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ERGY SEC
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Energy Security:
Operational Highlights
No 13 2020
ENERGY SECURITY: OPERATIONAL HIGHLIGHTS No 13 1
Content
4 Editorial
5 Disruptive and enabling technologies in the energy sector
BY MS MARJU KÕRTS
The strategic importance of rare earth minerals for
24
NATO, EU and the United States and its implications
for the energy and defense sectors
BY MS MARJU KÕRTS
41
Securing the industrial internet of things: Policy considerations
for reducing cyber risks to industrial control and safety systems
BY MR ÓSCAR RECACHA ORTEGA, MR VYTAUTAS BUTRIMAS
53 Pulling the Thread for U.S. Air Force Mission Assurance
BY MR MARK A.CORRELL
This is a product of the NATO Energy Security Centre of Excellence (NATO ENSEC COE). It is
55 NATO’s Experience in the Field of Energy Efficiency for Armed Forces
BY MR ANDREA MANFREDINI
produced for NATO, NATO member countries, NATO partners, related private and public insti-
tutions and related individuals. It does not represent the opinions or policies of NATO or NATO
ENSEC COE. The views presented in the articles are those of the authors alone. Interview with Commander Andrea Manfredini on his article:
60
© All rights reserved by the NATO ENSEC COE. Articles may not be copied, reproduced, dis-
“The Paradox of NATO’s Inefficiency in the Field of Energy
tributed or publicly displayed without reference to the NATO ENSEC COE and the respective Efficiency for the Armed Forces”
publication. BY MR ANDREA MANFREDINI
2 No 13 ENERGY SECURITY: OPERATIONAL HIGHLIGHTS ENERGY SECURITY: OPERATIONAL HIGHLIGHTS No 13 3
Editorial Disruptive and
novation in the energy sector play a key role in
energy transition. The technologies impacting
the new electricity system will be both – ena-
enabling technologies
bling and disruptive. Enabling technologies
By COL Romualdas Petkevičius (LTU-AF)
facilitate the integration of renewable energy
Director of the NATO ENSEC COE
W
generation technologies. Disruptive technolo-
in the energy sector
hen respond- gies by contrast have all of the process im-
ing to security provement possibility of enabling technolo-
threats and gies, but disrupt current commercial models.
crises, NATO The factor determining the degree to which by Ms Marju Kõrts
T
Allies and partner coun- renewable energy may become disruptive is
tries must be able to de- the development of efficient and cost-compet- hree primary drivers are transform- This article will give an overview of the new
ploy their forces rapidly itive energy storage devices. ing the global energy system: decen- emerging technologies in the power sector
and effectively. Techno- tralization, digitalization, and decar- including energy storage and electro-mobil-
logical innovation has al- The NATO Energy Security Center of Excellence bonisation. Together, these factors ity as the main drivers of decarbonisation of
ways been critical for achieving military suc- has also focused on “Smart Energy”, as to en- are shifting the world’s power mix toward the energy sector that pave the way towards
cess. Matched with creative strategic thinking, hance our armed forces’ energy efficiency that smaller, cleaner, and more intelligent tech- low carbon economy. It will also touch upon
advanced technology often made a difference. means saving fuel – and this means spend- nologies. Digitalization is a key amplifier of some trends in research and development
Military energy needs are changing as well ing less money on fuel. More energy-efficient the power sector transformation, enabling related to energy storage.
as growing. More significant, the dramatic in- equipment also means having to transport the management of large amounts of data
crease in electrical systems onboard military less fuel over long and often dangerous supply and optimizing increasingly complex sys- 1. THE NEW ENERGY LANDSCAPE AND THE
platforms is driving electrification of the battle- routes. This edition of Operational Highlights tems. The growing importance of digitali-
will underline the role of new energy technolo- CONCEPT OF DISRUPTIVE TECHNOLOGIES
field. That and the need to reduce the logistic zation in the power sector is also a conse-
footprint are creating requirements for distrib- gies, especially emerging technologies (energy Providing energy access while reducing emis-
quence of advances in two other innovation
uted and portable power generation, smart en- storage) and energy efficiency in the military. sions, major economies globally have commit-
trends: decentralization and electrification.
ergy networks, improved energy storage, and At the same time it will highlight that new ted to decarbonisation as a way of combating
Decentralization is led by the increased de-
wireless power transmission. technologies bring along new vulnerabilities climate change effectively. To achieve this,
ployment of small power generators, mainly
such as cyber security. This last point has in- future power markets will need to focus on
rooftop solar photovoltaic (PV), connected to
The share of renewables in the global energy creasingly become a major concern in energy implementing sustainable, low-carbon energy
the distribution grid. Electrification of trans-
mix should be more than double by 2030 to security as we have witnessed the recent use solutions and technologies. Currently energy
of cyber weapons against electric distribution port and buildings (heating and cooling) in-
advance the global energy transition. Falling is experiencing what some have termed a
grids and petrochemical plants. Energy securi- volves large quantities of new loads, such as
technology costs continue to strengthen the “Fourth industrial revolution”, following those
ty is no longer just about security of supply and electric vehicles, heat pumps and electric
case of renewable energy. Solar panel costs of steam, electrification and automation.
price. The technologies used to drill and run boilers. Technology is helping improve utili-
have fallen by almost 90 per cent over the last Technology is powering renewable energy
fuel down a pipeline, control propulsion sys- ties’ operational efficiencies through digi-
10 years and onshore wind turbine prices have
tems, generate and distribute electricity can talization and the Internet of Things (IoT). On rise. The traditional model of large, top-down
fallen by half in that period. The global energy
be accidentally and/or maliciously disrupted the other hand, networks are vulnerable to and centrally distributed energy production is
market slowly but surely moves towards a re-
electronically. In other words technology must cyberattacks that many believe will become being replaced by modular, consumer driven
newable-centered paradigm.
now be seen as both an enabler and as a target. more prevalent and sophisticated. and evenly distributed power generation.
