Food Production and Consumption Trends in Sub-Saharan Africa: Prospects for the Transformation of the Agricultural Sector - UNDP
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WP 2012-011: February 2012
Food Production and Consumption Trends
in Sub-Saharan Africa: Prospects for the
Transformation of the Agricultural Sector
Nicolas Depetris Chauvin, Francis Mulangu and Guido Porto 1
1
Nicolas Depetris Chauvin, African Center for Economic Transformation, ncdepetris@acetforafrica.org. Francis
Mulangu, African Center for Economic Transformation. Guido Porto, Universidad Nacional de La Plata.
This paper is part of a series of recent research commissioned for the African Human Development Report. The
authors include leading academics and practitioners from Africa and around the world, as well as UNDP
researchers. The findings, interpretations and conclusions are strictly those of the authors and do not necessarily
represent the views of UNDP or United Nations Member States. Moreover, the data may not be consistent with
that presented in the African Human Development Report.
Abstract: The objective of this paper is to contribute to the debate on the role of agriculture transformation in the development process and as an engine to reduce poverty and improve general wellbeing through better access to nutrients in Africa. To better inform the debate we review food production, consumption and trade trends in a large sample of Sub-Saharan countries combining both macroeconomic and microeconomic evidence. We selected for the analysis nineteen countries for which household survey data was available, namely Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cote d’Ivoire, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea Bissau, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania and Uganda. The data shows that dietary energy has been increasing in SSA but not steadily and not fast enough. The observed food production and consumption trends highlight the importance of pursuing a deep transformation of the agricultural sector in Sub Sahara Africa if incomes are to be risen and food security problems are to be mitigated. Keywords: Food production; food consumption; agriculture; smallholders; Sub-Saharan Africa JEL Classification: O13; Q18; N57
1. Introduction
Sub-Saharan Africa is the poorest region in the world. Average real per capita income in 2010
was $688 (in constant 2000 US$) compared to $1717 in the rest of the developing world. Over
the past 30 years, GDP growth per capita in SSA has averaged 0.16 percent per year. This
failure of growth over the long term has resulted in high levels of poverty in the region. One
finds the same picture of stagnation when one looks at the structures of African economies. In
almost all of them production is dominated by the primary sector in either agriculture or
minerals. In the primary sector, agriculture is marked by low productivity with little application
of science and technology, and in the mining sector almost all the operations using modern
technology are foreign-owned enclaves with little linkages with the rest of the economies.
Foreign trade mirrors the production structure: exports are dominated by primary
commodities incorporating little application of science and technology while the bulk of
manufactures and knowledge-based services are imported. For the majority of African
countries, the agricultural sector still provides a relatively large share of GDP but productivity
in the sector has lagged considerably behind that of other continents and the potential that
Africa can reach in the sector. While on average agriculture employs 65 percent of Africa’s
labor force it accounts for about 32 percent of gross domestic product, reflecting the relatively
low productivity in the sector. For Africa therefore, the rural population has been unable to
move out of poverty principally because they have not been able to transform their basic
economic activity which is agriculture. Because of the importance of the sector to the
livelihoods of the poor, the World Bank said in its 2008 World Development Report, devoted to
Agriculture and Rural Development, that the sector must be placed at the center of the
development agenda if the Millennium Development Goals of halving extreme poverty and
hunger by 2015 are to be met.
The literature is replete with examples of productivity-led agricultural transformation playing
an active role in economic transformation in general and making agriculture an important
driver of growth. Several studies have found that agriculture has been the engine of growth in
most developing countries with causality running from agricultural growth to economy-wide
growth in most cases, and that even small variations in agricultural productivity have had
strong implications for the rate and pattern of economy-wide growth. Evidence from
developed countries, the Green Revolution in Asia and Latin America strongly suggests that
agriculture can be an engine of growth early in the development process and also an important
force for poverty reduction. While agricultural growth has been the precursor to the
acceleration of industrial growth in a number of emerging economies such as China, Brazil, and
India, for sub-Saharan Africa, current agricultural productivity is low and there have been
numerous failures in getting agriculture moving.
Over the past 10 years, Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has experienced encouraging economic
growth averaging about 4.5 per cent with some non-oil-exporting countries reaching an
average of more than eight per cent. Despite this impressive economic performance,
agricultural transformation has been slow and growth rather sluggish. Notably, productivity is
still way below yield potentials, agricultural mechanization is weak and declining, and the state
of the agribusiness industry is still nascent. Although there have been pockets of success
stories in a few countries, it is fair to say that economic growth did not spill over to the
agricultural sector. Accordingly to some authors, it is imperative to promote agricultural
1transformation on the ground that industrialization is dependent on agricultural improvement.
If an industrial economy produces no food, its expansion will increase the demand for food,
raise the price of food relative to industrial goods, and so reduce profits (Timmer, 1988).
According to these authors, the record economic growth experienced by many SSA countries
will be ephemeral unless it is accompanied by effective agricultural transformation.
On the other hand, other economists (see for instance Dercon and El Beyrouty, 2009) and
analysts put less emphasis, if not in the development of the agriculture sector, in what they
consider an excessive focus on food production in SSA. According to them, there is an
important wedge between food production and food consumption that can be seen in the fact
that many of the agricultural based countries fail to provide sufficient food and nutrition for
their population. They criticize the main message of the World Development Report of 2008
that investing in agriculture is a necessary condition for any development. While the
commodity price boom is an indication that further investment is needed in agriculture, this
does necessarily imply that agriculture is the way forward for Africa. Although it is true that in
the aggregate the world cannot import food and increases in production are badly needed, it is
not necessarily true at the country level. Countries (particularly small ones) can import food
without much effect on relative prices, and, according to these authors, historically food self-
sufficiency and agricultural supremacy has never proved to be the defining feature of growth
across the world.
These competing views about the relevance of agriculture for growth and development imply
different policy priorities for developing countries in general and for Africa in particular.
