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Perspectives on the active volcanoes of China
Jiandong Xu1,2*, Clive Oppenheimer3, James O. S. Hammond4 and
Haiquan Wei1,2
1
Jilin Changbaishan Volcano National Observation and Research Station, Institute of
Geology, China Earthquake Administration, Beijing 100029, China
2
Key Laboratory of Seismic and Volcanic Hazards, China Earthquake Administration,
Beijing 100029, China
3
Department of Geography, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
4
Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Birkbeck,
University of London, London, UK
JX, 0000-0001-6659-4807; CO, 0000-0003-4506-7260; JOSH, 0000-0001-9194-8689
*Correspondence: xujiandong@ies.ac.cn
Abstract: China has a rich record of Holocene volcanism that is relatively little known outside the country. It is
encountered in large stratovolcanoes in the NE, linked to subduction of the Pacific plate (e.g. Changbaishan), in
smaller volcanoes on the Tibetan margin, associated with the collision of India and Eurasia (e.g. Tengchong,
Ashishan), and in more isolated centres, possibly resulting from mantle upwelling (e.g. volcanoes in Hainan
island). This makes China a natural laboratory for studies of intraplate volcanism, and significant progress in
understanding its nature and origins has been made over the past quarter century. Here, we introduce the
first publication in English to provide a comprehensive survey of the state of knowledge and research highlights.
Accordingly, we provide an overview of the dynamics, geology, geochemistry, volcanic histories and geophys-
ical studies of 14 volcanic areas associated with the Holocene documented thus far. The special publication rep-
resents a benchmark reference on the topic but, as importantly, we hope that it will stimulate new, international
collaborations aimed at deepening our understanding of the origins, history, hazards and associated risks of
China’s volcanoes.
China may not be the first country that comes to mind particularly in the fields of volcanic geology, geo-
when you think about volcanoes, but it is home to physics and geochemistry. A renaissance in volcano-
more than a dozen volcanoes with evidence of Holo- logical research in China followed, accompanied by
cene eruptions (Table 1). One of them, Changbaishan the establishment in 1999 of a National Volcano
(also known as Tianchi, Paektu and Baegdusan), was Monitoring Network with six volcano observatories.
responsible for one of the largest historical eruptions, One simple gauge of the increase in knowledge over
in 946 CE (the ‘Millennium Eruption’), and experi- this period is that in ‘Active volcanoes of the world’,
enced unrest as recently as 2002–05 (J. Xu et al. published by the US Geological Survey in 1990,
2012; Pan et al. 2021b, this volume). It has attracted only two Holocene volcanoes were recognized in
international scientific attention since at least the China. The Smithsonian Institution’s Global Volca-
1940s (e.g. Asano 1948) and by the 1980s the extent nism Program (https://volcano.si.edu/) now lists
of its tephra fall deposit was being recognized in more than 10.
marine sediment cores and at terrestrial sites in north- In 2017, we received support from the Institute of
ern Japan (e.g. Machida and Arai 1983; Machida Geology at the China Earthquake Administration for
et al. 1990). Susanna Horn’s doctoral research on a three-year project to create a database of Cenozoic
the eruption involved fieldwork in both China and volcanoes of China. An additional aim was to com-
neighbouring Democratic People’s Republic of pile an English-language volume presenting state-
Korea (DPR Korea), constraining the magmatic evo- of-the-art knowledge on the major volcanoes and
lution and co-eruptive gas emissions (Horn 1997; volcanic fields in China to an international audience.
Horn and Schmincke 2000). Around the same time, Special Publication 510 is the result!
Charles Dunlap (1996), working with James Gill,
investigated the physical process and chemical fea-
tures of the eruption products of Changbaishan. Overview of active volcanoes in China
This external interest in Changbaishan helped
to focus domestic attention on the need for more Active volcanoes in China can be geographically
systematic study of other volcanoes in China, divided into three subregions: (1) NE–northern, (2)
From: Xu, J., Oppenheimer, C., Hammond, J. and Wei, H. (eds) Active Volcanoes of China.
Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 510,
https://doi.org/10.1144/SP510-2021-87
© 2021 The Author(s). Published by The Geological Society of London. All rights reserved.