More clean energy means more solar panels,
wind turbines, electric vehicles and large-scale This issue of Operational Highlights provides a
batteries. At the same time it means more de- timely overview of the emerging technologies
by Ms Marju Kõrts
mand for the materials that make those tech- in the power sector including energy storage
nologies possible. In a sense we have now and electro-mobility, focusing on exciting new Ms Marju Kõrts is an Estonian career diplomat who has hold several posi-
entered the “Rare Metal Age” as science and trends in energy storage research and develop- tions at the Estonian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. She graduated with her Mas-
human ingenuity have allowed us unlocking of ment. We also have a closer look at the stra- ters degree in political science at Tartu University in Estonia. With the current
various magnetic, luminescent, heat resistant tegic importance of rare earth minerals that function as the Estonian Subject Matter Expert at the Research and Lessons
and conductive properties of a diversity of met- are a critical for energy security. As well we Learned Division of the NATO Energy Security Center of Excellence in Vilnius
als such as lithium, cobalt, indium, gallium, touch upon how we can reduce the likelihood she focusses on the new energy technologies. At present she is conducting a
research study “The use of LNG as an alternative propellant in the naval field”
neodymium and dysprosium that are now de- of cyberattacks against control systems used
that will be launched this spring by the NATO Energy Security Center of Excel-
livering technological innovation. to monitor and manage our critical energy in- lence. E-mail:marju.korts@enseccoe.org
frastructure. Lastly, we provide fresh insights
Emerging or disruptive technologies and in- on NATO initiatives in military energy efficiency.
4 No 13 ENERGY SECURITY: OPERATIONAL HIGHLIGHTS ENERGY SECURITY: OPERATIONAL HIGHLIGHTS No 13 5
Power generation technology is only one able renewable energy requires flexibility in sector we need to integrate more renewables ness models could have disruptive conse-
part of the energy transformation story. Sta- the energy system which comes from 4 main to the grid and in this regards sector coupling quences regardless of technological change.
tionary storage technology is improving and sources: flexible power generation, flexible is the key to a greater penetration of renewa- The discussion around energy and disruption
costs are falling steeply. New energy sources demand, energy storage, and smart inter- bles in the energy sector, but it still has hur- has often focused on the work of Tony Seba6
emerge, leading to a structural and perma- connected grid infrastructure. As the need dles to overcome, both technically and on the and discussions of the clean disruption. Se-
nent change in supply, demand and energy for flexibility increases, grid operators need market scale. ba’s work focuses on technology-based dis-
mix. For example, hydrogen could play a to utilize each of the categories through ruptions: the convergence of technologies,
significant role in low-carbon future: coun- resources such as residential demand re- Emerging or disruptive technologies and in- business model and product innovations
terbalancing electricity as a zero-carbon sponse, long-term storage technologies or novation in the energy sector play a key role that are disrupting the world’s major indus-
energy carrier that can be easily stored and synthetic fuels for zero-carbon dispatchable in energy transition. Much of the technologi- tries including energy, transportation and
transported, enabling a more secure energy power generation. Decarbonisation is only cal innovation in the energy sector has been infrastructure. It means that traditional busi-
system with reduced fossil fuel dependence. slowly taking hold beyond the power sector. of an incremental nature5. Incremental inno- ness models are challenged because of the
While electricity is proving comparatively Heating, cooling and transport are other are- vations that accumulate over time can have zero marginal cost aspect of solar and wind.
easy to decarbonize thanks to the dramatic as in which fossil fuels are to be gradually re- large impacts. But what is striking about the There are no fuel costs as there is no need
cost reductions and uptake of renewables, placed with renewables. This can be achieved energy sector since the turn of the centuries to pay additional costs to produce more en-
the other sectors (e.g transport, heat) must either by using renewables directly - for in- is the transformative nature of the changes ergy like you do with coal, gas and uranium
not be forgotten. stance, by using solar thermal collectors to that are taking place. An example of renewa- powered energy production. So renewables
heat a house, or by using renewable-gener- bles innovation can be found in floating solar substantially reduce the wholesale costs of
Around the world the pace of developing and ated electricity in other sectors. This transfer – known as “floatvoltaics” – in which photo- energy. The business model of 20th century
introducing better, more efficient renewable of clean electricity into other sectors, where voltaic (PV) panels are mounted on the sur- was based around building large power sta-
energy technologies is accelerating. Renewa- it is used to reduce the amount of fossil ener- face of water bodies. With solar energy gen- tions producing a constant supply of energy
bles are becoming the go-to option for many gy required, is referred to as sector coupling. eration requiring large areas for PV panels to in centralized systems. It was based, for the
countries in their transition towards secure, lay, floating solar systems present a solution most part, around an active supply and pas-
cost effective and environmentally sustainable As a result of energy transition, energy carri- that can address land acquisition issues ef- sive demand. This arguably all being dis-
energy supply. According to the Renewables ers will become increasingly interconnected. fectively, which is particularly important in rupted because of the decentralized process
2019 Global Status Report – the Renewable Cross sector coupling involves the integrated population-dense regions. Floatvoltaics on a with smaller units around the country and
Energy Policy Network’s annual look at the use of different energy infrastructures and hydro-electric dam reservoir offers easy ac- intermittency factors. Renewables arguably
market – recently revealed that, globally re- vectors, in particular electricity, heat and cess to power evacuation to the grid and a enable new players to come to the fore, for
newable energy is outgaining fossil fuel and gas, either on the supply side, e.g. through hydro-floating solar hybrid solution for im- example prosumers selling electricity at the
nuclear capacity combined and now repre- conversion of (surplus) electricity to hydro- proved grid performance. Electric vehicles household level back into the grid. For ex-
sents one-third of the world’s installed capac- gen, or at the demand side, e.g. by using re- (EVs) and electrified fleets – everything from ample, the Brooklyn Microgrid, a P2P energy
ity1. Once thought to be difficult to integrate sidual heat from power generation or indus- buses to garbage trucks – are growing in trading7 microgrid project in Brooklyn, New
into the grid, renewables are now serving to trial processed for district heating. On one numbers, pressuring power providers to ac- York enables to localize the energy industry
strengthen grid reliability and resilience. hand, sector coupling calls for bringing more commodate charging demand. Technology by combining blockchain and microgrid tech-
consumers to the grid to better utilize the with disruptive effects on markets and busi- nology. In this sense renewable energy and
Renewable energy from solar, wind and bat- already plentiful generation. Looking at the ness models are gaining ground rapidly. energy storage technologies is that they are
tery storage is grabbing a broader footprint same system from another perspective, the disruptive to the traditional model.