However, this debate cannot be properly address without taking into account that Sub-
Saharan Africa is a region with a multiplicity of realities. If food security and poverty reduction
are desirable ends, it could be the case that for some African countries this may be achieved by
policies and investments away from the agriculture sector. Nevertheless, this is certainly not
the case for all African countries. The secular increase in commodity prices due to the
increasing demand of emerging market economies has opened a window of opportunity to
increase agriculture production and productivity, reduce poverty and improve food access
conditions. The case for focusing on agricultural transformation in some African countries is
therefore very compelling. As we will see below, performance of the agriculture sectors in
Africa is still unsatisfactory and the sector has not been able to experience anywhere close to
the results obtained under the green revolution in Asia. For the economic transformation and
change in African economies therefore, agricultural productivity gains must be the basis for
national economic growth and the instrument for mass poverty reduction and food security.
The objective of this paper is to contribute to the debate on the role of agriculture
transformation in the development process and as an engine to reduce poverty and improve
general wellbeing through better access to nutrients in Africa. As we mentioned above, the
analysis to be meaningful cannot be done at the sub-continent level but looking at the
particular reality of different countries and crops and livestock. Even more, in most cases the
national averages hide contrasting subnational realities. Unfortunately, data availability and
the scope of this paper do not allow us to further explore the discrepancies found in different
regions of the countries under study. To better inform the debate we review food production,
consumption and trade trends in a large sample of Sub-Saharan countries combining both
macroeconomic and microeconomic evidence. The authors selected nineteen countries for
2which household survey data was available, namely Benin, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon,
Cote d’Ivoire, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea Bissau, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali,
Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania and Uganda. In the macroeconomic data
analysis the Democratic Republic of Congo was also included despite lacking a household
survey.
Next section presents food production trends. We first present aggregate production data for
food, livestock and fisheries in Sub Saharan Africa, followed by individual country analysis of
food crop yields. This section also analyse yields in cash crops and compare it to other
countries outside Africa. The purpose of this discussion is to inform the readers about the food
dynamics in SSA, for that reason this discussion will be rather descriptive. We also study food
consumption trends expressed in kilocalories (kcal) per capita per day. This is a key variable
used for measuring and evaluating the evolution of the global and regional food situation.
Analysis of FAOSTAT data shows that dietary energy has been increasing in SSA but not
steadily and not fast enough. This section also reviews trends in food trade in the regional and
at the country level showing which countries have food surpluses and which ones have food
deficits. The section concludes with an assessment of the link between food production and
protein supply at the country level.
Section 3 of this paper presents the microeconomic evidence of food production and
consumption using household surveys. We use the data to answer four questions: (a) How
much of their income households spend on food? (b) In what food items they spend their
income? (c) How much income comes from agriculture sales? and (d) What are the sources of
agriculture income? Given the wealth of information available coming from the household
surveys, a separate annex was created where for each country we present tables on (a)
Expenditure shares in food (both purchases and auto-consumption), manufactures, services
and other expenditures, (b) Food expenditures classified in cereals (with some detail), fruits
and vegetables (with some detail), legumes, oils and fats, fish, meat, other staple food, and
other non-staple food., (c) Income shares classified in agriculture sales, wages, sales of good
and services, and transfers, and (d) Agriculture income shares classified in cereals (with some
detail), fruits and vegetables (with some detail), legumes, oils and fats, fish, meat, other staple
food, and other non-staple food. All the data is presented for the whole population and for
each quintile, and distinguishing between urban and rural households.
The last section of the paper will address the policy implications of the observed food
production and consumption trends. In particular, we will highlight the importance of pursuing
a deep transformation of the agricultural sector in Sub Sahara Africa if incomes are to be risen
and food security problems are to be mitigated.
Before we continue with our analysis it is important to make an important clarification. Our
emphasis in this paper on agricultural transformation and the subsequent increase in
agricultural productivity does not mean that we do not recognize the complexity of the food
security concept and the need of a multidimensional definition and approach. We see the
increase in agricultural productivity probably as a necessary but not a sufficient condition to
achieve long term food security in Sub Sahara Africa.
32. Food production, consumption, and trade and its implications on nutrition in Sub
Saharan Africa
A. Introduction
The purpose of this section is twofold. First, we will discuss the general food dynamics in SSA
by country and by crop type and for that reason this discussion will be rather descriptive. We
will look at production, consumption and trade at the SSA and individual country level
considering food crops, livestock and fisheries. We also consider the main cash crops to draw a
parallelism in the evolution of yields for both food and cash crops. Second, we will attempt to
tell a story by drawing a link between food production, food consumption, and food nutrition.
This analysis will help the readers identify the food group from which most African get their
largest bang-for-the-buck in terms of protein supply. This analysis should be able to help policy
makers in their policy intervention priorities for promoting higher nutrition levels in their
countries.
B. Food production, consumption and trade dynamics
I. Food Production
1. Food (including fishery) production in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)
a. Primary crops and livestock
The historical trend of primary crops (this includes all agricultural products except livestock and
fishery) and livestock meat (meat from sheep, goats, poultry, beef, and buffalo) production is
presented in figure 1 below. It shows that total food production (primary crops and meat) in
SSA has been growing but at a very slow rate of less than one per cent per year. This is rather
alarming considering the fact that food production growth rate is not statistically different
from population growth rate which raises concerns about SSA ability to self-insure against
food insecurity. Without both food imports and serious effort to boost food production, SSA
would not be able to insure adequate food supply for the population.
4Figure 1
Agricultural production
12,000,000
10,000,000
8,000,000
tons meat production
6,000,000
4,000,000 primary crops
production (in 100)
2,000,000
0
1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
Source: FAOSAT
SSA has the necessary fertile land and labour to be food self-sufficient. However, there are two
food production faces the scarcity of inputs such as adequate water and fertilizers. Agriculture
in SSA is mostly rain-dependent, and this dependence makes it vulnerable to late rainfall
onsets and precludes it from obtaining the best possible output. Small scale water storage
devices are a possible solution to reduce SSA agriculture vulnerability to rainfall fluctuation. In
addition to reducing crop vulnerability, these devices could encourage farmers to adopt high
risk/high return agricultural practices that were once too risky because of water uncertainty.
Also since food in SSA is mostly produced by smallholder farmers, inputs such as fertilisers are
mostly not available. Fortunately, governments and development partners around the
continent have put in place various rural development programs that seek to subsidise fertilizer
costs in order to make them widely available.