For permissions: http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/permissions. Publishing disclaimer: www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics
Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on December 27, 2021
J. Xu et al.
Table 1. Population living close to active volcanoes in China
Volcano Name Also referred to as: Population Population Population Population Data
(no. on Fig. 1) within 5 km within within within Source
10 km 30 km 100 km
Changbaishan Tianchi, Paektu, 1000– 1000– 1447 813 448 †
(2) Baitoushan, 40 000/ 40 000/
Baegdusan day* day*
Longgang (3) 4852 10 406 173 208 4191 076 †
Jingpoh (5) Jingbohu, Jingpo 124 187 13 876 2 393 035 †
Lake
Wudalianchi 5000– 6627 155 589 1 991 669 †
(8) 27 000/
day*
Keluo (9) 3217 14 525 74 555 1098 555 †
Nuominhe (10) Nuomin River 0 6 160 106 466 †
Aershan (11) 159 216 2052 118 064 †
Abaga (12) 0 68 8389 334 368 †
Wulanhada 1111 4958 135 676 1 584 911 †
(19)
Ashishan (35) Ashi, Ashikule, 0 0 50 38 683 †
Kunlun volcanic
group
Tengchong (39) 10 274 144 038 494 349 3 194 180 †
Qiongbei (28) Hainan, Haikou, 21 348 151 171 2 171 729 6 785 011 †
Leiqiong
Datun (24) 5 084 149 5 084 149 6 735 396 9 862 061 ‡
Guishan (25) Na Na Na Na
Total 5 192 234 5 456 351 9 966 476 32 511 527
*Population of tourists per day.
†National Demographics of China, 2019.
‡The Global Volcanism Program, 2013.
SE coastal and islands and (3) SW regions (Fig. 1). et al. (2021a), but is probably linked to upwelling
They belong to several Cenozoic volcanic belts. Vol- from, or through, the subducted Pacific plate.
canism in northern and NE China is generally asso- The distribution of volcanism appears to be
ciated with subduction of the West Pacific plate strongly influenced by NE-trending normal fault
(Y. Wang et al. 2003; Wang and Chen 2005; H. (rift) zones (J.Q. Liu 1999a; Y. Wang et al.
Wei et al. 2007; W. Wei et al. 2012; D. Zhao and 2003). A series of volcanic fields, including Kuan-
Tian 2013; S. Li et al. 2016a; Z. Li et al. 2016b), dian, Longgang, Dunhua, Changbaishan, Jinpohu
while collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates is and Jixi, are located along the NE-trending Chang-
invoked to explain volcanism in the SW (Turner baishan Ranges from Liaoning to Heilongjiang
et al. 1993; Ding et al. 2003; Hou et al. 2006; provinces (volcanoes 1–6 in Fig. 1, as well as in
Y. Wang et al. 2007; Guo and Wilson 2019). The Fig. 2). These are evidently linked to the DMF
following subsections provide further background. zone (Fig. 2; X. Liu 1999b; R.X. Liu 2000) while
a NE-trending series of minor volcanoes at the SE
margin of the Songliao basin are associated with
Active volcanoes in NE and northern China the Yilan–Yitong fault zone (YYL in Fig. 2;
Y. Wang et al. 2003). A series of volcanic fields
Volcanic products cover around 50 000 km2 of NE is similarly aligned on the NW margins of the
and northern China. Much of this volcanism has ori- basin and the Greater Hinggan Range: (Daxing’an-
gins in the Cretaceous, and explanations for it ling)–Xiaogulihe, Nuominhe, Halahahe and others
include delamination of a thickened lithosphere (volcanoes 10–19 in Fig. 1). Changbaishan, the
associated with the westward subduction of the largest Cenozoic volcanic field in China (volcano
Pacific plate (e.g. J.H. Zhang et al. 2010) and roll- 2 in Fig. 1), is located at the intersection of the
back of the Paleo-Pacific plate (F. Wu et al. 2005). NE-trending Dunhua–Mishan fault, Yalujiang
The origin of persistent Holocene volcanism, how- fault, Tumenjiang fault and NW-trending Baishan–
ever, remains uncertain as discussed in H. Yu Jince fault systems (Fig. 2). It alone encompassesDownloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on December 27, 2021
Active volcanoes of China
Fig. 1. Distribution of Cenozoic volcanic areas in China and adjacent areas (for more details see Pan et al. 2021a,
this volume). Active volcanoes in NE and northern China: 1, Kuandian volcanic field; 2, Changbaishan volcanic field;
3, Longgang volcanic field; 4, Dunhua basaltic field; 5, Jingpohu volcanic field; 6, Jixi volcanic field; 7, Xunke
volcanic field; 8, Wudalianchi volcanic field; 9, Keluo volcanic field; 10, Nuominhe volcanic field; 11, Halaha
volcanic field; 12, Abaga volcanic field; 13, Chifeng volcanic field; 14, Daxiaoshan volcanic field; 15, Penglai
volcanic field; 16, Linqu-Changle volcanic field; 17, Nvshan-Jiashan volcanic field; 18, West of Mongolia volcanic
field; 19, Wulanhada volcanic field; 20, Hannuoba volcanic field; 21, Datong volcanic field; 22, Xiyang-Hebi
volcanic field. Active volcanoes of the SE China coast and adjacent islands: 23, Coastal of Southeast China volcanic
field; 24, North of Taiwan volcanic field; 25, Coastal Mountains of Taiwan volcanic field; 26, West of Taiwan and
Penghu islands volcanic field; 27, Central basin of South China Sea basaltic zone; 28, Leiqiong volcanic field; 29,
North Gulf volcanic field. Active volcanoes in SW and western China: 30, Halaqiaola volcanic field; 31, Tuoyun
basin volcanic field; 32, Xikeer volcanic field; 33, Yumen volcanic field; 34, Lixian volcanic field; 35, Southern
Xinjiang and North Tibet volcanic zone; 36, Qiangtang basin volcanic zone; 37, Hengduanshan volcanic zone; 38,
Gangdis volcanic zone; 39, Tengchong volcanic field.
