition, higenam-
tential therapeutic effects on amyotrophy lateral sclerosis [79]. ine also increased myelin sparring and enhanced spinal cord
Moreover, songorine also exhibited significant anxiolytic repair process via promoting M2 activation macrophage, and
activity [80]. In addition, talatisamine was a potent blocker of reduced Hmgb1 expression dependent on HO-1 induction in
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Table 3 Effects of Aconitum alkaloids on the immune system
Component/Dose/Duration Cell type/Animal model Effects Mechanisms Ref.
Nagarine A 72.63 ± 0.39 μmol·L−1
LPS-induced RAW264.7
for 24 h; nagarine B 52.98 ± Anti-inflammation Inhibit the production of IL-6 [88]
cells
0.50 μmol·L−1 for 24 h
Bulleyanine A 10, 20 and LPS-induced RAW264.7
Anti-inflammation Inhibit the production of NO [89]
40 μmol·L−1 for 24 h cells
Carrageenan-induced
Mesaconitine, hypaconitine, acute inflammation in
Inhibit inflammation at various stage
napelline, songorine and 12- mice, histamine-induced
Anti-inflammation and show highly anti-exudative [90]
epinapelline N-oxide, inflammation in mice,
activity
0.025 mg·kg−1 for 5 d and acetic acid-induced
peritonitis in mice
Szechenyianine B, szechenyianine
C, N-deethyl-3-acetylaconitine,
LPS-induced RAW264.7
and N-deethyldeoxyaconitine Anti-inflammation Inhibit the production of NO [91]
cells
0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5 and
10 μmol·L−1 for 18 h
Zymosan activated
Lappaconitine and puberanine,
−1 serum-induced Anti-inflammation Inhibit the production of superoxide [92]
100 μg·mL for 30 min
neutrophils
Inhibit the RANKL-induced activation
Aconitine 0.125 and 0.25
RANKL-induced Inhibit RANKL-induced of NF-κB and NFATc1 and suppress
mmol·L−1 for 1, 2, 8, 24 h, [93]
RAW264.7 cells osteoclast differentiation the expression of osteoclast specific
4 d or 7 d
genes and DC-STAMP
Exhibit potent protective Increase the value of PaO2 or
Total alkaloids of Aconitum effects on LPS-induced PaO2/FiO2, decrease myeloperoxidase
LPS-induced acute lung
tanguticum 30 and 60 mg·kg−1 acute lung injury in rats activity and TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β [94]
injury in rats
for 6, 12 and 24 h through anti- leveles in BALF and inhibit NF-κB
inflammation activation in lung tissue
Significantly lower the clinical score,
14-O-acetylneoline 10, 20 and TNBS-induced colitis in Mitigate inflammation macroscopic pathology and grades of
[95]
50 μg for 3 d mice against ulcerative colitis histological inflammation and reduce
colonic IFN-γ mRNA level
Alkaloids extract removed Inhibit the mRNA expression of
lappaconitine from Aconiti Inhibit the proliferation Wnt5a, Runx2, Bmp2 and MMP3 and
Sinomontani Radix (MQB) 1, SW982 cells and migration of human inhibit the phosphorylation of JNK and [96]
10 and 20 μg·mL−1 for 12, 24 synovial fibroblast cells NF-κB p65 and the expression of
and 36 h MMP3
Szechenyianine E, 8-O-methyl-14-
Suppress immune for the
benzoylaconine,and spicatine A ConA-induced or LPS-
treatment of autoimmune Inhibit splenocyte proliferation [97]
0.16, 0.8, 4, 20 and 100 μmol·L−1 induced splenocytes
diseases
for 48 h
Inhibit the expression of IL-6 and IL-8
gene and protein, decrease the
Benzoylaconitine 5 and 10 A potential therapeutic activation of MAPK and the
IL-1β-stimulated SW982
μmol·L−1 for 1, 6, 12 and agent for rheumatoid phosphorylation of Akt and inhibit the [98]
cells
48 h arthritis treatment degradation of IκB-α and the
phosphorylation and nuclear
transposition of p65 protein
Resuppress inflammatory reactions,
−1 oxidation damage and caspase-3/9
Higenamine 10 mg·kg for Type II collagen induced Ameliorate collagen-
activation, increase HO-1 protein [99]
14 d arthritis mice induced arthritis
expression and upregulate of the
PI3K/Akt/Nrf-2 signaling pathway
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Continued
Component/Dose/Duration Cell type/Animal model Effects Mechanisms Ref.