Most of the meat produced in SSA comes from the pastoralist nomadic tribes of East and West
Africa. However, the quality and quantity of livestock supply depends on the environment as
these pastoral tribes use rudimentary methods that have been passed on from generations to
generations. As the growing risks of climate change reduce the quantity of grassland every
year, SSA is far from becoming meat self-sufficient.
b. Fishery production
It is estimated that the inland fisheries of Africa produce 2.1 million tonnes of fish, which
represents 24% of the total global production from inland waters (FAO, 2004). In comparison
to marine fisheries, inland fisheries production is relatively small, representing only 6% of
global production. In Africa, marine fisheries production (4.7 million tonnes) is also much larger
compared to inland fisheries (2.1 million tonnes) but in a smaller scale than at the global level.
5Figure 2:
SSA production of fishes
9,000,000
8,000,000
7,000,000
6,000,000
5,000,000
tons
4,000,000
3,000,000
2,000,000
1,000,000
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Year
Source: FAOSAT
Inland fisheries in Africa are largely non-industrial (artisanal) in nature, including the sub-
sectors of catching, processing, transportation, trade and gear manufacture, which are distinct
occupations in some fisheries are more than others. There are exceptions, of course, and in
particular, the fishery for Nile Perch in Lake Victoria – the largest in Africa – has a modern
(industrial) processing and export sub-sector, which is supplied by a predominantly artisanal
fishing fleet. In parts of Africa, fishing is a part-time activity for rural people who also tend to
farm, keep animals and engage in other economic activities. Fishing is often well-integrated
within the overall pattern of work for rural households and communities, with well-established
patterns of input and time allocation. Many inland fisheries are also a part of local culture and
tradition, and based on local knowledge of fish resources and migrations, the use of a variety
of different fishing technologies to suit particular fishing opportunities and seasonal changes in
flood regimes, for example (Nepad, 2005).
Fishery production has been growing at a faster rate than agriculture products as presented in
figure 2 above. One reason behind this rapid growth is the increase demand for healthier diets
alternative in developed countries and SSA is a good source of fish since most of it caught in
SSA are exported. For some African countries, particularly in West-Africa and to lesser extent
also countries along the Indian Ocean, fisheries contribute significantly to exports. It must be
noted that this export oriented sector has raised concerns that fish trade leads to a decline in
food security and a decrease in the availability of fish for the local population (Kent, 1997). But
this claim has met resistance since some of the fish export generated foreign currencies can be
used to pay import bills.
Most of the fishes for export are produced by commercial fisheries. However, the number of
commercial fisheries in SSA is rather small. On the other hand, the majority of locally
consumed fishes are supplied by smallholder farmers who in most cases use rudimentary
fishing practices.
62. Food and fishery production in individual SSA countries
a. Food Production
Food production in SSA countries has been increasing for the most part as more and more
forest lands are cleared for agriculture. But real progress is revealed via agricultural yields. For
that reason, we focus our production discussion below on agricultural yields of the most
important crops produced in SSA using the case of 20 SSA countries. We first present a brief
agricultural profile of the selected countries. Next, we discuss the historical yield trends of
cereal, fruits, oil crops, and tuber/root crops and present arguments to justify their dynamic
behaviours. Last, we limit our analysis of export cash crops such as coffee, cocoa, and cotton to
a few countries only as their production requires strict climatic settings which cannot be found
everywhere in SSA.
Benin
Benin is predominantly an agricultural country. About 55% of the economically active
population was engaged in the agricultural sector in 2000, which accounted for 38% of GDP
that year. Small, independent farmers produce 90% of agricultural output, but only about 17%
of the total area is cultivated, much of it in the form of collective farms since 1975. The
agricultural sector is plagued by a lack of infrastructure, poor utilization of rural credit, and
inefficient and insufficient use of fertilizer, insecticides, and seeds. An estimated 20% of output
is informally traded with Nigeria. The main food crops are cassava, yams, corn, sorghum,
beans, rice, sweet potatoes, guavas, bananas, and coconuts. Production estimates for the main
food crops for 1999 were yams, 1,771,000 tons; cassava, 2,377,000 tons; corn, 823,000 tons;
sorghum, 154,000 tons; rice, 36,000 tons; dry beans, 94,000 tons; sweet potatoes, 67,000 tons;
and millet, 34,000 tons.
Almost all the crops grown in Benin experienced yield growth over the past 40 years except
fruit crops. In fact, cereal yields, fruits yields, oil crops yields, and tuber yields have been
growing by an average growth rate of 2.0%, -3.0%, 0.0%, and 2.0%, respectively. Fruit yields
sharply decreased in 1985 to 1/5 of what it was the year before. We suspect that smuggling of
crops for export or the domestic black market results in this big underestimation of crop
figures. Tuber/roots yields have gradually been increasing with minor transitory shock which
did not affect its steady state. Oil crops yields have remain constant to some extent while
cereal yields have been slowing increasing with no serious interruptive shocks.
Crop production in Benin is characterized by low input use for food crops and moderate input
use for cotton production. Under these conditions any increase in production would require an
increase of the cultivated area. Comparing the low yield on farmers field with the higher yield
obtained under research conditions on farmers field, there is still a high production potential
available in case that the production management would be optimal and inputs for food crops
would be available and used (Akker, 2011).
7Figure 3:
Benin crop yields
350000
300000
250000
200000 Cereals
Hg/ha
150000 Fruits
100000 Oilcrops
50000 Roots and Tubers
0
1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
Source: FAOSTAT
Burkina Faso
Aridity and erosion seriously hamper agricultural development, and most farming is
concentrated in southern and south-western Burkina Faso. Leading food crops, with 1998
production amounts in metric tons, were cereal grains, including sorghum, millet, rice, and
corn (2 million); and pulses (66,000 metric tons). The chief cash crop was cotton (343,106
metric tons), which accounts for a large share of the country’s export income. The principal
wealth of Burkina Faso is its livestock: 4.5 million cattle, 7.9 million goats, 6.2 million sheep,
586,600 pigs, 24,500 horses and asses, and 20.5 million poultry. Efforts were under way to
rebuild the nation’s livestock industry following severe losses due to the recurrent drought in
the region known as the Sahel between the late 1960s and early 1980s.
