A Review of Air Pollution and Solutions Way Management Related to Ribbed Smoked Sheets (RSS) Production of Community-Level Rubber Cooperatives in ...
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Pollution, 6(2): 267-284, Spring 2020
DOI: 10.22059/poll.2019.290078.690
Print ISSN: 2383-451X Online ISSN: 2383-4501
Web Page: https://jpoll.ut.ac.ir, Email: jpoll@ut.ac.ir
A Review of Air Pollution and Solutions Way Management
Related to Ribbed Smoked Sheets (RSS) Production of
Community-Level Rubber Cooperatives in Thailand: Smoke, Soot
and PAHs particles
Kalasee, W. * and Teekapakvisit, C.
King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Prince of Chumphon
Campus, 17/1 M.6 Pathiu District, Chumphon 86160, Thailand
Received: 03.10.2019 Accepted: 18.02.2020
ABSTRACT: In Thailand, RSS chamber of community-level rubber cooperatives can be
classified into two models: old and new model, named after the years of their
establishment. Hot gas as a heat supply from Para-rubber (PR) wood (Hevea brasiliensis)
combustion is used for removing moisture from the natural rubber (NR) sheets. Smoke
and soot particles from PR wood burning has effected to the quality of the NR sheet and
the pollution in the workplace area and lead to health problems of the worker. Cascade
impactors are equipment for measuring the smoke and soot particles size distribution
from PR wood combustion. PAHs compounds from PR wood combustion were found 15
different PAHs components (Tekasakul et al., 2005; Furuuchi et al., 2006). Important
methods in decreasing smoke and soot particles from combustion of PR wood for rubber
smoking chamber are separation equipment and ventilation designed by computational
fluid dynamics (CFD) technique. In this article, the separation method is focused on
smoke and soot particle collection to maintain the quality of the NR sheet. This
equipment is reviewed both indoor and outdoor, for example, an impaction wall,
electrostatic precipitator, stainless-wire, etc. This review indicates that the ESP installing
between the furnace and the smoking chamber is suitable to eliminate aerosol particles at
the rubber smoking industry. In addition, CFD technique reports is aimed at collecting
aerosol particles for decreasing smoke and soot particles emission from rubber smoking
chamber is presented.
Keywords: Para-Rubber; wood combustion; Filtration; ESP; CFD.
INTRODUCTION Thailand, PR wood has been immensely
Smoke, soot and polycyclic aromatic used in multitudinous industries (Promtong
hydrocarbons (PAHs) are produced by & Tekasakul, 2007; Kalasee, 2009;
biomass burning of dried and cured the Chaivatamaset, 2015). Incomplete
agriculture product (Ravindra et al., 2006; combustion of PR wood results in the great
Wang et al., 2010), for example, ribbed emission of particles; smoke and soot;
smoked sheet (RSS). They were resulted (Furuuchi et al., 2006; Phairuang et al., 2019)
from the carbonaceous materials combustion and chemical compositions such as PAHs
(Kalasee et al., 2003; Deng et al., 2006). (Chomanee et al., 2009; Keyte et al., 2013;
In Southeast Asian countries, especially Hata et al., 2014; Chaivatamaset, 2015).
Thailand is the biggest natural rubber
* Corresponding Author, Email: arwkalasee@gmail.com
267Kalasee, W. and Teekapakvisit, C.
(NR) production and exportation country in precipitator) are appropriate to use in the
Southeast Asian and the world. In year rubber smoking chambers (Tantichaowanan,
2016, Thailand produced natural rubber 2005; Tekasakul et al., 2005; Tekasakul et
about 37.5% of the total world production al., 2006; Kalasee, 2009; Ruttanachot, et al.,
or about 4.5 million tons (Thailand Rubber 2011).
Research Institute, 2017). More than 85% Recently, CFD technique is used to
of NR products of Thailand are exported to decrease smoke and soot particles emissions
China, Japan, USA and India. Generally, from the rubber smoking chamber to
NR products include vehicle tires, toys, environment. The modified ventilation
condoms, medical gloves (Kalasee, 2009; system which uses CFD technique
Matiyanon et al., 2013; Rattanamechaiskul simulation and experiment is in good
et al., 2016). agreement. Smoke and soot particles
Currently in Thailand, More than 90% of ventilation would be pleasurably improved
NR products are RSS, rubber concentrated by appropriate roof ridge exit (Purba, 2009;
latex (RCL), and block rubber (Thailand Purba & Tekasakul, 2012). Thus, this review
Rubber Research Institute, 2018). Now, RSS article focuses on the discussion of air
and RCL consumption are increased in pollutants (smoke, soot and PAHs) from PR
Thailand, Asia, and World. They are wood combustion in a NR sheet smoking
followed by increasing numbers of the process and the different techniques to
automotive industry. In RSS process, the decrease this effect.