more than 100 individual volcanoes spanning an Cenozoic volcanism occurs in central-eastern parts
area of over 20 000 km2. of northern China, although much of it is covered
There are additional NW- and also north–south by non-volcanic sediments (J.Q. Liu 1999a; Z. Li
trending-structural features associated with Ceno- et al. 2003).
zoic volcanism in this region, for example, a signifi- At the heart of the Changbaishan volcanic field
cant K-rich volcanic belt (Qiu 1991) can be traced lies Tianchi volcano, the most famous in China
from Keluo to Wudalianchi and Erkeshan, trending owing to its historic activity and place in folklore.
north–south (Fig. 2). Here, petrological analysis sug- As noted, ‘Changbaishan’ is formerly the name of
gests magma sourcing from depths of 100–120 km the wider region, host to over 100 individual volca-
(Qiu et al. 1991) while geophysical evidence points noes. However, the name has become widely synon-
to mid-crustal reservoirs beneath Wudalianchi today ymous with Tianchi, the volcano responsible for the
(Gao et al. 2020). Volcanic fields between Gulihe largest known eruption in China (and DPR Korea),
and Xunke in the Greater and Lesser Hinggan in 946 CE (Horn and Schmincke 2000; J. Xu et al.
Ranges (Xiaoxing’anling) also align with NW- and 2013; Oppenheimer et al. 2017), and also for the
north–south orientations (J.Q. Liu 1999a). Further most recent episode of volcanic unrest (J. Xu et al.Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on December 27, 2021
J. Xu et al.
Fig. 2. Distribution of major faults showing the tectonic background of volcanoes in NE China. BJF, Baishan–Jince
fault; DMF, Dunhua–Mishan fault; MDJF, Mudanjiang fault; NBF, Nengjiang–Balihan fault; TMJF, Tumenjiang
fault; YLJF, Yalujiang fault; YYF, Yilan–Yitong fault. the grey belt is the Greater Hinggan–Taihangshan gravity
gradient lineament.
2012; H. Wei et al. 2013). F. Wei et al. (2021a) and peninsula, controls a series of NW-trending volcanic
H. Wei et al. (2021b) report the key compositional fields. The evolution from alkali basalt to trachyte
features of Tianchi (Changbaishan) magmas associ- (and comendite) is evident at Xiaobaishan, Bao-
ated with successive stages of shield-, composite taishan, Baishafeng, Huangfeng, Guantoufeng, Xue-
cone- and ignimbrite-forming eruptions. They dis- feng, Touliushan and Qibaoshan (Ri 1993; H. Wei
cuss the evolution from basalt to trachyte and comen- 2014). Other active volcanoes in the Changbaishan
dite through fractional crystallization, and elaborate field include Longgang and Jingpohu, both of which
on the physical volcanology of the 946 CE eruption. are influenced by westward subduction of the West
Other polygenetic volcanoes associated with the Pacific plate and active faulting, similar to the situa-
uplift of the Gaima plateau in the Changbaishan tion inferred for Tianchi (Changbaishan) volcano.