Increase the expression of IL-4 and IL-
−1 Promote locomotor 10, promote M2 macrophage
Higenamine 5, 10 and 15 mg·kg A murine model of
function after spinal cord activation and reduce Hmgb1 [100]
for 1, 3, 7, 14, 28 and 42 d spinal cord injury
injury expression dependent on HO-1
induction
Decrease the blood leukocyte counts
and the level of anti-dsDNA antibody
Pristine-induced Improve the pathological
Aconitine 25 and 75 μg·kg−1 for in serum, ameliorate renal
systemic lupus damage of systemic [101]
9 weeks histopathologic damage, reduce IgG
erythematosus in mice lupus erythematosus
deposit in the glomerular and decrease
the levels of PGE2, IL-17a and IL-6
spinal cord injury mice [100]. Aconitine ameliorated the renal itum heterophyllum Wall were proved to have antibacterial
pathology through inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines and activity [118]. Carmichaedine, a new C20-diterpenoid alkaloid
inflammation in the kidneys, and decreasing blood leucocyte from the lateral roots of Aconitum carmichaeli, exhibited po-
counts and the level of anti-dsDNA antibody in serum in a tent antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis [119]. Mean-
pristane-induced murine model, which indicated that aconit- while, demethylenedelcorine and 18-O-methylgigactonine
ine is a potential compound for the treatment of systemic isolated from Aconitum sinomontanum Nakai were proved
lupus erythematosus [101]. with pesticidal activities against Mythimna separata [120]. Oth-
Anti-cancer effects er studies concluded that Aconitum alkaloids showed little in-
Diterpenoid alkaloids isolated from Aconitum plants hibitory effect on Escherichia coli and Helicobacter pylori,
have great potential to treat cancer in many in vitro experi- but exerted potential inhibitory effects on the growth of Sta-
ments (Table 4). Accumulating studies showed that Acon- phylococcus aureus [121, 122].
itum diterpenoid alkaloids were effective against prolifera- Moreover, tanguticulines A and E extracted from Acon-
tion in human cancer cell lines [102-108], which might be caused itum tanguticum inhibited H1N1-induced cytopathic changes,
by activation of p38 MAPK-, death receptor-, mitochondrial-, exhibiting obvious antivirus activities in vitro [123]. The major
caspase-meditated apoptosis [109]. C19 Diterpenoid alkaloids alkaloid from Aconitum orochryseum, atisinium chloride,
significantly inhibited the growth of HepG2 cells possibly proved moderate antiplasmodial activity against the TM4
through blocking the cell cycle at the G1/S phase, up-regulat- strain and the K1 strain of Plasmodium falciparum [124]. The
ing the expression of B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2)-associated mixture of diterpene alkaloids of Aconitum baicalense
X (Bax) and caspase-3 protein and down-regulating the ex- showed significant regenerative hemostimulating effects on a
pression of Bcl-2 and CCND1 [108, 110]. Furthermore, aconitine model of cytostatic myelosuppression, which were achieved
inhibited the proliferation of hepatocellular carcinoma cells in by activating hematopoietic progenitor cells [125]. Besides,
the context of ROS-induced mitochondrial-dependent apop- songorine stimulated the mitotic activity and differentiation
tosis [111]. Meanwhile, aconitine also up-regulated the expres- of mesenchymal progenitor cells through activating the
sion of cleaved-caspase-3, cleaved-caspase-9, and cleaved JAK/STAT signaling pathway [126]. Aconite alkaloids directly
poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase 1 (PARP1), which induced the stimulated the growth of fibroblasts, which might contribute
apoptosis in Miapaca-2 and Panc-1 cells, producing anti-hu- to reparative regeneration of the plane dorsal skin [127]. Acon-
man pancreatic cancer activity [112]. Hpyaconitine inhibited itum alkaloids also showed strong binding capacity to metal
transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1)-induced epithelia- ions and used as effective antioxidants [128, 129].