In Burkina Faso, cereal yields, oil crop yields, and tuber/root yields have been growing by an
average growth rate of 2%, 1%, and 2%, respectively. However, similarly to Benin, Burkina
Faso fruit yields have been decreasing by an average rate of 14%. Looking deeper into the
data, we can see that fruit yields sharply decreased in 1984 and had never been able to recover
since then. Tuber/roots yields experienced a sharp decrease in the mid 1980’s, but was able to
recover in the early 2000’s despite a number of transitory fluctuations. Cereal and oil crop
yields have experience a steady growth rate with minimum interruptions. However, grown in
the Sahel region, these crops yields have experience multiple transitory shocks associated with
desert-like conditions.
The harsh weather conditions of Burkina Faso are less suitable for agriculture. The only crop
that strive the best in Burkina Faso is cotton. In fact, Burkina Faso is SSA largest cotton seed
producer, followed by Nigeria. Unfortunately, cotton seed is largely exported as Burkina Faso
8apparel industry took a downward spiral in the early 2000’s never recovered despite qualifying
for African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA)’s special apparel benefits.
Figure 4:
Burkina Faso crop yields
140000
120000
100000
80000 Cereals
Hg/ha
60000 Fruits (in 100)
40000 Oilcrops
20000 Roots and Tubers
0
1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
-20000
Year
Source: FAOSTAT
Burundi
About 90% of the population of Burundi depends on agriculture for a living. Most agriculture
consists of subsistence farming, with only about 15% of the total production marketed. An
estimated 1,100,000 hectares (2,718,000 acres), or about 43% of the total land area, is arable or
under permanent crops; about 74,000 hectares (182,800 acres) are irrigated. The average farm
family plot is 0.8 hectares (two acres). Agriculture accounted for 50% of the GDP in 2001.
Coffee and tea exports comprise the majority of foreign earnings; coffee alone accounted for
54% of exports of goods in 2001. Principal crops for local consumption are cassava, beans,
bananas, sweet potatoes, corn, and sorghum. Production in 1999 included bananas, 1,511,000
tons; cassava, 617,000 tons; sweet potatoes, 734,000 tons; beans, 227,000 tons; sorghum,
60,000 tons; corn, 129,000 tons; peanuts, 10,000 tons; and potatoes, 24,000 tons.
Crop yields in Burundi have poorly performed over the past years. Cereal yields have been
increasing by an average rate of 1%, fruit yields have been decreasing by -1%, oil crop yields
remained constant at an average growth rate of 0.0%, and tuber/root crops decreased by 1%.
Tuber/roots growth rate in particular have mostly been affected by the sharp decline in 2009.
Fruit yields experience a sharp increase in early 1980’s early 2000’s. But, it experienced a sharp
decline in 2009. Oil crops yields experience a series of sharp increase in the 1970’s, 1980’s, and
late 1990’s. However, they were rather transitory. Finally, cereal yields started to improve in
the late 1990’s. The civil unrests that plagued the country slightly affected yields, but they
were able to quickly recover shortly after that.
9Figure 5:
Burundi crop yields
80000
70000
60000
50000
Cereals
Hg/ha
40000
Fruits
30000
Oilcrops
20000
10000 Roots and Tubers
0
1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
Source: FAOSTAT
Cameroun
Agriculture was the main source of growth and foreign exchange in Cameroun until 1978 when
oil production replaced it as the cornerstone of growth for the formal economy. In 2001,
agriculture contributed 43% to GDP. Agricultural development and productivity declined from
neglect during the oil boom years of the early 1980s. Agriculture was the principal occupation
of 62% of the economically active population in 1999, although only about 15% of the land was
arable. The most important cash crops are cocoa, coffee, cotton, bananas, rubber, palm oil and
kernels, and peanuts. The main food crops are plantains, cassava, corn, millet, and sugarcane.
Palm oil production has shown signs of strength, but the product is not marketed
internationally. Cameroon bananas are sold internationally, and the sector was reorganized
and privatized in 1987.
In Cameroun, cereal yields, oil crop yields, and tuber/root yields have been growing by an
average growth rate of 1% of the past 40 years. At the same time, fruit yield averaged to a
0.0% growth rate. Fruit yields remained constant because of the share decreased it
experienced in the mid-1980 and two minor ones in both the mid-1970 and early 2000’s.
Tuber/roots yields experienced a sharp increase in the early 1980’s which help Burundi
maintain a high yield level. However, it experienced a shock in the early 2000’s for which it was
able to quickly recover. Oil crops yields experienced a sharp decrease in the early 1980’s, but
recovered and maintain it until now. Cereal yield on the other had has been growing at a
constant rate with a few transitory fluctuations.
10Figure 6:
Cameroun crop yields
120000
100000
80000
Cereals
60000
Fruits
40000
Oilcrops
20000 Roots and Tubers
0
1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
Source: FAOSTAT
Cote d’Ivoire
The main food crops (with their 1999 production in tons) are yams, 2,923,000; cassava,
1,623,000; rice, 1,162,000; plantains, 1,405,000; and corn, 571,000. Sweet potatoes, peanuts,
and in the northern districts, millet, sorghum, and hungry rice (fonio) are also grown.
Vegetable and melon production in 1999 amounted to 534,000 tons, consisting mostly of
eggplant, fresh tomatoes, cabbage, okra, peppers, and shallots. The government sought
during the 1970s to reduce or eliminate rice imports, but in 2001, about 1.9 million tons were
imported. The economic decline during the 1980s coupled with high population growth has
necessitated the modernization of agricultural production, with less dependence on coffee and
cocoa. When cocoa and coffee prices were booming from the late 1960s until the early 1980s,
the government profited by paying the farmers only a fraction of the money earned from the
export of the crops.
As presented in figure 7 below, Cote d’Ivoire has experience impressive yield growth rate
across all crop groups. Cereal yield, fruits yield, oil crops yields, and tuber yields have been
growing at an average annual growth rate of 2.53%, 1.77%, 3.80%, and 1.58%, respectively. Oil
crops yield experienced a rapid growth rate between 1961 and the late 1970’s. In the 1980’s oil
crops yields dropped but quickly recovered in the late 1980’s and started to grow up to now.
Tuber yields experienced two periods of sharp increase which were followed by long periods of
zero growth. These are more likely consequences of programs or policies shocks that changed
the steady state yield level of tubers. Fruits and cereal yields have experienced a rather smooth
growth rate with minimum sharp turns. Fruit yield had a small upward bump in the early 1980’s
and cereal yield in the early 2000’s.