by the day, along with microgrids2 and other heating sector and the automotive sector, for The concept of disruptive technologies was
distributed energy sources (DER), enabling example, are mostly using energy resources. first introduced and defined by the American The technologies impacting the new electric-
governments and the utilities to integrate Outside electrification or using synthetic fu- scholar Clayton Christensen in the 1990s, but ity system of the future come in two technolo-
those energy sources onto the grid. In this els such as hydrogen produced with renewa- it was later updated and called disruptive in- gies - enabling and disruptive technologies.
transformation process, the role of electricity ble electricity, there are not many other alter- novation with the recognition that new busi- The distinction between them is curiously
will become more prominent and more cen- natives to decarbonize these sectors3. Energy
tral in the energy system. retrofit of the building sector4 and other ener- 3
Van Nuffel, L. Study: “Sector coupling: how can it be enhanced in the EU to foster grid stability and decarbonisation”, Brussels, No-
gy efficiency measures may reduce demand, vember 2018.
4
Energy retrofit is an energy conservation measure in an existing building also leading to an overall improvement in the building per-
The IEA report “World Energy Outlook 2018” but will not replace the underlying energy formance.
highlights that increased penetration of vari- source. In order to decarbonize the energy 5
Technical innovations can be classified according to whether they are “incremental”, “radical” or “disruptive”. A disruptive innovation
is something that creates a new market and value network displacing existing markets and business models, a game-changer.
1
2019 Strategic Directions: Electric Report. Repowering the Power Industry. 6
Tony Seba “Clean Disruption of Energy and Transportation – How Silicon Valley Will Make Oil, Nuclear, Natural Gas, Coal, Electric Utili-
2
A microgrid is a group of interconnected loads and distributed energy resources within clearly defined electrical boundaries acting as ties and Conventional Cars Obsolete by 2030”, 2014.
a single controllable entity with respect to the grid. A microgrid can connect and disconnect from the grid enabling it to operate with 7
Peer-to Peer (P2P) energy trading is the trading of energy from one person or entity (producer) to another person or entity (consumer),
the grid or island-mode on its own. without the use of intermediary.
6 No 13 ENERGY SECURITY: OPERATIONAL HIGHLIGHTS ENERGY SECURITY: OPERATIONAL HIGHLIGHTS No 13 7
slim. Enabling technologies facilitate the has the potential to eliminate the need for of large, top-down and centrally distributed puter technology to create two-way commu-
integration of variable renewable energy gasoline in cars, and can turn the relation- energy production is being replaced by mod- nication between all nodes of the electricity
generation technologies. Such technologies ship between citizens and energy. ular, consumer driven and evenly distributed network – supply, transmission, distribution,
include, among others, storage batteries, power generation. and consumption – creating a more efficient,
technologies that enable the electrification of For example, carmaker Tesla is having lot reliable, and resilient system. Automated
other sectors with renewable electricity, digi- of success with the sale of its revolutionary The advantages of energy storage are mani- technology relays information from sensors
tal and ICT developments, and smart grid so- electric vehicles (EVs), and has a plan to sell fold. Firstly, battery storage can be effectively and smart meters employed at home and of-
lutions. Smart grid is an electricity grid which 500,000 EVs by the year 2020. With the roll- used to tackle peak demand as it varies not fices, allowing the utility to adjust and control
includes a variety of operation and energy out of a cheaper model, the company expects only on a daily basis, but also seasonally and power flows in real time in each individual
measures, including smart meters, smart to reach more people, but a cheaper model annually. Meeting the peak demand is costly, device, or in millions of devices, from a cen-
appliances, renewable energy resources, and is highly dependent on the price of the bat- as utilities have to either invest in additional tral location.
energy efficient resource. Electronical power tery. This currently costs approximately one capacity by building new power plants, which
conditioning and control of the production third of the price of the entire car, and will are not always optimally run, or buy power This automated system allows utilities to
and distribution of electricity are important not drop until it is produced on a much larger from independent power producers during gauge shifts in demand in real time; more
aspects of the smart grid. All of these devel- scale. For this reason, Tesla has worked out peak hours at higher prices compared to rapidly respond to power outages; and inte-
opments bring new opportunities for inte- a grand plan with Panasonic to build a “Giga- non-peak hours. On the other hand, grid- grate intermittent sources of electricity like,
grating higher shares of renewables, as they factory” in Nevada, for just such large scale connected battery storage can effectively solar, wind, and eventually electric vehicles
enable new ways of operating and optimizing battery production. The disruptive part of the inject the required power into the grid at the into the grid9. The backbone of the future
power systems. Disruptive technologies by idea lies in the longer term potential to move right time to meet the demand. Power from smart grid is artificial intelligence (AI), this
contrast are such that have all of the process away from the current petrol engine. Mean- battery storage will not only save the utilities technology will continuously collect and syn-
improvement possibility of enabling tech- while, other battery manufacturers are mak- from the above-mentioned challenges but thesize overwhelming amounts of data from
nologies, but do so in a way which disrupts ing similar plans, and the first mega-invest- also help in maintaining grid balance. millions of smart sensors to make timely
current commercial models. The disruption ments are expected to be made soon. decisions on how to best allocate energy
comes from economics, it has to do with con- 2. THE ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES: SMART resources. Additionally, the advances made
sumption of energy. For example, the objec- Beside car batteries, Tesla also wants to build GRID AND ENERGY STORAGE from “deep learning algorithms”, a system
tive of the Virtual Power Plant8 (VPP) is to larger batteries for households who want to where machines learn on their own from
relieve the load on the grid by smartly distrib- store their solar-panel generated energy. En- Many factors will impact the pace and scope spotting patterns and anomalies in large data
uting the power generated by the individual ergy which then can be used to recharge their of the expansion of the renewable sources of sets, will revolutionize both the demand and
units during periods of peak load. The biggest EV, and can be further used in the household. energy. These include federal and tax cred- supply side of the energy economy10.