mesenchymal transition, and adhesion, migration and inva-
Toxicology of Aconitum Alkaloids
sion of lung cancer cells by inhibiting the NF-κB signaling
pathway [113]. Moreover, alkaloids from Aconitum taipeicum In addition to therapeutic activities, Aconitum alkaloids
showed anti-leukemia activity [114, 115]. Therefore, Aconitum have subsantial cardiotoxicity, neurotoxicity and liver tox-
alkaloids played potential inhibitory effects on many types of icity at high doses or for long-term use. A large number of
cancer. studies indicated that Aconitum diterpenoid alkaloids pos-
Other pharmacological effects sibly caused disordered ion channels and DNA damage, res-
Aconitum alkaloids also showed antimicrobial, antivirus, ulting in mitochondrial-induced cardiomyocyte apopto-
antiplasmodial, antioxidant and reparative activities. The new sis [130-132]. Aconitine, one of the most bioactive component of
C19-diterpene alkaloids extracted from Aconitum duclouxii Aconitum alkaloids, remarkably aggravated Ca2+ overload to
such as ducloudines C, D, E and F exhibited good biological induce arrhythmia and trigger apoptosis via the p38 MAPK
activities against pathogenic fungi and pathogenic bacte- signaling pathway in rat ventricular myocytes [133], and in-
ria [116, 117]. Norditerpenoid alkaloids from the roots of Acon- duced cardiotoxicity in zebrafish embryos [134]. Aconitine also
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Table 4 Anti-cancer effects of Aconitum alkaloids
Component/Dose/Duration Cell type/Animal model Effects Mechanisms Ref.
14-Benzoylaconine-8-
palmitate IC50 11.9, MCF-7, HepG2 and H460 cell Inhibit the proliferation of cancer
Anti-tumor [102]
27.6,and 31.8 μmol·L−1 lines cells
for 72 h
Sinchiangensine A, HL-60. A-549, SMCC-7721, Inhibit the proliferation of cancer
Anti-tumor [103]
lipodeoxyaconitine MCF-7 and SW480 cell lines cells
CT26. SW480, HeLa, SkMel25 Inhibit the proliferation of cancer
Aconitum alkaloids Anti-tumor [104]
and SkMel28 cell lines cells
Navicularine B IC50 13.50,
18.52, 17.22, 11.18 HL-60, SMMC-7721, A-549, Inhibit the proliferation of cancer
Anti-tumor [105]
and16.36 μmol·L−1, MCF-7 and SW480 cell lines cells
respectively
Anti-tumor activities
Inhibit the proliferation of cancer
Lipojesaconitine IC50 6 to A549, MDA-MB-231, MCF-7, except a
cells through possibly being [106]
7.3 μmol·L−1 for 72 h KB and KB-VIN cell lines multidirectional-
exported by P-glycoprotein
resistant subline
Delelatine IC50 4.36 Inhibit the proliferation of cancer
P388 cell line Anti-tumor [107]
μmol·L−1 for 72 h cells
Inhibit proliferation and
invasiveness, block the cell cycle
Taipeinine A 7.5, 15 and at the G1/S phase and up-regulate
Anti-tumor via
30 μmol·L−1 for 24, 48 HepG2 cell line the expression of Bax and caspase- [108]
apoptosis
and 72 h 3 protein anddown-regulate the
expression of Bcl-2 and CCND1
protein
Upregulate TNF-R1 and DR5
Anti-tumor through the
Aconitum szechenyianum through activation of p38 MAPK,
p38-MAPK, death
Gay alkaloids 100, 200, upregulate p53,
HepG2, HeLa and A549 cell lines receptor-, mitochondria- [109]
400, and 800 μg·mL−1 for and phosphorylate p53 and Bax,
and caspase-dependent
24 h Down-regulate Bcl-2 and activate
adoptive pathways
caspase 3/8/9
Aconitine, hypaconitine,
Inhibit the proliferation of cancer
mesaconitne HepG2 cell line Anti-tumor [110]
cells
andoxonitinefor 72 h
Release of cytochrome c from the
Inhibit the proliferation mitochondria, activate apoptosis,
Aconitine 25 and 50