volcanic field include Wangtian’e and Baotaishan Longgang (volcano 3 in Fig. 1), in the NW of the
(in DPR Korea) (Taniguchi et al. 2010). The Changbaishan field, comprises more than 100 volca-
Baishan–Jince fault zone (Fig. 2), extending SE noes, including monogenetic trachybasaltic scoria
from Changbaishan to the east coast of the Korean cones, and around a dozen phreatomagmatic centres.Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on December 27, 2021
Active volcanoes of China
B. Zhao et al. (2021a) introduce the geological The Greater Hinggan–Taihangshan range, con-
background to this volcanism, summarising its geo- spicuous both as a landmark of northern China and
graphic distribution, history and geochemistry. They in its gravity and magnetic signatures that imply
highlight Jinlongdingzi volcano, which erupted c. sharp changes in crust structure and lithospheric
1500–1700 years BP. Here, trachybasalts and mantle thickness and mantle geochemistry (Zheng et al.
xenoliths show little evidence of crustal interaction 2006; Y.G. Xu 2007; Z. Liu et al. 2016), coincides
with magmas. with primarily Cenozoic volcanic lava fields. N. Li
Jingpohu, NE of the Changbaishan field (volcano et al. (2021) discuss the Miocene to late Pleistocene
5 in Fig. 1), consists of monogenetic basaltic cones volcanism evident along the southwestern part of the
clustered along the NE-trending Dunhua–Mishan range at Abaga, Dalinor, and Wulanhada (volcanoes
fault (Fig. 2). X. Bai et al. (2021) report three main 12 and 20 in Fig. 1). Trace element geochemistry
eruptive episodes, c. 29.23–13.59 Ma, c. 83.7 ka identifies heterogeneities in the lithospheric mantle,
and c. 5500–5200 years BP. Both the Miocene and and contributions associated with the westward sub-
Pleistocene volcanic rocks are alkali olivine basalts, duction and rollback of the Pacific slab.
while the Holocene volcanoes additionally include Cenozoic intraplate basalts are widely linked to
leucite tephrites. The primary magmas for the Mio- the subduction of the Pacific plate beneath the Eur-
cene and Pleistocene series are thought to have asian plate. Models to explain the volcanism include
derived from partial melting of enriched mantle a ‘Big Mantle Wedge’, where dewatering from slabs
II-like garnet peridotites, whereas the Holocene in the transition zone leads to hydrous upwellings
tephrites are associated with the melting of eclogites (e.g. D. Zhao 2004) and holes in the slab through
and peridotites. The interpretation of the origins of which upwelling material rises (Y. Tang et al.
this province diverges from a ‘conventional’ mantle 2014). These models have been developed from geo-
plume model, arguing instead for the triggering of physical evidence (summarized in this volume by
lithospheric mantle melting by devolatilization of W. Yu et al. 2021b). Concerned especially with
stagnated slabs in the mantle transition zone. the Big Mantle Wedge hypothesis, L. Hong et al.
Wudalianchi volcano is situated in a K-rich vol- (2021) report olivine compositions of the Quaternary
canic belt near the northern margin of the Songliao Datong basalts (volcano 21 in Fig. 1). Based on cal-
basin (volcano 8 in Fig. 1, Fig. 2; Qiu 1991; cium–vanadium partitioning, they investigate the
Y. Wang and Chen 2005; Chen et al. 2021). It was source lithology and redox-hydration state of the
the first monogenetic active volcano studied in mantle source, identifying a key role for pyroxenite.
China and features well-preserved lava flows and
evidence for an underlying magma system (Gao Active volcanoes in SW and western China
et al. 2020). The evolution of the associated volcanic
field is closely related to recent tectonic movements Several volcanic belts in SE China are situated near
affecting the Songliao basin. Seismic tomographic the Indian–Eurasian continental collision zone,
studies suggest a possible link to ongoing upwelling including the western Kunlun on the NW margin
from the subducted Pacific slab (W. Wei et al. 2019). of the Tibetan Plateau, and Tengchong along the
Volcanism began in the middle Pleistocene, and the SE margin (Fig. 1). Volcanic fields within the
most recent eruption took place in 1776 CE. There Tibetan Plateau can be divided into three zones, all
are intriguing documentary records of the historical of which are controlled by ongoing collision (Deng
activity of the volcano, explored by Z. Chen et al. 2003; Hou et al. 2006; Guo and Wilson 2019).