rubber sheets are washed and hung on
bamboo bars to dry in the smoking Ribbed Smoked Sheets Chamber
chambers. Hot gas production from Para Ribbed smoked sheets (RSS) chamber of
rubber wood combustion is flowing to the community-level rubber cooperatives in
rubber in smoking chamber via the tunnel Thailand can be classified into two models
which is constructed under the floor of the (old and new model), named after the years
chamber. When the wood is burned, the ash, of their establishment. The old model so-
carbon, water vapor, smoke and soot called model 1994 contains seven rubber
particles are produced. Smoke and soot smoking chambers and each chamber has
particles from wood combustion affect to the capacity 1.2-2.0 ton on a dried basis
workplace environment and can cause the (Kalasee et al., 2003; Promtong, 2006;
worker’s health problem. Study on the Choosong et al., 2010). The new model
characteristics of smoke and soot particles is established in 1995. This model contains
necessary. The important characteristics of four rubber smoking chambers and the
the study are the physical and chemical capacity of each chamber is double of the
properties. The physical properties of smoke old chamber model capacity. The old
and soot particles from Para rubber wood chamber model has dimensions of 2.6 m
combustion can be divided into two width, 6.2 m length, and 3.7 m height. It is
characteristics; particles size distribution and constructed of brick, mortar and cement. A
particles mass concentration. The chemical steel gate is built in the front wall for
characteristics of smoke and soot particles loading and unloading rubber. At the
from Para rubber wood combustion related ceiling of chamber, it has two ventilating
mainly to chemical constituents of particles windows. Furnace is located at 0.5 m
such as PAHs and organic compounds. For below the floor and it is constructed in the
the smoke and soot particles collection rear of the chamber. Heat distributing
apparatuses, three techniques (filtration by tunnels have 4 inch diameter and are built
stainless-wire mesh, inertial impaction in twelve positions at the floor level of the
(impaction wall) and electrostatic room. The bamboo bars are used to hang
268Pollution, 6(2): 267-284, Spring 2020
the rubber sheets on a steel crate which has groups (primary and secondary particles).
dimensions of 2.0 m width, 2.0 m length, In the combustion zone, the primary form
and 2.0 m height. The old model can of combustion particles is occurred at high
contain three crates, but the new model can temperature and the second form of
contain six crates. PR woods consumption particles is discovering in the fuel gas,
is about 0.8-1.2 ton per ton of dried chamber, chimney and atmosphere.
products both old and new chambers The measurement of smoke and soot
(Kalasee, 2009; Choosong et al., 2010). particles distribution from para-rubber wood
burning appliances is very challenging.
RSS Production Process and Monthly Many reports show that particles emissions
RSS Production Changes from wood combustion on two main factors.
In the RSS production process, the raw The first is particles size distribution and the
material or fresh para-rubber latex; white second is mass concentration.
liquid; is tapped and collected from Para- The particles size distribution measures
rubber tree. The membered farmers of an aerosol size that can be superseded by
rubber cooperative transport this latex to the diameter (Friedlander, 2000; Butler &
RSS factory during 7 A.M.-11 A.M Mulholland, 2004; Riahi et al., 2013).
(Choosong et al., 2010; Kalasee et al., 2012; According to Giechaskiel et al. (2014) report,
Matiyanon et al., 2014; Rattanamechaiskul the particle size is determined based on
et al., 2016). During 8 A.M.-12.00 A.M., characteristics, e.g. inertia, optical properties.
this latex is poured to tanks which are Cascade impactors are apparatuses for
located near the chamber. Until 2 P.M. measuring the particles size distribution in
water and the acid such as formic and acetic mass that operates based on the
is added to para-rubber latex. Aluminum categorization of inertial of aerosol particles
spacers are immersed in this latex and used (Davies, 1966; Hinds, 1999). They are the
as partitions to produce sliced slabs (around most appropriate equipment to achieve the
3 cm × 50 cm × 50 cm) of solidify the latex air quality measurements. These reports are
(tofu-like slabs). These slabs are then described in both the European (Alonso et
washed and squeezed to form thin layer al., 2017; Kesavan et al., 2017), Asian
sheets which have a thickness about 3-4 mm (Cheng et al., 2007) and Australian (Gras &
by a squeezing machine. Theses sheets are Michael, 1979). The testing method is set in
hung on the bamboo bars which placed at STP555, STP1002 and STP1287.
steel crate by the worker before they are One type apparatus of cascade
transferred to dry in a smoke chamber. impactors is Andersen air sampler
During the high season (December to (Andersen, 1956; Cheng et al., 2007; Hata
February), the capacity of the factory is et al., 2014; Alonso et al., 2017; Kesavan
more than 15000 sheets per week and it has et al., 2017). The Andersen sampler
capacity about 7000-11000 sheets per week operates on the principle of inertial
during June to September (moderate impaction. In each stage, the sampler
season). This production is the lowest consists of a plate for collection surface
during the deciduous fall season (March to and specification of nozzle arrangement.