VPP was established in Adelaide Australia in SolarCity is the company that will provide its in the United States of America, feed-in
2016 and it boosts grid stability, reduce power both solar panels and storage technology, tariffs in the European Union, growing pres- As a result, the large regional grids will be
price volatility and support the expansion of and is led by Tesla director Musk. sures of climate change, and a projected low- replaced by specialized microgrids that man-
renewable energy. price environment of natural gas. But look- age local energy needs with finer resolution.
The example of Tesla shows that energy ing over the coming decades to 2035, the key These can be paired with new battery tech-
Innovation in energy storage represents the storage has begun to play a wider role in obstacle and/or enabler will be the degree nologies that allow power to continually flow
largest and most near-term opportunity to energy markets, moving from limited and to which the grid system is modernized and to and between local communities even when
accelerate renewable energy deployments niche uses, such as grid balancing to play a digitized into a smart grid; in the longer term, severe weather or other outages afflict the
and bring us closer to replacing fossil fuels as larger role such as replacing conventional advancement will depend on breakthroughs broader power system.
the primary source to meet the world’s con- power generators for reliability, providing in cost-competitive energy storage. To effec-
tinual growth in energy demand. Energy stor- uninterrupted quality power, and supporting tively integrate growing amount of intermit- For example, the Brooklyn Microgrid11, a P2P
age systems primarily offer value to power renewables integration. It is projected that tent energy sources like solar and wind into energy trading microgrid project in Brooklyn,
systems by absorbing power during periods storage will represent a core component of the grid, smart grids are key. New York developed by LO3 enables to local-
with low demand and injecting power during all new energy technologies moving into the ize the energy industry by combining block-
periods with high demand. This technology is future, as both utility-scale and domestic en- A “smart grid” is a digitized infrastructure chain and microgrid technology. Peer-to Peer
increasingly seen as disruptive technology as ergy storage solutions become more price of the electricity system, transforming elec- (P2P) energy trading is the trading of energy
it is able to break through existing business competitive, eroding the advantages of tradi- tricity systems much the same way that the from one person or entity (producer) to an-
models and create a whole new industry. It tional energy sources. The traditional model smartphone transformed telecommunica- other person or entity (consumer), without
tions from the use of landlines. It uses com- the use of intermediary. On one hand, this
8
Virtual Power Plant (VPP) is a network of decentralized, medium-scale power generating units, such as wind farms, solar parks, and
Combined Heat and Power (CHP) units, as well as flexible power consumers and storage systems. The interconnected units are dis- 9
Manning, R. “Renewable Energy’s Coming of Age: A Disruptive Technology?” Atlantic Council, Issue Brief, December 2015.
patched through the central control room of the VPP, but nonetheless remain independent in their operation. 10
Wolfe, F. “How Artificial Intelligence Will Revolutionize the Energy Industry”. Harvard University newsletter on Artificial Intelligence, 2017.
8 No 13 ENERGY SECURITY: OPERATIONAL HIGHLIGHTS ENERGY SECURITY: OPERATIONAL HIGHLIGHTS No 13 9
project will make Brooklyn more sustainable Based on their energy storage capacity, energy will dominate installations with 273 GWh, or A range of energy storage technologies exist,
by incentivizing local home-owners and busi- storage systems can be categorized as short- some 43 percent of the total capacity, while each with different trade-offs for particular
nesses to install rooftop solar. On the other term and long-term energy storages. Short- Europe and the U.S. will account for about 31 applications. However, pumped hydropower is
hand, it will make Brooklyn more energy re- term storage systems including the super- percent of cumulative capacity. Lithium-ion still dominant form of installed power system
silient as the microgrid can operate autono- capacitator energy storage, flywheel energy batteries will remain the predominant stor- energy storage worldwide. Although the cost
mously from the traditional grid, especially in storage and superconducting magnetic ener- age technology over the next decade, spurred of lithium-ion batteries has decreased signifi-
the event of a weather incident such as Hur- gy storage are explained in detail in part 2.1.1 by the anticipated growth of the EV market. cantly in recent years, their levelized cost of
ricane Sandy. The need for greater flexibility of this article. The long-term storage systems The top 10 battery manufacturers alone have energy remains higher than the levelized cost
and mobility in the marketplace has opened could be subdivided into pumped hydroelectric planned some 510 GWh of annual global of energy of pumped hydropower and other
the door to technologies such as blockchain energy storage (PHS), compressed air energy factory capacity by 2030, with 45 percent of gravity energy technologies. Also, gravity en-
that helps provide part of the solution, pro- storage (CAES), battery energy storage, and global lithium-ion manufacturing capacity lo- ergy storage technologies, including pumped
viding that real-time information in terms hydrogen energy storage. cated in China, Europe and South Korea. hydropower, have two key advantages over
of power generation. The use of data has electrochemical batteries (e.g. lithium-ion,
increased in tandem with the need for more The entire energy storage market has sig- Energy storage technologies can be used in lead-acid); (i) their capacity does not degrade
technical solutions and the need for an ever- nificantly increased its presence in 2019. In different sectors such as defence, heat and each cycle and (ii) their power capacity is de-
smarter grid. recent months, the news from the storage in- transport. The U.S example shows that battery coupled from their energy capacity16.
dustry has ramped up significantly. We have storage technology can be successfully used
Perhaps the factor determining the degree to seen recent announcements of large battery in the military. The U.S largest stand-alone Electricity storage technologies can be clas-
which renewable energy accelerates and be- storage projects, some as big as NextEra’s battery energy storage system is developed at sified based on the underlying physical prin-
comes disruptive is the development of more Manatee Solar/Storage undertaking involving Fort Carson army base in Colorado15. Battery ciples of the energy transformation process.