(2021). These include a detailed report from a local Accounting for evolution of the plateau, Mo et al.
governor to the emperor pertaining to another erup- (2007) argued that the location of volcanism fol-
tion, in 1720–21. lowed the progression of the uplifted asthenosphere
The Halaha River–Chaoer River volcanic field to the NW, ENE and SE, into the uplifted margins
in the Greater Hinggan Mountain Range (Fig. 2) where the historical eruptions of Tengchong and
consists of at least 41 monogenetic volcanoes built Ashikule (Kunlun mountains) occurred.
from magmatic and phreatomagmatic eruptions. The 65–45 Ma alkali basalts in the central part of
The lavas are alkali basalts enriched in light rare Tibet represent more primitive mantle melts while
earth elements (La/YbN = 7.9 to 24.5) and their the younger potassic to ultrapotassic volcanic rocks
ocean island basalt-like geochemistry, high Nb/U are derived from an enriched mantle source (Ding
ratios and high TiO2 contents (.2 wt%) indicate der- et al. 2003). There are also abundant calc-alkaline
ivation from the asthenosphere mantle (Y-W. Zhao rocks from this period, associated with rollback of
et al. 2021c). The authors draw on field-structural a shallow north-dipping slab of Tethyan oceanic
and geochemical data and arguments to conclude lithosphere (Ding et al. 2003). Based on the spa-
that a combination of asthenosphere upwelling and tial–temporal distribution of the post-collisional
other tectonic forces exerted control on the volca- magmatic rocks in the Tibetan Plateau, Guo and Wil-
nism in this area. son (2019) proposed a two-stage evolutionary modelDownloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on December 27, 2021
J. Xu et al.
relating the volcanism to continental subduction. NNE-trending fault zones that developed from the
Indian oceanic and continental lithosphere, together late Cretaceous onwards, as well as mantle upwell-
with their Tethyan platform cover, subducted ing (Z. Li et al. 2003).
north, provoking upwelling of a carbonate-rich The South China Sea basin underwent several
upper mantle plume before 25 Ma. Subsequently, cycles of rifting and subsidence, with rift-related
the Eurasian plate subducted southward with the magmatism responsible for most of the intra-basin
Indian plate subducting to the north. volcanism. The rifting began around the onset of
For Ashishan (volcano 35 in Fig. 1), one of the Indian–Eurasian plate collision in the Paleocene
highest volcanic fields in the world, situated in the (Taylor and Hayes 1983; Briais et al. 1989). A series
western Kunlun of North Tibet, J. Xu et al. (2021) of micro-continent convergences terminated this
review field investigations and 40Ar/39Ar geochro- rifting, including the Taiwan–Eurasia collision
nology. They describe the geology of the area and (McCabe et al. 1985; Rangin et al. 1985). Magnetic
present petrological evidence for the regional mag- anomalies near the basin (spanning the period 17–
matic evolution. Of particular interest, contemporary 32 Ma) record a directional change in rifting from
newspaper reports indicate an eruption in 1951, the east to NE 21 Ma ago (Taylor and Hayes 1983; Pau-
veracity of which is discussed in the work. tot et al. 1986; Hayes et al. 1987). The South China
In the West Kunlun Mountains, four volcanic Sea basin and island volcanic products are predomi-
fields (Kangxiwa, Dahongliutan, Qitaidaban and nantly rift- and mid-ocean ridge basalt-type tholeiites
Quanshuigou) are distributed along the 180 km-long and alkali olivine basalts (e.g. volcano 27 in Fig. 1).
Dahongliutan fault (volcano 35 in Fig. 1). Volcanism Trace element ratios reveal ocean island basalt signa-
included effusive, explosive and phreatomagmatic tures, with Sr, Nb and Pb isotopes displaying strong
eruptions. B. Zhao et al. (2021b) describe the mantle source heterogeneities (Hart 1988).