May) because the most of farmers stopped The sample air is flowed into the sampler
to tap the para-rubber trees (Choosong et al., through stage by stage. The total nozzle
2010). area and nozzle size decrease with the
stage from upstream to downstream. After
Particles Distribution and Particles
Sampling Method the particles pass through a nozzle, the
Combustion particles from Para rubber particles that have diameter smaller than a
wood burning can be divided into two cut-off diameter of stage remain in the air
269Kalasee, W. and Teekapakvisit, C.
stream sample and pass onto the next stage. PR wood samples had moisture content
But the larger particles that have much ranging from 34.75 to 107.5% dry basis
sufficient inertia are collected at plate or and the mass concentration of their
collection surface. In the analysis, the stage combustion were 47 to 1358 mg/m3.
cut-off diameter or d50 is defined as the Investigated by Furuuchi et al. (2006), the
aerodynamic diameter at 50% cumulative characteristics of smoke and soot particles
oversize percentage of particles. It is used from the Para rubber wood combustion had
to find the size distribution of particles an impact on the workplace environment.
which is known as the mass median Their results of the smoke and soot particles
aerodynamics diameter (MMAD). The size distribution agreed with of Kalasee et
geometric standard deviation (GSD) of the al., 2003 report. For inside the workplace,
particles is defined as (Hinds, 1999): their result showed that the particles
concentration was 0.33 mg/m3 and it was
d84.1% d50% d higher than the acceptable limit by the
GSD [ 84.1% ]1/2 (1)
d50% d15.9% d15.9% Thailand Department of Pollution Control.
In 2009, the study of Chomanee et al.
where d15.9 , d50 and d84.1 are the showed that the smoke and soot particles
diameters where cumulative oversize size distribution was similar to the results
percentage of particles are 15.9, 50 and from Kalasee et al. (2003). In their
84.1, respectively. experiment, the air sampler was improved
The normally used technique for appraisal to prevent its condensation. Their report
particulate mass concentrations relates to showed that MMAD and GSD are found to
filtration (Davies, 1966; Hinds, 1999; Murry, be 0.68 micron and 3.04, respectively.
2000; Letts et al., 2003). Under controlled The studies of Hata et al. (2014)
relative humidity and temperature presented that the characteristics of
conditions, filters are weighed before and particles emitted from the Para rubber
after testing. Particles mass concentrations wood burning in a laboratory-scale (tubular
are calculated from the volume of gas electric furnace). Their results showed that
sampled and the filter mass increase. the increase of the heating rate had a
In this section, the study of smoke and relative influence to an increase of the total
soot particle characteristics from Para rubber particles mass concentration emissions
wood combustion is reviewed. Many reports from the Para rubber wood combustion.
of researchers are discussed as follows. For the graph relation between cumulative
Kalasee et al. (2003) is the first report to mass fraction and aerodynamic diameter of
study on smoke and soot particles the particles distribution from para-rubber
distribution from para-rubber wood wood burning in their results indicated that
combustion. The report showed that the MMAD and GSD were found to be about
smoke and soot particles size distribution 0.7 micron and 2.6, respectively. Their
was measured by an 8-stage cascade result was similar to the results from
(Andersen) sampler. Studied by Kalasee et Kalasee et al., (2003); Chomanee et al.,
al. (2003), the particles size distribution (2009).
was a single-model behavior. MMAD and
GSD of smoke and soot particles were PAHs Concentration
found to be 0.95 micron and 2.51, PAHs are organic compounds that consisted
respectively. The moisture content of the of hydrogen and carbon atoms
Para rubber wood had effected on the mass (Venkataraman et al., 2002; Tang et al.,
concentration of the smoke and soot 2005; Choosong et al., 2007, Salaudeen et
particles. The result also showed that the al., 2017). PAHs have toxic effects on the
270Pollution, 6(2): 267-284, Spring 2020
function of cellular membranes (Fang et al., burning had a single modal size
2004; Adeola et al., 2007; Amuda & distribution. The decomposition of PAHs
Imeokparia, 2007) and can cause human’s particles from the rubber-woods
health problems, e.g. cancer. PAHs are combustion happening using Soft X-rays
emitted to an ambient air primarily from the with a wave length of 1.3 × 10-4 to 4.1 ×
incomplete of fuel combustion, for example, 10-4 micron. The increased total energy of
petroleum (Bharti et al., 2019; soft X-rays had a relative influence to
Motamedimehr et al., 2019) and wood increase the effective decomposition of
(Tekasakul et al., 2008; Chomanee et al., PAHs particles.