HepG2, Huh7 and L02 cell lines of hepatocellular increase the cleavage of caspases [111]
μg·mL−1 for 72 h
carcinoma 3/7 and Bax protein level and
decrease Bcl-2 level
Up-regulate the expression of pro-
Aconitine 15, 30, and 60 apoptotic factors Bax, cl-caspase-
Miapaca-2, PANC-1 cells, Induce apoptosis in
μmol·L−1 for 48 h (cell); 3, cl-caspase-9, and cleaved
Miapaca-2 cells and, a xenograft human pancreatic [112]
and 50, and 100 mg·kg−1 PARP1 and decrease anti-
mouse model cancer
for 28 d (mice) apoptotic protein Bcl-2 and NF-
κB expression
Inhibit TGF-β1-induced u-
Inhibit the adhesion, pregulation of N-cadherin, NF-κB
Hypaconitine 2, 4 and
TGF-β1-induced A549 cells migration and invasion and inhibit TGF-β1-induced [113]
8 μmol·L−1 for 48 h
abilities of lung cancer adhesion, migration and invasion
abilities
Amide alkaloids from
Aconitum taipeicum; Inhibit the proliferation of cancer
HL60 and K562 cell lines Anti-leukaemia [114-115]
andditerpenoid alkaloids cells
from Aconitum taipeicum
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up-regulated a series of pro-apoptotic proteins including P53, was only 14.9%, which may be related to its low intestinal
BAX, and caspase-3 but down-regulated anti-apoptotic pro- permeability due to lack of lipophilicity or the inhibitory ef-
teins Bcl-2 and TnT, which induced cardiotoxicity in rat fect of P-gp [154, 155]. Moreover, the bioavailability of hypacon-
myocardial cells [133, 134]. Aconitine induced cardiomyocyte itine was also extremely low due to inhibition of P-gp [154].
damage via the mitochondria-mediated apoptosis path- After oral administration, benzoylmesaconine, benzoylacon-
way [135] and mitigated BNIP3-dependent mitophagy [136]. ine and benzoylhyaconine achieved the maximal plasma con-
Moreover, aconitine blocked HERG and Kvl.5 potassium centrations at 0.222, 0.306, and 0.222 h, respectively and
channels to induce arrhythmias [137]. Aconitine and mesaconit- their bioavailability was also very low due to the inhibitory
ine induced cardiotoxicity and apoptosis, and influenced the effect of P-gp [30,156]. In addition, the pharmacokinetics stud-
expression of cardiovascular relative genes including Tbx5, ies of urine and plasma samples from healthy subjects
Gata4, and Nkx2.5 in embryonic zebrafish [138]. As another showed that 94% of higenamine was excreted from the body
toxicalkaloid,hypaconitineinducedcardiotoxicitythroughinhibi- after administration within 30 min (approximately four half-
ting the KCNH2 (hERG) potassium channels in conscious lives) [157]. However, compared with aconitine and benzoylac-
dogs [139]. onine, aconine did not significantly increase the expression of
Notably, clinical reports also confirmed that improper in- P-gp in LS174T and caco-2 cells [158], and its transport was
take of aconite alkaloids might cause severe cardiotoxicity. not significantly differet in the presence of P-gp inhibitor, im-
Aconitum herbs with poor quality such as incompletely pro- plying that aconine might be absorbed through passive diffu-
cessing, poor quality of prescription such as overdose, inad- sion [30]. Additionally, Aconitum alkaloids significantly in-
equate boiling or dispensary errors [140, 141] and ‘hidden’ acon- creased the protein and mRNA levels of MRP2 and BCRP,
ite poisoning which refers to the toxicity caused by the con- which contributed to the safe application of Aconitum alkal-
taminants in other dispensed herbs are the main reasons for oids [12, 150, 159].