efficient and cost-competitive energy stor- 409 MW and 900 megawatt-hours (MWh) and a storage can provide immediate, flexible pow- Accordingly, four major categories are distin-
age. Coupled with falling technology costs, 495 MW energy storage project from intersect er to military installations while reducing the guished: (1) mechanical storage (including
particularly for lithium-ion batteries, energy Power that may be developed in Texas, U.S13. carbon footprint, fuel demands and recurring pumped hydro storage (PHS), compressed
storage is expected to play a key part in the costs of existing back-up generators. Stor- air energy storage (CAES), and flywheels); (2)
global transition toward a more sustainable North-America, the Asia Pacific and West- age technology has advanced to the point that electrochemical storage (including conven-
and reliable power grid. The primary driv- ern Europe were the leading regions for de- large-scale installations can provide resilient tional batteries), advanced high-temperature
ers for storage are changing rate structure, ployed energy storage power capacity during power without straining defence budgets. batteries and flow batteries); (3) electro-
electric vehicle charging integration, solar PV the second quarter of 201914, with lithium-ion magnetic storage (including superconduct-
integration, resiliency/back-up power, and to batteries remaining the fastest growing stor- In the heat sector, high temperature heat stor- ing magnetic energy storage (SMES), su-
some degree business model innovation. age technology. Triggered by electric vehi- age can be used to increase flexibility of ther- perconductors and supercapacitators), and
cles’ development, battery technologies are mal power plants. Most prominently they are (4) thermal storage (including molten-salt
A 2017 review of “deep carbonization” sce- progressing quickly. This progress is also considered as flexibility option for solar power technology, heat storage in tanks or rock cav-
narios for the U.S. by power sector research- benefiting the large stationary batteries used plants in order to be able to feed power into erns, cryogenic energy storage and ice-based
ers found that scenarios with a high penetra- for grids or small individual batteries used the grid also during times without sunshine. technology).
tion of renewables require either a backup for self-consumption.
system of dispatchable resources or long- The transport sector is likely to deploy a Energy storage systems work by capturing
duration, seasonal storage technologies12. The majority of investment today is in battery large-base of energy-storage systems in the the available form of required energy re-
The only long-duration, seasonal storage storage, and part of that is lithium-ion energy future. With the anticipated increase in the source and store it for future use. In the past,
technology currently proven viable at scale source of choice for new projects because of adoption of electric vehicles (EVs), the trend electricity storage was mainly employed in
is pumped hydro storage. Areas of the world the falling prices. According to the recently is projected to increase demand for EV charg- the form of large-scale, bulk, centralized
such as Norway, Wales, Japan and the U.S. published report from Rethink, global en- ing infrastructure on a global scale. This will units providing fast response (batteries, fly-
have used elevated geographic features for ergy storage will grow from 6 GWh installed likely lead to significant growth in the elec- wheels). Today, there is an emerging interest
reservoirs, using electrically powered pumps today to 635 GWh by 2030. It can be predict- trochemical energy storage systems market. in small-scale, decentralized storage and in-
to fill them. ed that the Asia Pacific region, led by China, deed, in the future power system electricity
2.1 TYPES OF TECHNOLOGIES WITH THEIR storage could fulfill a variety of functions and
11
A microgrid is a group of interconnected loads and distributed energy resources within clearly defined electrical boundaries acting SUB-TYPES UTILIZED FOR ENERGY provide benefits to various stakeholders17.
as a single controllable entity with respect to the grid. A microgrid can connect and disconnect from the grid enabling it to operate with
the grid or island-mode on its own. STORAGE SYSTEMS It might be connected directly to the trans-
12
Ladislaw, S., Naimoli, S. “Transforming the U.S. and EU Electric Power Sectors: Workshop Report and Recommendations for Trans-
atlantic Cooperation”. Center for Strategic International Studies, Washington D.C (August 2019).
16
Morstyn, T., Chilcott, M., McCulloch, M.D. “Gravity Energy Storage with Suspended Weights for Abandoned Mine Shafts”, Department
13
Peter Kelly-Detwiler. “Energy Vault Receives 110 million USD From SoftBank for Gravity-Assisted Power Storage”. Forbes, August 14, 2019. of Engineering Science, University of Oxford. Applied Energy, April 2019.
14
According to the data of the second report from the UK-based market research company “Rethink Technology Research”.
17
It refers to ancillary services that are all services required by the transmission or distribution system operator to enable them to
15
Smart Energy International newsletter. “U.S Army develops largest battery energy storage system”, 23 August 2018. maintain the integrity and stability of the transmission or distribution system as well as power quality. Ancillary services include fre-
quency control, voltage control, spinning reserve, standing reserve.
10 No 13 ENERGY SECURITY: OPERATIONAL HIGHLIGHTS ENERGY SECURITY: OPERATIONAL HIGHLIGHTS No 13 11
mission or distribution grids, to renewable PUMPED STORAGE TECHNOLOGY FLYWHEEL STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES of tons of mass uphill on railroad shuttles,
generators, or to consumers. Also electric effectively storing thousands of megawatt-
Pumped-storage hydroelectricity facilities Flywheel energy storage systems use electric
vehicles technically can provide the different hours of potential energy to power a medium-
(PHS) use energy input which is stored in energy input which is stored in the form of ki-
storage functionalities. Besides electric en- sized city for several hours. Gravity is also the
the form of kinetic energy. Water is pumped netic energy. Kinetic energy can be described
ergy storage in the narrow sense, also ther- force underpinning pumped hydro, the most
to a higher elevation for storage during low- as “energy of motion”, in this case the motion
mal storage devices might see interesting widespread and cost-effective form of en-
cost energy periods and high renewable en- of a spinning mass, called a rotor, is a rotating
applications at consumer level or in combi- ergy storage in the world. At the same time
ergy generation periods. The relatively low mechanical device that is used to store rota-
nation with large, remote concentrated solar pumped hydro development is slow and cost-
energy density of pumped storage systems tional energy that can be called up instan-
power facilities. Thus, electricity storage can ly, requiring sites with specific topographical
requires either a very large body of water or taneously. This rotor is made spin under an
be located closer to generation or closer to characteristics and often involving significant
large variation in height. Recent innovations enclosure with much less friction. In case of
load; it could be operated in a more central- permitting hurdles. The proponents of newer
have allowed PHS facilities to have adjustable power requirements, stored kinetic energy in
ized or in a more decentralized manner. gravity storage options claim that installation
speeds, in order to be more responsive to the the flywheel is converted into electrical en-
and deployment of their technology is quick-
needs of the energy grid. Pumped hydro stor- ergy. Flywheel energy storage has major ad-
The following sections analyse the effective- er, easier and cheaper.