Cote d’Ivoire has had a very impressive food production growth considering the fact that it
could have allocated all of its resources to the production of cocoa, its most lucrative source of
export revenues. One reason for these positive outcomes is good political will toward
promoting agriculture since the early 1960’s. From independence to the 1990s, policies and
11structures were developed to maximize the export potential of Côte d’Ivoire’s agricultural
commodities. Although controversial today, tropical forests were cleared to provide more
room for plantations. In addition, land tenure policies encouraged the development of land
into plantation agriculture, low wage agricultural labourers were used from neighbouring
African countries, and plantation mechanization was gradually being introduced (Ladipo,
1990).
Figure 7:
Cote d'Ivoire crop yields
140000
120000
100000 Cereals
80000
Hg/ha
60000
Fruit
40000
20000
Oilcrops
0
1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year Roots and Tubers
Source: FAOSAT
Democratic Republic of Congo
The agricultural sector in DRC supports two-thirds of the population. Agricultural production
has stagnated since independence. The principal crops are cassava, yams, plantains, rice, and
maize. The country is not drought-prone but is handicapped by a poor internal transportation
system, which impedes the development of an effective national urban food-supply system.
Land under annual or perennial crops constitutes only 3.5% of the total land area. Agriculture is
divided into two basic sectors: subsistence, which employs the vast majority of the work force,
and commercial, which is export-oriented and conducted on plantations. Subsistence farming
involves four million families on plots averaging 1.6 ha, usually a little larger in Savannah areas
than in the rain forest. Subsistence farmers produce mainly cassava, corn, tubers, and
sorghum. In 1999, food-crop production included cassava, 16,500,000 tons; sugarcane,
1,750,000 tons; corn, 1,100,000 tons; peanuts, 395,000 tons; and rice, 350,000 tons. In 1999,
plantains totalled 1,800,000 tons; sweet potatoes, 370,000 tons; bananas, 315,000 tons; yams,
255,000 tons; and pineapples, 200,000 tons. Domestic food production is insufficient to meet
the country's needs, and many basic food products have to be imported.
Agriculture production in DRC has been highly neglected. Despite the favourable agro-
ecological condition for the production of crops such as palm oil, DRC crop yields have either
marginally grown or simply decreased. Specifically, cereal yields, fruit yields, oil crop yields,
12and tuber yield grew by an average annual growth rate of 0.25%, 0.00%, -1.35%, and 0.42%,
respectively. Specifically, tubers and root yields experienced a sharp upward shock that
increase yield permanently up to presently. Fruit yields have been kept constant over time,
which explains the near zero growth rate discussed earlier. Oil crops yields have started to
decrease since the early 1970’s. It experienced a small increase in the early 2000’s but it was not
enough to get back to the high yields of the 1960’s. Cereal yields did not experience any major
change.
Figure 8:
DRC crop yields
90000
80000
70000
60000
Cereals
Hg/ha
50000
40000 Fruit
30000
Oilcrops
20000
10000 Roots and Tubers
0
1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
Source: FAOSAT
The neglect of agriculture in DRC could be associated to the country’s focus on the extraction
of precious minerals. The relatively higher prices of minerals such as copper redirected both
budget allocations and labour supply toward the mining industry. In addition, the weak road
infrastructures have made it difficult for food to reach the mass population living populous
cities. This market failure situation has discouraged farmers from investing intensely in
agriculture.
Ethiopia
Ethiopia has experienced positive growth rate in cereal, oil crops, and tuber between 1961 and
2008, and a decrease in fruit yields growth rate. Specifically, cereal yields, oil crop yields, tuber
yields, and fruit yields grew by an average annual growth rate of 1.79% -0.37% 0.95% 1.77%,
respectively. Cereal yields have had multiple fluctuations over the past years. Fortunately, the
fertile volcanic soils of Ethiopia did not allow the fluctuations to last. Fruits yields experienced a
sharp decrease in the late 1990’s and late 2000’s. These sharp drops are more likely associated
to severe drought conditions. Oil crops yields started to increase in the late 1970’s, but yields
had sharply decreased in the 1990’s and was able to recover to current all-time high yields.
Finally, Tuber and root crops started to increase in the late 1970’s and kept an upward move up
to now.
13Increase in drought conditions led a shift from the production of cash crops such as fruits to the
production of food crops. As the incident of drought worsen, cash crops production in Ethiopia
could further decrease because of weather stress and agricultural neglect.
Figure 9:
Ethiopia crop yields
140000
120000
100000
80000 Cereals
Hg/Ha
60000 Fruit
40000 Oilcrops
20000 Roots and Tubers
0
1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
Source: FAOSTAT
The Gambia
In Gambia, the soil is mostly poor and sandy, except in the riverine swamps. On upland soils
the main food crops, besides groundnuts, are millet, cassava, corn, and beans. Most
landholdings range between five and nine hectares (12 and 22 acres). Agriculture supports
about 80% of the active population, and contributed about 40% of GDP in 2001. Irregular and
inadequate rainfall has adversely affected crop production in recent years.
Gambia’s agricultural sector has very poorly performed over the past 40 years. Cereal yields,
fruit yields, oil crop yields, and tuber/root yields have grown by either 0.0% or -1%. Fruit yields
experienced its sharpest decline in the early 2000’s but was able to quickly recover. Unlike
most SSA country, Gambia’s tuber/root yield did not recover from the sharp decline
experienced it experience in the early 1970’s. Cereal and oil crop yields have been decreasing
with multiple transitory fluctuations.
14Figure 10:
Gambia crop yields
60000
50000
40000
Cereals
Hg/ha
30000
Fruits
20000
Oilcrops
10000 Roots and Tubers
0
1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
Source: FAOSTAT
Ghana
Agriculture, especially cocoa, forms the basis of Ghana's economy, accounting for 36% of GDP
in 2001. Cocoa exports in 2001 contributed 16% ($246.7 million) to total exports. About 23% of
the total area, or 5,300,000 ha (13,096,000 acres), was cultivated in 1998. About 85% of all
agricultural land holders in Ghana are small scale operators who primarily farm with hand
tools.