aconite poisoning [142]. Patients with aconite poisoning often Distribution
showed cardiotoxicity such as bidirectional ventricular tachy- Aconitum alkaloids were widely distributed in the body
cardia [143] and ventricular dysrhythmias [144], as well as pro- after oral administration. The amounts of toxic alkaloids were
longed hypotension and sinus bradycardia [145]. Acute aconite significantly higher in the liver and kidneys, and relatively
poisoning also induced myocardial infarction with elevated lower in the heart and blood, with only trace amounts in the
cardiac enzymes and chest tightness [146], and even caused brain due to the action of the blood-brain barrier [160-162]. The
death [147]. distribution data are useful to elucidate the pharmacokinetics
In addtion to cardiotoxicity, Aconitum alkaloids also process of Aconitum alkaloids in the body.
caused hepatoxicity and neurotoxicity, and aconitine pro- Metabolism
moted liver autophagy via the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling CYPs are abundant in the liver, kidneys, lungs and
pathway in mice [148]. Aconitine, mesaconitine and hypacon- gastrointestinal tract, which are responsible for metabolizing
tine possibly penetrated the blood-brain barrier (BBB) via a exogenous and endogenous compounds through hydroxyla-
proton-coupled organic cation antiporter and stimulated dyn- tion or oxidation [163]. As expected, CYPs are of great signi-
orphin A expression to cause anti-hypersensitivity [13], which ficance to the metabolism of Aconitum alkaloids, which
partly revealed the underlying mechanism of their severe can transform toxic compounds into more soluble derivatives,
neurotoxicity [149]. suitable for excretion from the body, thereby greatly redu-
cing toxicity [164, 165]. Aconitum alkaloids are mainly metabol-
Pharmacokinetic Studies of Aconitum Alkaloids
ized by CYP 3A4/5, and slightly metabolized by CYP 2C8,
Currently, the pharmacokinetic characteristics of Acon- 2C9, and 2D6 [166-168]. Further research found that the main
itum alkaloids are extensively investigated from the perspect- metabolic pathways of DDAs in the body were demethylation-
ive of absorption, distribution and metabolism. dehydrogenation and hydroxylation, which were more likely
Absorption to occur in human liver microsome (HLM) and intestine mi-
Efflux transporters, such as P-glycoprotein (P-gp), mul- crosome (HIM) incubations, while MDAs were mainly meta-
tidrug resistance-associated protein 2 (MRP2), and breast bolized by demethylation-dehydrogenation in HIM incuba-
cancer resistance protein (BCRP), play a major role in regu- tion [164, 165]. Aconitine was transformed into at least 6 meta-
lating the absorption of Aconitum alkaloids in the intesti- bolites through O-demethylation and N-demethylation in rat
ne [150]. Aconitine was rapidly eliminated with a short half-life liver microsomal incubations [31]. These results may contrib-
(i.v., 80.98 ± 6.40 min), and its total oral bioavailability was ute to the research of Aconitum alkaloid poisoning and meta-
only 8.23% ± 2.5% in rat plasma [151]. Further studies con- bolic detoxification.