age is the leading technology accounting for vantages such as fast charge capability, long
ness, current status, and future scope of
97% of world’s storage capacity, with a rated lifecycle, and low maintenance requirements.
some of the major energy-storage technolo- In 2018, Swiss/Southern Californian startup
power of 159 GW, as it is cheaper and more Currently, flywheels for energy storage are
gies mentioned in Figure 1. Energy Vault announced the commercial
technologically mature than any other stor- utilized for applications in sectors such as
availability of its energy storage solution that
age methods available18. In 2018, pumped power, aerospace, and telecommunications.
is based on the principles that underpin tra-
ENERGY STORAGE hydro storage was the most widely deployed
ditional gravity-based pumped hydro plants.
storage technology on a large scale, account- R&D activities are underway to improve the
Its new technology combines fundamentals
HOURS
ing for over 85% of the total energy-storage performance of flywheel energy-storage
of potential and kinetic energy with a cloud-
systems market. technology. For instance, research regarding
based software platform to operate a newly
development for new materials possessing
developed six-arm crane. The crane opera-
China has the largest rated power capacity of low density and high strength, which will pro-
MINUTES
tion is automated and moves massive con-
operational PHS plants with 32 GW, followed vide higher energy densities.
crete bricks that provide the basis for the
by Japan and the U.S., with 28.3 GW and 22.6
storage and discharge of electricity. The com-
GW respectively. While pumped hydro sys- GRAVITY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES pany Energy Vault also announced a technol-
tems currently dominate total installed pow-
SECONDS
Most gravity storage concepts are based on ogy and commercial partnership with CEMEX
er storage capacity, the cost of stationary bat-
the idea of using spare electricity to lift a Research Group AG (Mexican cement and
1kW 10kW 100kW 1MW 10MW 100MW 1GW teries such as lithium-ion and flow batteries
heavy block, so the energy can be recovered building materials manufacturer) that will
could fall up to 66% by 2030, in turn stimulat-
when needed by letting the weight drop down focus on material applications which include
ELECTROCHEMICAL STORAGE THERMAL STORAGE ing 17-fold growth in storage capacity.
again. For example, Advanced Rail Energy the optimization of various concrete based
ELECTROMAGNETIC STORAGE MECHANICAL STORAGE
Storage (ARES) has developed a gravity based composite materials that will support Energy
Pumped hydropower is limited by the number
technology that will permit the global electric Vault’s system deployments globally. This co-
Figure 1: Types of energy storage technologies of suitable locations since it requires large
grid to move effectively, reliably, and cleanly operation contributes to the development of
Source: De Oude Bibliotheek Academy (2017) areas of land for an upper and lower reser-
assimilate renewable energy and provide a new material that would be lightweight, du-
voir, which must be separated in height. This
significant stability to the grid20. ARES has rable (lasting 30 or more years), inexpensive
has created interest in developing new forms
2.1.1 MECHANICAL ENERGY STORAGE combined proven electric railroad technology and capable of incorporating multiple waste
of gravity energy storage, to capture the ben-
with modern electronics in an internationally materials, such as used debris concrete, coal
Mechanical energy storage systems take ad- efits of pumped hydropower without its land-
patented system that has very low technology ash and industrial slag.
vantage of kinetic or gravitational forces to use requirements. A particular technology
store inputted energy. While the physics of patented by the U.S. Company Gravity Pow- risk, growing markets, limited competition,
and expected high returns to investors. ARES Energy Vault’s technology was inspired by
mechanical systems are often simple (e.g. er is based on a large underground piston,
will use surplus wind/solar or other low- pumped hydro plants that rely on the power
spin a flywheel or lift weights up a hill), the which is lifted hydraulically to store energy,
cost energy from the grid to move hundreds of gravity and the movement of water to store
technologies that enable the efficient and ef- and then released to push water through a
fective use of these forces are particularly turbine. The cost of this system is primarily 18
Whiteman, A; Esparrago, J.; Rinke, T.; Elsayed, S.;Arkhipova, I.; Strinati, C.; Alay,L.F. Renewable Energy Statistics 2017; International
advanced. High-tech materials, cutting-edge made up of excavations (approximately 57% Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA): Masdar City, UAE, 2017.
computer control systems, and innovative of the total cost) and a reinforced concrete 19
Morstyn, T., Chilcott, M., McCulloch, M.D. “Gravity Energy Storage with Suspended Weights for Abandoned Mine Shafts”, Department
of Engineering Science, University of Oxford. Applied Energy, April 2019.
design makes these systems feasible in real- container to resist the load pressure (approx- 20
Cava, F., Kelly, J., Peitzke, W, Brown, M., Sullivan, S. “Advanced Rail Energy Storage: Green Energy Storage for Green Energy”, Storing
world applications. imately 25% of the total cost)19. Energy with Special Reference to Renewable Energy Sources, 2016, pages 69-86.
12 No 13 ENERGY SECURITY: OPERATIONAL HIGHLIGHTS ENERGY SECURITY: OPERATIONAL HIGHLIGHTS No 13 13
and discharge electricity. The company’s so- ronments. It is the most widely used method Nebraska-based Tenaska Power Services, types of conventional storage batteries used
lution is based on the same fundamentals for thermal energy storage as compared to the leading provider of energy management extensively today: the lead-acid batteries,
but replaces the water with concrete bricks. its available counterparts. It works by storing services and demand-side customers in the the nickel-based batteries and the lithium-
The large bricks are combined with Energy heat energy, which can be transformed into U.S to help develop up to 4 GWh of cryogenic based batteries. Lead-acid batteries are the
Vault’s system design and algorithm based superheated steam. To run steam turbines in energy storage plants in the U.S. over a two- oldest type of rechargeable batteries and are
software, which calibrates the energy storage order to generate electricity. This technology year period22. based on chemical reactions involving lead
tower and electricity charge/discharge while is extensively utilized in solar thermal pow- dioxide (which forms the cathode electrode),
accounting for a variety of factors including er plants in which molten salts are used as Thermal storage can be as basic as stor- lead (which forms the anode electrode), and
power supply and demand volatility, weather a heat transfer fluid and to store the excess ing ice for later use in air conditioning. In- sulphuric acid which acts as the electrolyte.