Cereal yields, fruits yields, oil crops, and tuber yields have been growing in Ghana by an
average annual growth rate of 1.5%, 1.35%, 0.13%, and 1.10% respectively. Tuber and root
yields experienced two sharp drops in Ghana. The first occurred in early 1970’s, and the second
in early 1980’s. Fortunately, yields have recovered and continued an upward trend to an all-
time high. Fruits yields started to grow in the late 1980’s, but the real breakthrough came
about in the late 2000’s as Ghana heavily invested in fruit export lead by pineapple. Oil crop
yields have experienced two sharp drops. The first occurred in the early 1970’s and the second
more recently in the early 2000’s. Between those periods, I experienced multiple fluctuations
with a high increase during the 1990’s. If it were not for the sharp drop in yields of 1983, cereal
yields in Ghana would have had a perfect uninterrupted upward growth. But Ghana quickly
recovered from the drop and kept up with the growth rate.
15Figure 11:
Ghana crop yields
140000
120000
100000
80000 Cereals
Hg/Ha
60000 Fruit
40000 Oilcrops
20000 Roots and Tubers
0
1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
Source: FAOSTAT
Tuber yield growth is mostly associated to the improved cassava variety introduced by the
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) that is more resistant to drought
conditions. However, oil crop yield have been decreasing as discussed earlier. This is partly due
to the aging palm oil trees as palm oil is the major oil crop with an average yield of 6 ton/ha. As
a high yield palm oil tree, Tenera, is replacing the traditional variety, oil crop yields are
anticipated to increase in the future. The drop in cereal yields is mostly attributed to the major
drought Ghana experienced in 1983.
16Ghana success story
Among the 24 countries considered in a study recently conducted by the Overseas
Development Institute (ODI), Ghana made commendable progress in the agricultural sector
by maintaining an average agricultural GDP growth rate of about five per cent per annum
during the past 25 years. Staple crop production has been increasing faster than population
growth, making Ghana largely self-sufficient in terms of staples. While productivity was on
the rise, poverty has been declining. Undernourishment, child malnutrition, and the
proportion of infants underweight have been drastically falling as well. This combination of
productivity growth and improvement in social conditions in both rural and urban areas
allowed Ghana to be in the front row of meeting the Millennium Development Goals
(MDG1) before the 2015 deadline. ODI credits theses progresses to the passing and
persistent maintenance of important agricultural reforms that ushered a favourable
environment for private investment. Specifically, the restructuring of the cocoa marketing
board (COCOBOD), reform of taxation system, and increase expenditure in agricultural
research are the major drivers of these progresses.
Guinea Bissau
The agricultural sector of Guinea Bissau employs 83% of the labour force and contributes 56%
of the GDP. Only 12% of the total land area is under permanent or seasonal cultivation. The
country is divided into three major regions according to the water requirements of the major
crops. On the coast and in river estuaries is the palm-tree (coconut) zone; rice is the
predominant crop of the intermediary marshy areas; and peanuts are grown in the sandy areas
of the interior. Rice is the major staple crop; corn, millet, and sorghum are also produced and
consumed very widely. In the 1950s, Guinea-Bissau exported about 40,000 tons of rice per
year; since 1962, rice has been imported, as frequent droughts often cause crop failure.
In Guinea Bissau, cereal yields, fruit yields, oil crop yields, and tuber/roots yields have been
growing by an average growth rate of 1%. 0.0%, 1%, and 0.0% respectively. Tuber/root growth
started to grow in the early 1980’s. It experienced a slight drop in mid-200, but is quickly
recovering from it. Oil crops yields as well started to increase in mid-1980. However, it started
to decline since the early 2000’s. Fruit yields have been decreasing since the mid-1980. Cereal
yields grew fast in the 1980’s, but took a short drop in the early 2000’s but seem to be able to
recover from it.
17Figure 12:
Guinea Bissau crop yields
90000
80000
70000
60000
Cereals
hg/ha
50000
40000 Fruits
30000
Oilcrops
20000
10000 Roots and Tubers
0
1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
Source: FAOSTAT
Kenya
Agriculture remains the most important economic activity in Kenya, although less than 8% of
the land is used for crop and feed production. Less than 20% of the land is suitable for
cultivation, of which only 12% is classified as high potential (adequate rainfall) agricultural land
and about 8% is medium potential land. The rest of the land is arid or semiarid. About 80% of
the work force engages in agriculture or food processing. Farming in Kenya is typically carried
out by small producers who usually cultivate no more than two hectares (about five acres)
using limited technology. These small farms, operated by about three million farming families,
account for 75% of total production. Although there are still important European-owned
coffee, tea, and sisal plantations, an increasing number of peasant farmers grow cash crops.
18Figure 13:
Kenya crop yields
180000
160000
140000
120000
Cereals
Hg/Ha
100000
80000 Fruit
60000
Oilcrops
40000
20000 Roots and Tubers
0
1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
Source: FAOSTAT
Kenya’s crop yields have been growing by a very marginal growth rate over the past years. In
fact, cereal yields, fruit yields, oil crops yields, and tuber yields have been growing by an
average annual growth rate of -0.07%, 0.84%, -1.46%, and 0.04% respectively. Fruits yields
increased sharply both in the late 1970’s and early 2000’s. Tuber and root yields sharply
dropped in the late 1980’s, but quickly recovered after that. Although cereal and oil crop yields
have on average had a decreasing growth rate, yields have fluctuated over the years with no
major changes.
Drought conditions are the major cause of the poor performance of cereal and oil crop yields as
Kenya is accustom to experiencing droughts every five to seven years. Unlike many other SSA
countries, Kenya has a comparative advantage in the manufacturing of processed agricultural
products. For that reason, it has directed most of its resource toward ameliorating that sector
to the detriment of the food production sector.
Madagascar
Although Madagascar's economy is essentially agricultural, much of the land is unsuitable for
cultivation because of its mountainous terrain and inadequate or irregular rainfall. Only about
5% of the land area is cultivated at any one time. Despite these figures, agriculture accounts
for 30% of GDP and employs about 75% of the work force. Large-scale plantations dominate
the production of sisal, sugarcane, tobacco, bananas, and cotton, but, overall, Malagasy
agriculture is dependent mainly on small-scale subsistence farmers cultivating an average of
2.47 acres of land.