firmed that P-gp was involved in poor intestinal absorption of
Conclusions and Future Perspectives
aconitine, resulting in reduced toxicity [30,152-154]. In a pharma-
cokinetics study using urine and fecal samples of SD rats, Aconitum alkaloids have been widely used as heart medi-
87.71% of mesaconine was excreted without changes after cine or analgesic agents for the treatment of coronary heart
oral administration. The oral bioavailability of mesaconine disease, chronic heart failure, rheumatoid arthritis and neuro-
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Aconitum alkaloids
Nervous system
Analgesic activity
Anti-epileptic activity Immune system
Acetylcholinesterase inhibitory effects
Antidepressant effect
Treat neurodegenerative disorders Anti-inflammation
Anxiolytic activity Inhibit osteoclast differentiation
A potential therapeutic agent for rheumatoid arthritis
Improve the pathological damage of systemic lupus
erythematosus
Cardiovascular system
Anti-cancer effect
Anti-myocardial infarction effect
Against cardiomyocytes damage
Inhibit myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury Anti-tumor
Anti-aggregating activities Inhibit the proliferation of hepatocellular carcinoma
Relaxation in the aorta Induce apoptosis in human pancreatic cancer
Inhibit adhesion, migration and invasion abilities of
lung cancer
Toxicology
Cardiotoxicity
Neurotoxicity
• Disorder ion channels
• Proton-coupled organic cation antiporter
• p38 MAPK signaling pathway
• Stimulate dynorphin A expression
• P53, BAX, caspase-3 ↑
• Bcl-2, TnT ↓ Liver toxicity
• Block HERG and Kvl.5 potassium channels • PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway
• Influence the expression of Tbx5, Gata4 and Nkx2.5
• Inhibit the KCNH2 (hERG) potassium channels
Fig. 2 Schematic representation of the pharmacological and toxicological effects and related molecular mechanisms of Acon-
itum alkaloids
pathic pain [98, 169-171]. This review summarizes the pharmaco- Abbreviations
logical and toxicological effects and related molecular mech-
ACh: Acetylcholine; AV-shunt: arterio-venous shunt;
anisms of Aconitum alkaloids in the past twenty years, with
Bax: B-cell lymphoma 2-associated X; BBB: blood-brain
the schema presented in Fig. 2. Aconitum alkaloids exert sig-
barrier; Bcl-2: B-cell lymphoma 2; BCRP: breast cancer res-
nificant protective effects on the cardiovascular system,
istance protein; CIA: collagen-induced arthritis; CPAR: con-
nervous system, and immune system as well as anti-cancer
ditioned passive avoidance response; CYPs: cytochrome
activity. However, due to a narrow therapeutic window,
P450 proteins; DDAs: diester-diterpenoid alkaloids; DIC: dis-
Aconitum alkaloids are easily to trigger strong cardiotoxicity,
seminated intravascular coagulation; ETs: efflux transporters;
neurotoxicity and liver toxicity, which restrict its practical
FDP: fibrinogen/fibrin degradation product; FTA: fuzi total
use. Therefore, the processing methods of Aconitum such as
decoction are commonly used to reduce toxicity, which is alkaloid; HDAs: hydramine diterpenoid alkaloids; HIM: hu-
also used in combination with dried ginger, licorice and gin- man intestine microsomes; HLM: human liver microsomes;
seng to form traditional Chinese medicine compound pre- HO: heme oxygenase; MDAs: monoester-diterpenoid alkal-
scriptions, such as Sini decoction and Shenfu decoction to oids; MRP2: multidrug resistance-associated protein; ox-
achieve decreasing toxic and synergic effects [29, 172]. LDL: oxidized low-density lipoprotein; PA: processed acon-
However, there are still some cases concerning poisoning in ite root; PARP1: poly ADP-ribose polymerase 1; P-gp: P-gly-
clinical practice. Therefore, it is of great significance to coprotein; PT: prothrombin time; RAE: Radix Aconiti Lat-
standardize Aconitum alkaloids in medicinal materials. Al- eralis Preparata extract; TGF-β1: transforming growth factor-
though Aconitum alkaloids are characterisized by poor ab- β1; VMH: ventromedial hypothalamic.
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