and wind. As a result, the company said that amount of heat energy. Molten-salt thermal stead of generating electricity, making ice Lead-acid batteries have high energy effi-
it can deliver all the benefits of a pumped storage helps solar thermal power plants to can shift power demand, especially to peak ciencies (between 85 and 90%), are easy to in-
hydro system, but at a much lower price, function as a base load power plant. A well- solar generation hours during the summer stall and require relatively low level of main-
higher round trip efficiency and without the known molten salt storage is typically asso- months, with the ice later used for air con- tenance. In addition, the self-discharge rates
requirement for specific land topography and ciated with the Solana concentrating solar ditioning. California-based Ice Energy is cur- for this type of batteries are very low, around
negative environmental or wildlife impacts. power plan in Arizona, USA. rently installing 1,200 ice-energy systems 2 percent of rated capacity per months (at 25
Energy Vault is partnering with India’s energy under a contract with Southern California degrees C) which makes them ideal for long-
giant Tata Power Company to construct an One example of an experimental storage sys- Edison (SCE). The systems will be centrally term battery storage applications.
initial 35 MWh facility with an expected date tem based on chemical reaction energy is the controlled to manage peak demand and load
of completion in 2019. salt hydrate technology. The principle of this shifting. The nickel-based batteries are mainly the
technology is that energy is stored chemi- nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd), the nickel-metal
According to the founders of Energy Vault, cally by separating salt from water and then Siemens Gamesa offers what it calls a cost- hydride (Ni-MH) and the nickel-zinc (Ni-Zn)
the system operates about 90 percent ef- released by combining them again. In Eu- competitive technology, electric thermal en- batteries. All three types use the same mate-
ficiency, and delivers long-duration storage rope, the Swedish company SaltX Technology ergy storage. In this case, electricity is used rial for the positive electrode and the electro-
at half the prevailing price on the market at is piloting a large scale plant with Vattenfall to heat volcanic stones in an insulated con- lyte which is nickel hydroxide and an aqueous
present. The idea is to bring something to in Germany by using “salt hydrate” technol- tainer to up to 600 degrees. The heat is later solution of potassium hydroxide with some
the energy storage market, for the first time, ogy21. SaltX Technology uses patented nano converted to electricity using a conventional lithium hydroxide respectively. Typical opera-
will produce baseload power below the cost coating of the salt, which is claimed to offer steam turbine, achieving a 45 percent round- tional life and cycle life of Ni-Cd batteries is
of fossil fuels. In order to achieve this goal, several advantages. One of them includes trip efficiency. This technology could be used also superior to that of the lead-acid batter-
Energy Vault must succeed where several preventing the salt from becoming sticky to retrofit fossil-fired power plants and the ies. Despite the above advantages of the Ni-
mechanical storage startups, with their own and thus to retain its original single crystal company plans to begin operation at a pilot Cd batteries over the lead-acid batteries, Ni-
takes on seemingly simple technological so- form, which in turn increases the number of facility later this year. Cd and the rest of the nickel-based batteries
lutions, have failed. A full scale Energy Vault charge-discharge cycles it can undergo. In have several disadvantages compared to the
plant, called an Evie, would look like a 35-sto- addition, salt is non-corrosive and also it is 2.1.3 ELECTROCHEMICAL ENERGY STORAGE lead-acid batteries in terms of industrial use
ry crane with six arms, surrounded by thou- non-toxic and recyclable. or for use in supporting renewable energy.
Electrochemical energy storage systems
sands manmade concrete bricks, weighing Ni-Cd battery may cost up to 10 times more
have the potential to make a major contri-
35 metric tons each. Another emerging potential competitor for than the lead-acid battery.
bution to the implementation of sustainable
longer duration storage is cryogenic storage
energy. Three important types of this storage
2.1.2 THERMAL STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES (liquid air). England-based Highview Power The third major type of battery storage tech-
system are rechargeable batteries, fuel cells
(INCLUDING MOLTEN-SALT THERMAL began operating a pilot-scale 5 MW cryogen- nology is the lithium-based battery storage
and flow batteries.
ENERGY STORAGE) ic energy storage facility near Manchester technology. Lithium-ion battery storage sys-
in June 2018. The technology uses electric- tems represent one form of electrochemical
Thermal energy storage is achieved with wide- BATTERY STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES
ity to chill and liquefy air at -160 degrees of energy-storage system. Globally, electro-
ly differing technologies. Depending on the Celsius, store the liquid air in insulated, low Storage batteries are rechargeable elec- chemical energy storage market accounted
specific technology, it allows excess thermal pressure tanks and later expose the liquid air trochemical systems used to store energy. for over 3,200 MW installed capacity in 2018,
energy to be stored and used hours, days, or to ambient temperatures to rapidly re-gasify They deliver, in the form of electric energy, of which lithium-ion battery storage ac-
months later, at scales ranging from the indi- the air, expanding it to 700 times its liquid the chemical energy generated by electro- counted for the dominant share. Lithium-ion
vidual process, building, multi-user-building, volume in order to provide power to turbines. chemical reactions. There are three main batteries store power in the form of chemi-
district, town, or region. When energy needs In July 2019, for example, Highview Power, a
to be stored, rocks, salts, water, or other ma- global leader in long-duration energy stor- 21
Engerati network newsletter. “Salt storage shows promise in Germany”, 30 August 2019.
terials are heated and kept in insulated envi- age solutions, announced a contract with 22
Driscoll, W. “A non-battery year for advancing non-battery storage”, PV Magazine, September 2019.