2009; Choosong et al., 2010; Hata et al., Tekasakul et al. (2008) presented that
2014). Many reports are shown that the the size distribution of PAHs particles from
PAHs are precursors of smoke and soot Para rubber wood combustion in ambient
particle nuclei. Homann & Wagner (1966) air around the rubber smoking factory had
and many researchers (Martinis et al., 2002; a single-model behavior. During the dry
Venkataraman et al., 2002; Saez et al., 2003; season, PAHs concentration in ambient air
Chao et al., 2008; Croft et al., 2016) studied was higher than their concentration during
on PAHs components from an acetylene- the rainy season.
oxygen diffusion flame and their results Chomanee et al. (2009) presented that
showed that PAHs had two types of poly- sixteen PAHs compounds from Para rubber
aromatic (PA) molecules. The first type of wood combustion were able to be classified
PA molecular is compounds without side in two types: 2-3 rings and 4-6 rings.
chain (acenaphthalene, naphthalene, Naphthalene, Acenaphthylene,
phenanthrene and coronene) and the second Acenaphthene, Fluorene, Phenanthrene and
one is PA compounds which have molecular Anthracene are 2-3 rings of PAHs
weight of 150-500 or with side chain (Shin et compounds, while the 4-6 rings PAHs are
al., 1988; Simonelt et al., 1991; Fenklach & Fluoranthene, Pyrene, Benz[a]anthracene,
Wang 1991; Salaudeen et al., 2017; Chrysene, Benzo[b]fluoranthene,
Mahmudi et al., 2019; Bharti et al., 2019). Benzo[k]fluoranthene, Benzo[a]pyrene,
In this section, the reviewer studied Indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene, Dibenz[a,h]
PAHs concentration from Para rubber anthracene, and Benzo[g,h,i]perylene. The
wood combustion. Many reports are increasing of time period of combustion has
discussed as follows. a relative influence to decrease PAHs
Tekasakul et al. (2005) and Furuuchi et concentration.
al. (2006) showed that 15 different PAHs Investigated by Choosong et al. (2010),
components from the Para rubber wood the authors illustrated that wind direction,
combustion are found in the aerosol seasonal changes, the geometry of the oven
particles and ambient air at the workplace and rubber smoking chamber building and
of RSS factory. ventilation type has a relative influence to
The report of Furuuchi et al. (2006) change the particulate and PAHs
showed that the total PAHs particles concentrations from Para rubber wood
concentration from Para-rubber wood combustion. This report also depicted that
combustion was very high. For the soot PAHs concentrations in the ventilation
particle size larger than 3.3 micron, the zone was higher than their concentrations
PAHs concentrations were smaller than 103 in the workplace.
ng/m3 while the concentration for smaller The report of Hata et al. (2014) had
particles was about 105 ng/m3. shown that the heating rate and the
The report of Bai et al. (2007) showed combustion temperature had a significant
that soot particles from Para rubber wood effect on PAH emissions. The soot
271Kalasee, W. and Teekapakvisit, C.
particles from Para rubber wood The collection efficiency of a filter
combustion that was smaller than 0.43 decreases when the Pec increases and the
micron made a large contribution to PAHs. Stk decreases. Thus, Stokes number (Stk)
can be defined as (Hinds, 1999)
Particles Collection Method
Now, there have been many techniques to Dp2u f C
Stk (3)
catch the little particles, for example, 9 d ws
where is particle density, Dp is particle
filtration, cyclones separation, gravitational
settling, etc. However, the major techniques
are requiring a large space for installation. diameter, C is Cunningham slip correction
The rubber smoking chamber is the wet factor, and is viscosity (Davies, 1966;
areas. So, the installing various particles Hinds, 1999).
collection apparatuses is constrained. The During working period, the pressure
major reports show that there are only three drop increasing has a relative influence to
techniques; filtration by stainless-wire mesh decrease the filter (mesh) collection
(ASTM E11 & ISO 3310-1: 2016), inertial efficiency (Letts et al., 2003). Thus, the
impaction (impaction wall) and electrostatic pressure drop across filters (P) can be
precipitator (JB/T 12591-2016); which defined as (Davies, 1952):
appropriates for using at the rubber smoking
g uvg Ft
chambers (Kalasee et al., 2003; Docherty et P
d 2
64 Fs1.5 1 56 Fs3
(4)
al., 2005; Tantichaowanan, 2005; Kalasee, ws
2009; Ruttanachot, et al., 2011). In this equation, µg is the gas viscosity,
uvg is the face gas velocity, Ft is the
Filtration by Stainless-Wire Mesh
Because filtration by filters is simple to use thickness of filter, and Fs is the filter
and effective, it is the most interest packing density.
particles collection technology in the Studied by Kalasee (2003), the author
present. Therefore many researchers have showed that the plate of mesh #200 wires-
studied appropriate filter materials for stainless is installed on the frame above the
removing smoke and soot particles from floor of the rubber smoking chamber. This
wood combustion for filtration method. report showed that the particles collection
Large particles from the Para rubber wood efficiency of this apparatus is about 50%
burning are collected by a stainless-wire and the pressure drop is higher than 200 Pa
mesh by inertial impaction method at a at an initial velocity value of 28 cm/s. The
high velocity while the small particles are results of this report were similar to the
removed from hot gas by Brownian results from Sirisantipong &
diffusion method (Sippola, 2002; Kalasee, Tantichaowanan (2002).