19Figure 14:
Madagascar crop yields
90000
80000
70000
60000
Cereals
Hg/ha
50000
40000 Fruits
30000
Oilcrops
20000
10000 Roots and Tubers
0
1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
Source: FAOSTAT
In Madagascar, cereal yields, fruit yields, oil crop yields, and tuber/root yields have been
increase by an average growth rate of 1%, 0%, 1%, and 1%, respectively. Tuber/root yields
experienced a small decline in mid-2000, but quickly recovered from it. However, fruit yields
have been declining after experience a sharp rise in the 1970’s. Oil crops on the other hand
declined in the 1990’s but did not recover from it. Finally, cereal yields have been steadily
increasing.
Malawi
The agricultural sector is drought-prone and experienced severe droughts in 1979–81, 1992,
and 1994. About 77% of the total land area of Malawi is under customary tenure—that is,
subject to land allocation by village headmen based on traditional rights of succession by
descent. Estate farming occupies about 23% of the cultivated land and provides about 90% of
export earnings. In all, about 21% of Malawi's total land area is arable. Malawi is self-sufficient
in food production (except during droughts), but the population increased more rapidly than
the food supply in the 1980s
20Figure 15:
Malawi crop yields
200000
180000
160000
140000
Hg/ha 120000 Cereals
100000
80000 Fruits
60000 Oilcrops
40000
Roots and Tubers
20000
0
1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
Source: FAOSTAT
Cereal yields, fruit yields, oil crop yields, and tuber/roots yields have been growing at 2%, 2%,
0%, and 1%, respectively. Tuber/roots and fruit yields experienced a sharp increase in the late
1990’s. Cereal yields had drop in the mid-2000 but quickly recover from it while oil crop yields
remained constant with multiple transitory fluctuations. Malawi is famous for its successful
fertilizer subsidy program which was instituted in 2005. The program has been administered
via a series of coupon-vouchers that enable households to purchase fertilizer, hybrid seed,
and/or pesticides at greatly reduced prices. Although it received many criticisms, most
evaluations claim that the program was successful (Oxfam, 2010)
Mali
Only the southern part of Mali is suited to farming, and less than 2% of Mali's area is cultivated.
Agriculture accounted for about 45% of GDP, 21% of exports, and over 80% of the active
labour force in 2001. Millet, rice, and corn are the basic food crops. Millet and sorghum are
cultivated mainly in the areas around Ségou, Bandiagara, and Nioro. Paddy rice is cultivated on
irrigated farms in the area around Mopti, Ségou, and Niafounké. Cereals are produced for
subsistence by 90% of farmers. Peanuts are grown in the Sudanese zone, as are cotton, fruits,
vegetables, and henna. The shea tree nut, which grows wild, is exploited by Malians for its oil.
21Figure 16:
Mali crop yields
250000
200000
150000 Cereals
Hg/ha
100000 Fruits
Oilcrops
50000
Roots and Tubers
0
1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
Source: FAOSTAT
Cereal yields, fruit yields, oil crop yields, and tuber/root yields have been growth by a constant
annual rate of 2%, 0%, 1%, and 3%, respectively. Tuber/root yields started to grow at a fast
rate since the mid-1990, and seem to continue to upward move. Fruits yields have kept a
constant growth rate with no major interruptions. Cereal yields are at its highest level right
now. However, over the years it experienced multiple fluctuations as the region if prone to
droughts. Oil crops yields have also experience multiple fluctuations. But unlike cereal yields,
oil crop yields are not better than before.
Nigeria
In terms of employment, agriculture is by far the most important sector of Nigeria's economy,
engaging about 70% of the labour force. Agricultural holdings are generally small and
scattered; farming is often of the subsistence variety, characterized by simple tools and
shifting cultivation. These small farms produce about 80% of the total food. About 30.7 million
hectares (76 million acres), or 33% of Nigeria's land area, are under cultivation. Nigeria's diverse
climate, from the tropical areas of the coast to the arid zone of the north, make it possible to
produce virtually all agricultural products that can be grown in the tropical and semitropical
areas of the world. The economic benefits of large-scale agriculture are recognized, and the
government favours the formation of cooperative societies and settlements to encourage
industrial agriculture. Large-scale agriculture, however, is not common. Despite an abundant
water supply, a favourable climate, and wide areas of arable land, productivity is restricted
owing to low soil fertility in many areas and inefficient methods of cultivation. Agriculture
contributed 32% to GDP in 2001.
Average crop yields growth rate for cereal, fruits, oil crops, and tuber in Nigeria is 1.51%,
0.56%, 0.31%, and 0.24%, respectively. Although tuber and roots yields have experience an
average positive growth rate, they have experience multiple sharp drops in late 1970’s, early
221990’s, and in the early 2000’s. Fruit yields have kept an upward trend with a small drop in the
early 2000’s. Oil crops experienced a sharp increase in the late 1970’s while cereal yields have
been growing despite a small drop in the early 1980’s.
Figure 17:
Nigeria crop yields
120000
100000
80000
Cereals
Hg/Ha
60000
Fruit
40000
Oilcrops
20000 Roots and Tubers
0
1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
Source: FOASTAT
Nigeria is SSA’s largest palm oil producer. However, the semi-wild state of its palm oil
plantation precludes Nigeria from reaching higher yields. In addition, just like the case of DRC,
petroleum oil has diverted the Nigeria policies’ attention away from agriculture.
Rwanda
In 1999, about 91% of Rwanda's economically active population earned their living, directly or
indirectly, from agriculture. Except for heavily eroded regions, the soil has good humus
content and is fertile, especially in the alluvial valleys and in the volcanic soils of the northwest.
About 1.1 million hectares (2.8 million acres) are under cultivation. Subsistence agriculture
predominates, and the basic agricultural unit is the small family farm of about one hectare.
23Figure 18:
Rwanda crop yields
140000
120000
100000
80000 Cereals
Hg/ha
60000 Fruits
40000 Oilcrops
20000 Roots and Tubers
0
1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
Source: FAOSTAT
Cereal yields, fruit yields, oil crops yields, and tuber/root yields in Rwanda have been growing
by an average annual rate of 2%, 0%, 1%, and 0%, respectively. The majority of cereal yield
increase in Rwanda occurred after 2000. An aggressive agricultural modernization program
help improve cereal yields. Fruit yields had been decreasing in the 1990’s, but it seems to be
regaining steam since 2000 as well. Oil crop yields had always been weak in Rwanda, but its
positive performance is mostly attributed to the fertile soil. Finally tuber/root yields experience
a sharp decline in the 1990’s which is mostly attributed to the civil unrests. But it seems to be
regaining its high yields levels.