newly discovered Qitaiyanhu volcanic field. Radio- The Leiqiong volcanic field situated to the north
carbon dating of lacustrine sediments beneath the of the basin has erupted basalt tholeiites and alkali
Qitaiyanhu lava flows (13 110 + 40 years 14C BP) olivine basalts since the Oligocene, reaching a cli-
suggests that eruptions persisted into the late Pleisto- max in the Miocene and continuing into the Holo-
cene and possibly Holocene. Base surge deposits cene (volcano 28 in Fig. 1). F. Wei et al. (2021a)
were identified in the Kangxiwa volcanic field. discuss the underlying geodynamics and magma
The origin of four shoshonitic fields at Kangxiwa, source environment (partial melting of mantle
Dahongliutan, Qitaidaban and Quanshuigou is pyroxenites). One volcano that fails to fit the rifting
linked to asthenospheric upwelling triggered by col- model is Leihuling, one of the Holocene volcanoes
lision of the Indian and Tarim plates. in Leiqiong volcanic field (volcano 28 in Fig. 1) on
Situated in SW China, the Tengchong Volcanic north Hainan Island. Seismic tomography reveals
Field (volcano 39 in Fig. 1) erupted calc-alkaline an underlying mantle plume extending down to the
magmas from the Pliocene to Holocene. Five stages core–mantle boundary (Lei et al. 2009a). Haikou,
and two cycles are recognized: the N2–Q1P–Q P the capital of Hainan province, is about 10 km
magmas evolved from basalts to dacites, while the away from Leihuling volcano. This, together with
Q3P–Qh magmas fractionated from trachybasalts to evidence for Holocene activity, suggest this volcano
trachytes (Huangpu and Jiang 2000). H. Yu et al. as a priority for future study.
(2021a) discuss the magma evolution and pre- Datun volcanic field, consisting of 20 volcanoes,
sent evidence for mixing between a mid-ocean ridge is located in the north of Taiwan (volcano 24 in
source and eastern Indian continental margin sedi- Fig. 1). The Cenozoic volcanism began at 2.8–
ments. They also report seismic tomographic and mag- 2.5 Ma and reached a peak at 0.8–0.2 Ma, and strong
netotelluric evidence for subduction of the Indian plate geothermal activity persists today. The erupted prod-
beneath the Tengchong Volcanic Field and for the ucts include lava flows, pyroclastic flow and surge
presence of crustal magma chambers at 25 km depth. and tephra fall deposits. To understand the hazards
and associated risks, notably as they might concern
the city of Taipei, which is about 20 km from the vol-
Active volcanoes of the SE China coast and cano, Datun Volcano Observatory was established in
adjacent islands 2011. It maintains seismic monitoring and thermal
and geochemical surveillance of hot springs.
Cenozoic volcanism along the SE China coast is
known from both surface exposure and drill cores
(J.Q. Liu 1999a). It follows approximately the Geophysical background of the major
NE continental margin, and includes Jiashan, volcanoes
Liuhe–Yizheng, Chuansha, Shengxian–Xinchang,
Songxi–Fudin–Rushan and Sanshui, among others The deep origin of Changbaishan and other volca-
(volcano 23 in Fig. 1). Eruptions appear linked to noes in NE China is widely believed to be associatedDownloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on December 27, 2021
Active volcanoes of China
with subduction of the Pacific slab (e.g. D. Zhao including deep seismic sounding (C. Wang et al.
2004; J. Huang and Zhao 2006; Zhao et al. 2009; 2002), local earthquake tomography (Hua et al.
Y. Tang et al. 2014; Tian et al. 2016; Tao et al. 2019) and magnetotelluric sounding (D. Bai et al.
2018). W. Yu et al. (2021b) review these models, 2001). These studies have provided some equivocal
showing how deep dewatering of a slab stagnating evidence for magma bodies beneath some of
in the mantle transition zone (the ‘Big Mantle the volcanoes.
Wedge’ model; D. Zhao 2004) or a gap in the slab
allowing deeper material to rise through (Y. Tang
et al. 2014) may drive volcanism of Changbaishan Volcano monitoring
and Wudalianchi. Discriminating between models
is challenging because of the limited resolution of 32.5 million people live within 100 km of one of the
available geophysical imaging. 14 identified Holocene volcanoes (Table 1; see also
The origin of Quaternary volcanoes in the Ashi- Fig. 1). As a cornerstone of effective mitigation strat-
kule basin has been attributed to lithospheric delami- egies, it is essential both to establish volcanic histo-
nation and partial melting of the subcontinental ries and to conduct sustained operational monitoring
lithosphere (e.g. Turner et al. 1993; L. Xia et al. using a combination of geophysical, geodetic and
2011). Recent geochemical and seismic tomography geochemical methods (Scarpa and Tilling 1996;
results, however, suggest a deeper source (W. Wei Sigurdsson 2000). To date, observatories have
et al. 2015), with upwelling of hot asthenospheric been established in six areas considered the highest
materials through the gap between the Indian plate priority from a risk perspective (R.X. Liu 2000;
and the Tarim Block. A further tomographic study H.J. Hong 2013). These are the observatories of
suggests that Ashikule volcano may originate from Changbaishan, Tengchong, Longgang, Jingpohu,
the mantle transition zone or lower mantle Wudalianchi and Qiongbei. Each observatory
(Z. Wang et al. 2019). Multiscale tomographic stud- employs between four and 10 permanent staff who
ies attribute formation of Tengchong with subduc- are responsible for collection and initial processing
tion of the Indian plate (e.g. C. Li et al. 2008; Lei of data. Additionally, a National Volcanic Network
et al. 2009b; Z. Huang et al. 2015). Centre was established within the Institute of Geol-
The results of a magnetotelluric survey on Hainan ogy, China Earthquake Administration, to handle
volcano reveal a low resistivity body extending from data management and analysis, provide specialist
a depth of about 13 km to the upper mantle, inter- training and act as the command centre during volca-
preted as a small mantle plume or magmatic system nic crises (H.J. Hong 2006, 2013; J. Xu 2018).