2009; Sippola & Nazaroff, 2010). The Inertial Impaction
parameters involved in Brownian Inertial impaction or impaction wall is an
diffusion and inertial impaction are uncomplicated particle collection
Peclet number (Pec) and Stokes number technique. For the rubber smoking factory,
(Stk). Where u f is the filtration velocity, the flat plate is installed in the tunnel
dws is the stainless-wire mesh diameter, and between a furnace and the rubber smoking
DB is the particle Brownian diffusivity. chamber. The principle of this technique is
Thus, Peclet number (Pec) is given by the large particles which are unable to pass
through a nozzle. These particles are
u f d ws clashed with a flat plate because they have
Pec (2)
DB
272Pollution, 6(2): 267-284, Spring 2020
too many the inertial forces (Hinds, 1999; a stove and the rubber smoking room. This
Kalasee, 2009). report showed that the soot particles from
According to the method, the para-rubber wood combustion size in 3.3 to
dimensionless number which is described 4.7 micron size range were caught by a flat
to the behavior of particles suspended in zinc plate. The impaction system was
airflow is Stokes number (Stk) and it can shown in Fig. 1. In this system, the
be defined as (Hinds, 1999) impaction wall has the length (liw) of 150
cm and height (hiw)of 60 cm. A hot gas
Dp2UC
Stk (5) flow in the throat tunnel (stopping
9W distance) was like as a rectangular
In this equation, U is an air velocity in acceleration nozzle. The length (lth) and
throat, and W is a width of throat. The slip width (Wth) of this throat were 30 cm and
correction factor can be calculated from 60 cm, respectively. The stopping distance
(Hinds, 1999) (Sd) was 30 cm. The ratio of Sd / wth was
0.390
0.5. Hence, the value of Stokes number in
Dp ( )
C 1 (2.34 1.05e
Dp
) (6) theory for the stopping distance was 0.5
(Hinds, 1999). The range of velocity values
This equation should be placed when C of hot gas flowing in this throat tunnel was
200-500 cm/s. The result of this report
appears first time and is a mean free
showed that the dust-loading had no
path in air molecule.
influence to the collection efficiency and it
Studied by Kalasee (2009), the
was similar to the results from Phonchat &
apparatus (inertial impaction or impaction
Choowijit (2011).
wall) in his research was a flat zinc plate.
A plate was installed in the tunnel between
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the impaction system
273Kalasee, W. and Teekapakvisit, C.
Electrostatic Precipitator qe is the particle charges, and it can be
Many researchers have proposed many calculated from (Hinds, 1999)
methods to improve the collection
efficiency of electrostatic precipitator qe ne (9)
(ESP) and electrode cleaning mechanisms
where e is the electrical charges, and n is
for removal of soot particles from wood
the number of charge, and it can be
combustion (Kalasee et al., 2003; Intra et
calculated from (Hinds, 1999)
al., 2005; Kocik et al., 2005;
Tantichaowanan, 2005; Tekasakul et al., n n fc ndc (10)
2005; Tekasakul et al., 2006; Intra et al.,
2007; Kalasee 2009; Intra et al., 2010; Lin In this equation, nfc is the number of
et al., 2011; Ruttanachot et al., 2011; Ma et field charging, and ndc is the number of
al., 2016; Lin et al., 2018). Firstly, ESP is diffusion charging. White (1951) has been
installed in the 4 inch diameter tube which developing the equation of Fuchs (1947).
is built in twelve positions at the floor level In order to calculate the charging rate
of the room. ESP installation in the rubber expression can be described by a
smoking room is very dangerous because differential equation of White (1951) as
ESP works under an electric system, rubber given by
smoking chamber has wetting area from
dndc n e2
rubber sheet dehydration and the r 2Ci Ni .exp( Kcc dc ) (11)
knowledge of worker is rather low. Thus, dt rkT
ESP is installed in the tunnel between a In this equation, t is the charging time, r
furnace and the rubber smoking chamber in is the particle radius, Ci is the average ion
the present rather than installed ESP in the thermal velocity, Ni is the ion
rubber smoking room. concentration, Kcc is Coulomb constant, k
ESP has high collecting efficiency for a is Boltzmann constant, and T is the
small particles and its pressure drop is low temperature. The integrated of the above
(Kim & Lee, 1999; Tanaka, 2003; Tanaka, equation can be given by
2006; Long & Yao, 2010; Zhao et al., ndc t
dndc
r 2Ci Ni dt
2017). Collecting efficiency of ESP (µ) can
be defined by using the Deutsch-Anderson ndc e2 (12)
0
exp( K cc ) 0
equation (White, 1963; Kihm, 1987; Hinds, rkT
1999).