14 No 13 ENERGY SECURITY: OPERATIONAL HIGHLIGHTS ENERGY SECURITY: OPERATIONAL HIGHLIGHTS No 13 15
cal energy, offering major advantages such species outside the cell not only increase SUPERCAPACITATOR STORAGE The ultracapacitator system recuperates the
as low self-discharge rate, high round-trip the life of battery, but allow the flow battery TECHNOLOGIES braking energy of the trams and uses it for
efficiency, and longer lifetime. Research is capacity to be scaled up independently; this re-acceleration, saving energy and decreas-
ongoing to further enhance the amount of addresses the GW-scale energy storage re- Following Elon Musk’s speech at Cleantech
ing costs. This project in Germany is further
energy density for lithium-ion batteries. For quired for grid power back-up. This drives Forum 2011, there has been a lot of interest in
proof that ultracapacitators will be the key
instance, high-voltage electrolytes and sili- the importance in flow batteries to be better supercapacitators and for sure the potential
enabler for smart city transportation systems
con anodes are some of the techniques being solution for long-term energy storage, this is offered by nanotechnologies is keeping high
in Germany and across the globe.
looked at to further increase energy density most likely the best means of storing the in- hopes that at some point in the future, super-
of these batteries. Ongoing research in en- termittent energy from renewables. capacitators might reach a point where they
2.1.4 HYDROGEN STORAGE TECHNOLOGIES
ergy storage technology has resulted in re- equal the performance of batteries. Superca-
duced cost of lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries Flow battery is a type of rechargeable bat- pacitators (or ultracapacitators) are very high One of the technologies to store excess en-
and an increase in their performance. With tery where electricity is generated by the ion surface areas activated capacitators that use ergy produced by renewable energy sources
this trend to continue, utility companies in exchange process between two electrolytes. a molecule-thin layer of electrolyte as the is generation and storage of hydrogen. The
future are expected to switch to large bat- The electrochemically active components in dielectric to separate charge. The superca- system includes the major components of
tery banks as an alternative to building new the electrolytes circulate against each other pacitator resembles regular capacitator ex- an electrolyser, hydrogen storage tank, and
power plants. to generate a charge and are charge sepa- cept that it offers very high capacitance in a a fuel cell. The excess from the renewable
rated by a thin membrane and surrounded small package. Supercapacitators rely on the sources (e.g. solar and wind) is directed to-
Another type of electrochemical energy- by a positive and negative electrode. The con- separation of charge at an electric interface wards an electrolyser to generate hydrogen
storage system – sodium-based battery stor- struction principle of a flow battery is based that is measured in fractions of a nanometer, by electrolyzing water into hydrogen and oxy-
age – is considered as a future alternative to on directly converting chemical energy to compared with micrometers for most poly- gen. Hydrogen-based energy storage system
lithium-ion based battery storage. The main electricity directly. Flow batteries developed mer film capacitators. is one of the promising technologies favora-
reason for this move forward toward the based on this requirement are redox, hybrid, ble for long-term large-scale energy storage
Energy storage is by means of static charge applications. While receiving rapidly-growing
sodium-based battery is simply because of membrane less, semisolid, organic, metal
rather than of an electro-chemical process attention, hydrogen-based energy storage so-
sodium is one of the most abundantly avail- hydride, and nano-network.
inherent to the battery. While comparing lutions for such applications areas yet to be
able resources in the Earth’s crust. In addi-
the key parameters of Li-ion batteries and further developed. Only 7 projects were re-
tion, sodium can be recovered from seawater.
supercapacitators, it shows that one of the ported to be operational globally by 2016, hav-
Moreover, chemical composition of sodium
key benefits of the supercapacitator is its ex- ing a combined capacity of just over 7 MW. Ac-
provides inherent protection to the battery
tremely high cyclability, meaning that it can cording to a recent report published research
in case of overcharging. This fact makes
be charged and discharged virtually an un- in August 2017, the hydrogen-based energy
sodium-based battery storage safer than its
limited times. For systems designers having storage and technology market reached 3.6
lithium-ion-based counterpart.
to power systems in harsh environments, su- billion USD in 2016 and is expected to reach
percapacitators will operate in very low to high around 5.5 billion USD by 202125.The round trip
One possible drawback is that sodium-based
temperatures without degradation, which is efficiency today is lower than other storage
battery storage is expected to be physically
not the case for batteries. On the downside technologies. Despite this low efficiency the
heavier than lithium-ion-based battery stor-
supercapacitators self-discharge from 100 to interest in hydrogen energy storage is growing
age. Nonetheless, R&D efforts are underway
50 percent in 30 to 40 days, whereas lead and due to the much higher capacity compared to
to commercialize sodium-based batteries
lithium-based batteries self-discharge about batteries (small scale) or pumped hydro and
in the near future owing to their aforemen- Figure 2. Flow battery consists of two tanks of electrolytes
5% during the same period, but technol- compressed air energy storage.
tioned advantages. This option will provide pumped against each other separated by a membrane.
ogy is improving daily and supercapacitators
low-cost storage facilities for large-scale so- Source: www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/
are becoming better. For example, Skeleton
lar and wind projects in the future. redox-flow-battery POWER-TO-HYDROGEN (OR OTHER FUELS)
Technologies, the European market leader
for ultracapacitators and energy storage It is another established technology, at least
Flow-based electrochemical energy stor- The Redox flow battery is a type of recharge-
systems for transportation and grid applica- for installations of modest scale. Hydrogen
age systems have many advantages over able flow battery based on the principle of
tions will supply ultracapacitator systems to that is produced using electrolysis can be
the solid-state rechargeable batteries. The chemical reduction and oxidation in the pack-
power Škoda trams in Mannheim Germany24. stored and used later to generate electricity
electroactive species involved in the electron age to store energy in liquid electrolyte solu-
transfer is outside the cell and makes battery tions, which flow through negative and posi-
capacity independent of quantity present in tive electrodes. Most popular and extensively Dinesh, A., Olivera, S., Venkatesh, K, Santosh, S.M., Priya, M.G, Asiri, A, Muralidhara, H.B. “Iron-based flow batteries to store renew-
23
able energies”, Environmental Chemistry Letters, February 2018.
the cell package unlike solid-state recharge- studied redox flow batteries are Vanadium 24
www.skeletontech.com/news/skeleton-technologies-ultracapacitators-to-power-skoda-trams-im-mannheim
able batteries. In addition, the electroactive Redox Flow batteries23. 25
Biswas, R. Hydrogen Storage: Materials and Global Markets; bcc Research: Wellesly, MA, USA, 2017.
16 No 13 ENERGY SECURITY: OPERATIONAL HIGHLIGHTS ENERGY SECURITY: OPERATIONAL HIGHLIGHTS No 13 17
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