(Hu et al. 2007). Several seismological studies (e.g. Seismic networks have been installed at all six
D. Zhao 2004; Lei et al. 2009a; S. Xia et al. 2016; monitored volcanic fields. Ground deformation is
Tao et al. 2018) suggest that upwelling of the surveyed by several methods, including GPS, level-
plume played an important role in the volcanism. ling and spaceborne radar interferometry. Combined
However, owing to limited data available for the deformation monitoring has been established at Tian-
South China Sea, information on the upper-mantle chi (Changbaishan), with new networks being devel-
structure and pattern of mantle flow is still lacking. oped at Tengchong and Qiongbei (Ji et al. 2021, this
W. Yu et al. (2021b) review geophysical con- volume). Volcanic gas geochemistry surveys are
straints on the crustal structures of Tianchi (Chang- conducted at Changbaishan–Tianchi and Tengchong
baishan) and other volcanoes, including the results volcanic fields, focused on sampling and analysis of
of 3D deep seismic sounding (e.g. X. Zhang et al. geothermal springs (Jiang et al. 2005; J.P. Wu et al.
2002; Song et al. 2007), magnetotelluric sounding 2007; G.M. Liu et al. 2011). Using these techniques,
(e.g. J. Tang et al. 2001), receiver functions (e.g. the Chinese volcanological community has gained
J. Wu et al. 2009; Kyong-Song et al. 2016; Ham- significant experience and insight into the baseline
mond et al. 2020) and ambient noise and surface activity of the monitored volcanoes.
wave tomography (e.g. Z. Liu et al. 2016; Yang Based on the analyses of past monitoring data and
et al. 2019). These studies provide evidence for historical accounts, Tianchi (Changbaishan) volcano
magma bodies beneath Tianchi (Changbaishan) vol- is considered to pose the most significant risk in
cano at various levels in the crust, but more detailed China. The 2002–05 unrest episode has been inter-
cross-border research is needed to resolve their preted as a manifestation of recharge of the shallow
3D distribution. A local tomographic study and mag- magmatic reservoir, with important implications for
netotelluric survey have provided evidence for a risk management (J. Xu et al. 2012; H.J. Hong
shallow magma storage region beneath Weishan vol- 2013). At the volcanic field, tectonic activity is
cano in the Wudalianchi volcanic field (S. Li et al. recorded but there is little evidence for involvement
2016a; Z. Li et al. 2016b; Gao et al. 2020). Several of magmatic processes. The remaining four moni-
geophysical techniques have been used to investigate tored volcanic fields remain relatively stable, with
the plumbing system of Tengchong volcanic field, just several to dozens of earthquake events occurringDownloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on December 27, 2021
J. Xu et al.
per year (Y.B. Li et al. 2006; Qi et al. 2013; Gao and Fei 2019). However, other phenomena, including
Yang 2018). Details concerning the development of wildfires, the spontaneous combustion of coal and
the Chinese volcano monitoring network and the sta- dust storms recorded in historical documents can
tus of individual volcanic areas are summarized by give rise to similar manifestations to volcanism
Pan et al. (2021b). (Z. Chen and Chen 2021). It is challenging to inter-
pret such records, which were written in very differ-
ent contexts and milieu to those we are accustomed
Volcanic hazards and risk management to today (e.g. Newfield and Oppenheimer 2021).