Thus, the number of diffusion charging
AcsVpm (ndc) caused by the diffusion charging time
1 exp[ ] (7) by the particle diameter (Dp) can be
Qg
calculated from
In this equation, Qg is the air flow rate, Dp kT Ni tKcc Dp Ci e2
Acs is the collection surface area, Vpm is the ndc ln 1 (13)
2 K cc e2 2kT
particle migration velocity, and it can be
calculated from For the number of field charging (nfc),
qe E f Cs and it can be given by
Ve (8)
3a Dp 3 Dp E f Ni tKcc Zi e
2
n fc (14)
2 4 K cc e 1 Ni tKcc Zi e
where Ef is the electric field strength, Cs is
the slip correction factor, µa is the air In this equation, α is the particle
viscosity, Dp is the particle diameter, and dielectric constant, and Zi is the ion
electrical mobility.
274Pollution, 6(2): 267-284, Spring 2020
For the number of ion concentration reports of researchers are discussed as
(Ni), it can be given by (Intra & follows.
Tippayawong, 2011) Investigated by Tantichaowanan (2005)
I ac dec and Tekasakul et al. (2006), the authors had
Ni (15) shown that the ESPs could be employed to
ZiVe hte
remove smoke and soot particles from Para
In this equation, dec is the equivalent rubber wood combustion. In the laboratory,
cylindrical radius, Ve is the voltage of the ESPs were suitable for use at the high
discharge electrode, µ is the gas velocity, h available voltage supply, which was constant
is the height of the collection electrode, Iac at 15 kV. In a field experiment, the twelve
is the average corona current, and it can be ESPs units of their design were installed in
given by the rubber smoking chamber and each of
them was operated at 30 minute periods
LhZi 0
I ac
d
V V V
e e c
(16)
when the fresh PR wood was burned. The
2
s c ln ec total time of the ESPs was operated about 10
r0 hours and the collecting efficiency of the
ESPs was higher than 40%.
In this equation, L is the length of the
In 2009, Kalasee proposed new ESPs to
collection electrode, α0 is the free-space
improve the design by Tantichaowanan
permittivity, Vc is the corona onset voltage,
(2005) and Tekasakul et al. (2006). In
S is a half of the gap between collection
order to decrease the danger of the
electrodes, C is a half of the distance
installation and usability, the ESPs are
between wire electrodes, and r0 is the
installed in the tunnel between a stove and
radius of the discharge electrode.
the rubber smoking room. This report
For the equivalent cylindrical radius
showed that ESPs were operated longer
(dec), it can be given by (Parker, 1997)
than 120 hours and the collecting
s efficiency of the ESPs was higher than
d ac 2c 0.18exp 2.96 For
2c 50%. The result was similar to the results
(17) from Kuarsakul et al. (2011).
s
0.3 1.0 The report of Kim et al. (2010)
2c
presented that CFD technique was
For the corona onset voltage (Vc), it can appropriate to study and simulate the
be given by aerosol distribution in the ESP system. The
d recommendation of this report was shown
Vc r0 Eoc ln ac (18) that simulation of the galvanic field and
r0 space charge distributions of ESP system
where Eoc is the corona onset electric field, was designed by the change of plasma
and it can be given by region.
An investigation by Ruttanachot et al.
0.864 x105 (2011) is improved ESPs technique of the
Eoc 32.2 (19)
r earlier design by Kalasee (2009). Their
0 ESPs contain fifteen collection plate
where β is the density of gas. electrodes. The cleaning system has water
In this section, the review of the study spray from a half of inch PVC pipes. The
of the collecting efficiency of smoke and collecting efficiency of ESPs is higher than
soot particle from Para rubber wood 60%. After ESPs was operated 120
combustion by ESP is presented. The minutes, the cleaning system is used to
275Kalasee, W. and Teekapakvisit, C.
clean the collection plate electrodes for a conservation for a steady incompressible
life of ESP extending. flow can be given by
The report of Park et al. (2018)
presented that the k–ε model (standard ( ui ) 0 (20)
xi
model of CFD technique) based on Finite
Volume Method and the Lagrangian where is the density, ui' is the velocity
approach with the dynamic of particle
fluctuation.
charging were used to study the corona
The differential equations for the
discharge model of ESP to solve the
conservation of momentum can be written
turbulent air flow and the motion and
as
charging of aerosol particles in the ESP.