Senegal
Most of Senegal lies within the drought-prone Sahel region, with irregular rainfall and
generally poor soils. With only about 5% of the land irrigated the heavy reliance on rain fed
cultivation results in large fluctuations in production. About 70% of the working population is
involved in farming. Agriculture (including forestry, livestock, and fisheries) accounts for 18%
of GDP. Most Senegalese farms are small (1.5–2.4 hectares/3.7–5.9 acres), and about 60% are
in the so-called Peanut Basin, east of Dakar. Much of the agricultural land is still tribally owned.
Only about 11% of Senegal's total land area is cultivated; millet took up 40% of the cultivated
land in 1999; peanuts, 36%.
24Figure 19:
Senegal crop yields
120000
100000
80000
Cereals
Hg/ha
60000
Fruits
40000
Oilcrops
20000 Roots and Tubers
0
1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
Source: FAOSTAT
Only cereal and tuber/root yields in Senegal have has a growth rate of more than one per cent.
Specifically, cereal yields, fruit yields, oil crop yields, and tuber/root yields grew by 2%, 0%, 0%,
and 2%, respectively. Tuber/root yields and fruit yields experience a sharp increase in the early
2000’s, but almost half of that increase disappeared a few years after. Cereal yields and oil crop
yields experienced multiple fluctuations over the years. However cereal yields have kept an
upward move while oil crop remained constant.
South Africa
Over 80% of the total land area is available for farming, but only 13% is cultivated. Many areas
suffer from erratic rainfall and soil erosion; cultivated land is not expected to exceed 15% in the
future because of these adversities. Only 8.6% of cultivated land was irrigated in 1998. The
worst drought of this century in southern Africa resulted in near to total crop failure in 1991–
92. Many farmers subsequently abandoned the countryside for urban areas. After many years
of dry weather, South Africa had abundant rainfall in the 1995/96 growing season. Except for
rice, tea, coffee, and cocoa, the country is typically self-sufficient in essential food production.
The average annual growth rate of agricultural output was 0.6% during 1990–2000. Agriculture
contributed an estimated 3% to GDP in 2001.
South Africa’s cereal yields, fruits yields, oil crop yields, and tuber yields have grown by an
annual rate of 2.94%, 1.24%, 1.30%, and 2.84%, respectively. Fruits and tuber/roots yields have
been growing at a fast rate in South Africa. Despite the transitory change in yields, long term
yields have kept a sharp upward trend with no significant breaks. This is also the case with oil
crops and cereals yields. They have been growing at an encouraging growth rate with no major
interruptions.
25Figure 20:
South Africa crop yields
300000
250000
200000
Cereals
Hg/Ha
150000
Fruit
100000
Oilcrops
50000 Roots and Tubers
0
1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
Source: FAOSTAT
Fruit yields have grown rapidly to support South Africa mature fruit processing industry. Tuber
yields have been driven by increase in potatoes yields as it is the leading tuber crop produced in
South Africa. South Africa is Africa’s third largest potatoes producer. Its favourable climatic
condition allows it to have a thriving potatoes sector with the highest yields in the continent.
South Africa’s successful agricultural sector is also attributed to the strong political will that
established agriculture as a quintessential driver of economic expansion.
Tanzania
Agriculture in Tanzania is dominated by smallholder farmers (peasants) cultivating an average
farm sizes of between 0.9 hectares and 3.0 hectares each. About 70 per cent of Tanzania’s crop
area is cultivated by hand hoe, 20 per cent by ox plough and 10 per cent by tractor. It is rain fed
agriculture. Food crop production dominates the agriculture economy. 5.1 million hectares are
cultivated annually, of which 85 per cent is under food crops. Women constitute the main part
of agricultural labour force. The major constraint facing the agriculture sector is the falling
labour and land productivity due to application of poor technology, dependence on unreliable
and irregular weather conditions. Both crops and livestock are adversely affected by periodical
droughts. Irrigation holds the key to stabilizing agricultural production in Tanzania to improve
food security, increase farmers productivity and incomes, and also to produce higher valued
crops such as vegetables and even flowers.
In Tanzania, cereal and fruit yields have been growing at a marginal annual growth rate of
0.67% and 0.88% respectively. However, oil crops and tuber yields have grown by a negative
growth rate of 0.35% and 0.39%, respectively. Cereal yields had been experiencing an
uninterrupted upward until a major drop came in the early 2000’s. Fruit yields sharply
increased in the early 2000’s as the Tanzanian horticulture industry expanded. Unlike most
SSA countries, tuber/roots yields have been declining since the mid-1980. This downward
trend seems to announce the end of the effects of a positive shock that trigger a rather rapid
growth of tuber/root yields in the late 1970’s as current yields have reach the all-time low levels
26of that period. Last oil crop yields did not experience any sharp change as it has been
decreasing at a smooth rate.
Figure 21:
Tanzania crop yields
120000
100000
80000
Cereals
Hg/Ha
60000
Fruit
40000
Oilcrops
20000 Roots and Tubers
0
1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
Year
Source: FAOSTAT
The majority of oil crop comes from sunflowers seed which are mainly produced in the
Kilimanjaro region. However, over the past years the Kilimanjaro region has been experiencing
late rainfall onsets which in turn have affected sunflower yields. Tubers and roots have been
decreasing since the early 1980’s due to weather stress as well. Fortunately, interventions from
the IITA allowed Tanzania to start a yield recovery process.
Uganda
Uganda's main food crops have been plantains, cassava, sweet potatoes, millet, sorghum,
corn, beans, and groundnuts. Major cash crops have been coffee, cotton, tea, and tobacco;
although in the 1980s many farmers sold food crops to meet short-term expenses. The
production of cotton, tea, and tobacco virtually collapsed during the late 1970s and early
1980s. In the late 1980s, the government attempted to encourage diversification in
commercial agriculture that would lead to a variety of non-traditional exports. Coffee
continued to be Uganda's most important cash crop throughout the 1980s. The government
estimated that farmers planted approximately 191,700 hectares of robusta coffee, most of this
in southeastern Uganda, and about 33,000 hectares of arabica coffee in high-altitude areas of
southeastern and southwestern Uganda.
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