Compared with volcanic hazard-prone countries Such scholarship requires collaboration between his-
such as Japan, Italy, the USA, New Zealand, Japan torians and/or philologists able to provide accurate
and Russia, where volcano observatories have been reading of ancient and historical texts, stories and
operating for decades (and in the case of Vesuvius poetry, and geoscientists cognizant of the variety of
for about 180 years), China is a latecomer to opera- manifestations that, for instance, might result in a
tional volcano monitoring. This reflects at least in dust-laden sky.
part the lack of any eruption in mainland China In this volume, Z. Chen and Chen (2021) uncover
since the 1950s. Even now, rather little wider atten- such texts and consider the evidence for references to
tion has been given to the hazards and associated volcanic eruptions or their effects. An enduring con-
risks of most of the volcanoes in China. The excep- troversy surrounds the evidence for eruptions of
tion is Tianchi (Changbaishan), which has been the Tianchi (Changbaishan) since the Millennium Erup-
focus of numerous studies. For instance, several tion. Historical records have been interpreted as sug-
works have simulated hazards associated with pred- gestive of several subsequent eruptions (e.g. Yun
icated eruption scenarios. These included works by: 2013; Y. Li 2017; Sun et al. 2017), but any strati-
H.M. Yu et al. (2013), who developed tephra fallout graphic evidence for the associated deposits is
hazard probability maps; X. Wang et al. (2015), who contested (e.g. Pan et al. 2017a). Further work
applied the Flow3D model to simulate the extent of engaging scholars from the sciences and humanities
pyroclastic flow deposits; Wan et al. (2012), who in this direction is encouraged.
used LAHARZ to model lahar scenarios; and Pan Where arguments are made for cause and effect,
et al. (2011, 2017b), who applied rheological models chronology becomes critical (e.g. Büntgen and
to lava flows. Oppenheimer 2020). As an example, the fall of the
There remains scope for refining and formalising Bohai (Palhae) kingdom in 926 CE has been linked
hazard mapping and assessment for Tianchi (Chang- to impacts of the Millennium Eruption of Chang-
baishan) and the other priority volcanic regions. baishan volcano (Kim 2011). Such a proposition is
Liang and Xu (2021) and X. Wang et al. (2021), no longer tenable once it is known that the erup-
who look particularly at the question of aviation haz- tion occurred 20 years later (Oppenheimer et al.
ards owing to ash clouds, also highlight the need for 2017). Fei (2019) has, more recently, examined the
further development of early warning and crisis decline of Chinese historical dynasties in the light
management systems to reduce volcanic risks. This of climatic impacts of large volcanic eruptions
suggests scope for fruitful new collaborative and around the world.
interdisciplinary programmes involving volcanolo- We live in an era when vast amounts of informa-
gists, social scientists, authorities and stakeholders. tion are generated daily, putting increasing demands
on efficient management and mining of these data for
operational and scientific applications (Hicks 2003;
Historical documentation and database of Fuller et al. 2004). Studies of the Cenozoic volca-
volcanoes of China noes in China have been undertaken for more than
half a century, generating prolific literature and
China and adjacent areas, including Korea and Japan, data (R.X. Liu et al. 1992; J.Q. Liu 1999a; X. Liu
are distinguished by the long timespans over which 1999b; Z.C. Zhang and Luo 2011). However,
routine records have been kept, largely for bureau- much valuable research has not become more widely
cratic or religious purposes. This provides an extraor- disseminated owing to language barriers, unavail-
dinary archive of historical evidence for past volcanic ability in digital archives or publication in the
events affecting East Asia – including both direct ‘grey literature’. This is why we developed the
observations of eruptions or experience of ash fallout Knowledge Base of Cenozoic Volcanoes (KBCV)
and the indirect atmospheric and climatic impacts to collect such volcanic data in China. The directory
of distant eruptions elsewhere on the globe (e.g. tree of the KBCV is structured around five levels
Z. Huang and Zhang 1995; Jin and Cui 1999; Haya- according to the volcano distribution, magma origin,
kawa and Koyama 1998; H. Wei and Liu 2001; data type and file format (Pan et al. 2021a). Data
H. Chen and Wu 2003; C. Chen and Shen 2005; handled by the KBCV supports querying, searching
Yun 2013; Oppenheimer et al. 2017, 2018; and browsing. The KBCV can provide well-curatedDownloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ by guest on December 27, 2021
Active volcanoes of China
Cenozoic volcanological data and technical support Research Grant of China, Institute of Geology, China
for scientific research and public communication. Earthquake Administration (Grant No. IGCEA 1603) to
The project remains at an early stage of data compi- Jiandong Xu.
lation and universalization, but it is hoped that it will
provide a major resource for future scholarship and
public engagement. Data availability Data sharing is not applicable to this
article as no datasets were generated or analysed during the
current study.
Summary
The work presented in this Special Publication,
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