This result showed that the differences in p
( ui u j )
size, relative permittivity and density had xi xi x j
the highest effect on the particle charging, (21)
u u j
the particle trajectory and the ESP [ ( i ) ui'u 'j ] gi B(T T ref )
collecting efficiency. x j xi
Computational Fluid Dynamics where u is the mean velocity components
Technique (u, v, w), µ is the fluid viscosity. Here, xi is
In the present, the CFD technique is utilized the coordinate axis (x, y, z), gi is the
to investigate aerosol concentration, flow gravitational acceleration vector, p is the
patterns, and particle motion (Loomans et al., pressure, B is the thermal expansion
2002; Kanaoka et al., 2006; Zhang et al., coefficient, T is the mean temperature, and
2006; Park et al., 2018; Rigopoulos, 2019). T ref is the system surrounding temperature
CFD methods can be divided into two major is used in work (the reference temperature).
groups: accelerated methods and convention The energy equation can be given by
methods. The accelerated methods are then
divided into two major groups: Hardware T
( uiT ) [ u 'jT ' ] (22)
techniques and Advanced Numerical xi xi Pn xi
Methods. For convention methods, Finite
Volume Method (FVM), Finite Difference where Pn is the Prandtl number, T ' is the
Method (FDM), Finite Element Method temperature fluctuation. The terms ui'u 'j
(FEM), and Spectral Methods are the most
popular methods. This methods are most and u 'jT ' are called the Reynolds stress
highly accurate, widely used and normally (ij) and the diffusion term for the enthalpy,
tend to use in most of the commercial respectively. The determination of these
software packages, such as ANSYS CFX, terms requires extra equations, which based
FLUENT, FLOVENT, STAR-CD and on the proposed by Boussinesq (1877).
FEMLAB. The standard k- model is the most
The Navier-Stokes equations either in widely used for modelling and simulation a
Lagrangian approach or in Eulerian are variety of practical engineering flow. In
used to solve in most of the CFD methods this model, the kinetic energy of turbulence
(FVM, FDM, FEM and Spectral Methods). (k) equation is given by
These equations are described in the
k
conservation of mass, momentum and ( ui )
energy. However, some methods solve the xi
(23)
Boltzmann equations instead of Navier- k
Stokes equations. [ ( tb )] S p B p
xi xi k
The continuity equation describing mass
276Pollution, 6(2): 267-284, Spring 2020
In the standard k- model, the In this equation, a is the density of air,
dissipation rate () equation is given by Mf is the mass fraction of smoke aerosol
particles, Va is the velocity of air, Ji is the
( ui ) [ ( tb )] local flux for i component, and it can be
xi xi xi calculated from
(24)
2
C1 ( S p C2 B p ) C3 M f
k k J i tb a Dco (29)
Sch xi
where µtb is the turbulent viscosity and it is
calculated from where µtb is the turbulent viscosity, Sch is
the Schmidt number, and Dco is the
k2
tb Cu (25) diffusion coefficient.
When smoke aerosol particles flowing
The model constants, proposed by are assumed to be continuous. The
Launder and Spalding (1974), are Cu= trajectory of smoke aerosol particle can be
0.09, C1= 1.44, C2= 1.0, C3= 1.92, k= 1.0 known by representing them in the discrete
and = 1.217, respectively. phase The trajectory of particles phase is
In equation (23), is the destruction predicted by integration of the force
rate, Sp is the shear production and it is balance on this particle, which is calculated
calculated from by a Lagrangian frame of reference (Tian
et al., 2007; Rigopoulos, 2010; Donde et
ui ui ui al., 2013; Raman & Fox, 2016). This force
S p tb ( ) (26)
x j x j xi balance equates the particle inertia with the
forces acting on the particle. So, it can be
In equation (23), Bp is the buoyancy presented for the x direction in the
production term and it is calculated from Cartesian coordinates, the force balance is
calculated from
ui ui ui
Bp tb ( ) (27) gi p a
x j x j xi dVpi
FDi Va Vpi (30)
dt p
In the presence of the theory involved in
smoke aerosol particles transport, the only where Vpi is the velocity of particle, gi is
of particulate phase of smoke aerosol is a the gravitational acceleration vector, p is
very small fraction (less than 0.0001%) of the particle density, FDi is the drag force,
its total mass and volume. Bulk properties and it is calculated from
of smoke aerosol differ imperceptibly from 3 g Re CD
those of pure air. So, one must adopt a FDi (31)
4 p Dp2
microscopic point of view in the study of
the properties of smoke aerosols (White, where µg is the velocity of air, Dp is the
1963; Kihm, 1987; Hinds, 1999). particle diameter, Re is the Reynolds
By assuming smoke aerosol particle- number, CD is drag efficiency, and it can be
laden air is a fluid with the density of air. given by (Haider & Levenspiel, 1989)
Diffusion of smoke aerosol particles is
determined by the convective diffusion CD
24 1 1 Re 2 3 Re
(32)
equation and it is given by (Kanaoka et al., Re 4 Re
2006)
In this equation, β1, β2, β3, and β4 is the
J
t
a M f
xi
aVa M f i
xi
(28)
constant value and the Reynolds number
(Re) is written as
277Kalasee, W. and Teekapakvisit, C.
a Dp Vpi Va wood combustion. The study of particles
Re (33) concentration distribution on modification
g of the rubber smoking chamber by CFD
technique field is very interesting in the
Lu et al. (1996) described the CFD
future.
technique using a single phase to represent
the aerosol particle and air flow. Air CONCLUSION
continuity was used to calculate the set of This review focuses on literature findings
equations for the control volumes and concerning RSS chamber of community-
Lagrangian method was employed in the level rubber cooperatives in Thailand, RSS
tracking model of particles. production process and monthly RSS
Purba & Tekasakul (2012) presented that production change, Particles size distribution
CFD technique was used to examine and particles sampling method, PAHs
temperature, velocity, smoke and soot concentration, the particles separation
particles concentration, and particles apparatuses reports and the decrease of the
trajectories in the rubber smoking chamber. quantity smoke and soot particles by
The resulting figures such as pressure, ventilation designed by computational fluid
temperature, particle path lines and dynamics (CFD) technique. The following
streamline contours are also referred to the are the conclusions and recommendations
authors or the publication (Particulate from the review:
Science and Technology). The high particles - RSS chamber of community-level
concentration occurred above the ceiling rubber cooperatives in Thailand can be
areas. However, the particles concentration classified into two models: old and new
was decreased along the height in a model. The capacity of each chamber of
downward direction. The smoke and soot new model (1995) is double in capacity of
particles concentration was largely decreased old model (1994).
by a modified ridge vents increasing at roof - Fresh rubber latex is poured to tanks.
of the rubber smoking chamber. Water and the acid are added to para-
The report of Dejchanchaiwong et al. rubber latex to solidify the latex (tofu-like
(2017) has presented that a new rubber slabs). These slabs are then washed and
smoking chamber was constructed by the squeezed to form thin layer sheets which
designed and simulated model of have a thickness about 3-4 mm by a
Tekasakul & Promtong (2008). The squeezing machine. Theses sheets are then
resulting figures; hot air velocity and hung on a cart and they are dried in a
temperature contours; are also referred to smoke chamber by hot gas from PR wood
the authors or the publication (Applied combustion. During the high season, the
Thermal Engineering). Although, the Para capacity of the factory is more than 15000
rubber wood consumption, the uniform sheets per week and it has capacity about
temperature and hot air velocity, and 7000-11000 sheets per week during the
reduction of drying time are the main moderate season (Choosong et al., 2010).
objective of this research. But the indirect - In the rubber smoking factory, smoke
benefit of this research is the reduction of and soot particles from PR wood
smoke and soot particles from Para rubber combustion contribute to pollution in the
wood combustion by hot air reusing. industry area, workplace and neighboring
Recommendation of this review, CFD atmosphere. Smoke, soot, and PAHs
technique is very interesting method to concentration is very high for the furnace,
improve the rubber smoking chamber. The chamber and workspace. Cascade
CFD technique can be used to decrease impactors such as Andesen sampler are
aerosol concentration from Para rubber
278Pollution, 6(2): 267-284, Spring 2020
equipment for measuring the smoke and CFD technique can be used to decrease the
soot particles size distribution from para- Para rubber wood consumption, energy
rubber wood combustion. MMAD and decreased by a uniform velocity and
GSD of smoke and soot particles were temperature in the smoking chamber
found to be 0.95 micron and 2.51, (Promtong & Tekasakul, 2007; Tekasakul &
respectively (from Kalasee et al., 2003 Promtong, 2008; Tanwanichkul et al., 2013;
report). But the report from Chomanee et Dejchanchaiwong et al., 2014; Tekasakul et
al., 2009 presented that MMAD and GSD al., 2015; Dejchanchaiwong et al., 2016 and
were found to be 0.68 micron and 3.04, Dejchanchaiwong et al., 2017).
respectively after improvement the air This review would be very helpful to
condensation. the scientists and researchers who are
- PAHs are emitted to an ambient air learning and working on a field in the
primarily from the incomplete of fuel aerosol technology, the reduction of smoke
combustion. PAHs had two types of poly- and soot particles and PAHs concentration
aromatic (PA) molecules: with and without from Para rubber wood combustion, and
side chain. PAHs compounds from Para improving the rubber smoking chamber by
rubber wood combustion were found 15 CFD technique.
different PAHs components (Tekasakul et
al., 2005; Furuuchi et al., 2006) and then Conflict of Interest
able to be classified in two types: 2-3 rings The authors declare no conflict of interest.
and 4-6 rings (Chomanee et al., 2009).
- Three aerosol collecting techniques; ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors thank King Mongkut’s
filtration by stainless-wire mesh, inertial
Institute of Technology Ladkrabang
impaction (impaction wall) and ESP; are
(KMITL), Prince of Chumphon Campus
installed to remove the smoke and soot
for giving an opportunity on this research.
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