Lacustrine deltas and subaqueous fans: almost the same, but different - a review - Sciendo
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Beata Gruszka, Tomasz Zieliński
Geologos 27, 1 (2021): 43–55
DOI: 10.2478/logos-2021-0004
Lacustrine deltas and subaqueous fans:
almost the same, but different – a review
Beata Gruszka*, Tomasz Zieliński
Institute of Geology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Krygowskiego 12, PL-61-680 Poznań, Poland
* corresponding author, e-mail: bgruszka@amu.edu.pl
Abstract
Although deltas and subaqueous fans are both formed in the same near-shore zones of basins, the hydraulic conditions
for their formation, development and sedimentary records are different. The present review discusses the results of
previously published studies of fan deltas (Gilbert-type deltas) and subaqueous fans of lacustrine and glaciolacustrine
environments. The depositional mechanisms of deltas and subaqueous fans, textural and structural features of the
lithofacies associations and their typical lithofacies are presented. The characteristics of subaqueous fans, which are still
relatively poorly understood and are often overlooked in sedimentological interpretations of lacustrine sedimentary
successions, receive particular attention. The palaeoenvironmental and lithological differences between deltas and sub-
aqueous fans are highlighted.
Key words: fan delta, Gilbert-type delta, ice-contact subaqueous fan, depositional mechanisms, sedimentology
1. Introduction are often treated as synonymous and there is no
clear, commonly accepted distinction between en-
Recently, in this journal two studies have appeared vironmental conditions, depositional factors and
in which the authors (Mleczak & Pisarska-Jamroży, sedimentary records of Gilbert-type deltas and
2019; Przepióra et al., 2019) analyzed the hydrolog- subaqueous fans in lake settings. Our intention is
ical conditions and sediments in the transitional to fill this gap and possibly spark a discussion on
zone from river mouths to lake basins. The first- this issue.
named study concerned a Pleistocene glaciolacus- In the present study we describe and compare
trine environment, while the second dealt with a the forms, processes and sediments in the transi-
modern lake. The described sediments show many tional zone between river mouths and lakes under
similarities, because the depositional mechanisms conditions of a large sediment supply. Thus, the
were analogous. Nevertheless, the final palaeoenvi- main environments considered here are the mar-
ronmental conclusions turned out to be different. In ginal parts of glacial lakes and non-glacial lakes in
one of the studies the sediments were interpreted mountain and upland settings, as well as lakes de-
to be part of a fan delta, whereas the other study veloped in active grabens.
concluded to a subaqueous fan. These different con- While the large, common forms developing at
clusions are understandable, because both terms the mouths of rivers in lakes and seas – deltas – have
44 Beata Gruszka, Tomasz Zieliński
been studied extensively by numerous geologists delta’ emphasizes the presence of an upper alluvi-
for over a century, the subaqueous fans in lacustrine al fan. Each alluvial fan develops a significant de-
environments were ‘discovered’ only in the 1970s crease of the depositional surface slope (i.e. laterally
(Rust & Romanelli, 1975). These forms, hidden un- decreasing flow velocity) over which a high concen-
der water, have been investigated only marginally, tration of sediment is transported. These conditions
because their occurrence is much less frequent and exist where rivers discharge into mountain and up-
limited to only specific environmental conditions. land lakes or in glacial lakes.
The aim of the present study is to review the One of the most commonly identified types of del-
results of the previous research of deltas and sub- tas is the Gilbert-type delta, which consists of three
aqueous fans, both modern and fossil. The ultimate distinct zones (sedimentary subenvironments): sub-
objective is to determine which hydrological and aerial alluvial fan (or delta plain), and two underwa-
depositional factors determine the differences in ter parts: the delta front and the prodelta. The steep
the sedimentological records of lacustrine deltas delta slope that originates in deep settings is charac-
and subaqueous fans. Our findings may become the teristic of this delta type (Postma, 2003). The three
basis for more accurate palaeoenvironmental inter- mentioned deltaic subenvironments clearly differ in
pretations, which, in turn, may have repercussions both textural and structural features of sediments.
on general palaeogeographical conclusions. For this reason, three facies are distinguished: top-
set, foreset and bottomset facies (Fig. 1).
The topset facies is a record of alluvial fan or
2. Review of processes and deposits of braid plain. The main factors in deposition are
Gilbert-type deltas and subaqueous sheetflows and/or shallow flows in braided chan-
nels and sometimes massflows as well. Postma
fans (1990) proposed that Gilbert-type deltas were
formed from fluvial supply of two types. Type-A
2.1. Deltas
feeder system is a high-energy, steep (a few de-
grees) alluvial fan dominated by gravel-bed sheet-
The Pleistocene deltas of the Bonneville glacial lake flows. Type-B feeder system is the braid plain at
(USA – Utah, Idaho, Nevada) were studied by Gil- a slightly lower slope (approx. 0.5°) with coarse
bert (1890), who also introduced the concept of fan bed-load channels. High-energy sheetflows deposit
delta. For this reason, the terms fan delta and Gil- the massive gravels (Fig. 2A) (Ethridge & Wescott,
bert-type delta have much in common. The term ‘fan 1984; Rohais et al., 2008). The braided channel facies
Fig. 1. Lithosomes with subfacies of Gil-
bert-type delta: A – Miocene marine
calcarenites near Staszów (southern Po-
land); B – Pleistocene glaciolacustrine
deposits in Bełchatów brown-coal mine
(central Poland).
Lacustrine deltas and subaqueous fans: almost the same, but different – a review 45
are represented by the beds derived from longitudi- fall) mechanism most often affects coarse grains –
nal bars (gravels and gravelly sands with horizontal gravels (Fig. 4). They fall loosely downwards, pro-
stratification – Fig. 2D), transverse bars (sands and ducing characteristic layers with the coarsest grains
gravelly sands with planar cross-stratification – Fig. and the greatest thickness in the lower parts of the
2C), three-dimensional dunes (gravels and sands foresets – the so-called toesets (Nemec, 1990; White,
with trough cross-stratification – Fig. 2B), and scour 1992; Slomka & Hartman, 2019). Under conditions
pools (gravels and sands filling large troughs) of higher concentration of grains, transport takes
(Ethridge & Wescott, 1984; Hwang & Chough, 1990; place as a debris flow. Debris flows often arise as
Longhitano, 2008). These beds are arranged in chan- a result of slides, which are recorded in the up-
nel-like lithosomes up to 1.5 m thick, although occa- per parts of foresets as spoon-shaped niches filled
sionally they are thicker – up to 5 m (Lunkka & Gib- with massive sediment (Chough & Hwang, 1997;
bard, 1996; Lønne & Nemec, 2004; Ilgar & Nemec, Krzyszkowski et al., 2019). These massflows are
2005; Winsemann et al., 1918). Common features of of a cohesionless nature – they are the true grain
all deposits of topset facies are erosive bases and flows or cohensionless debris flows sensu Nemec &
fining-up grading of beds and bedsets (Dorsey et Steel (1984). In this way, gravelly, gravelly-sandy
al., 1995; Gobo et al., 2015). or sandy layers with a massive structure and coars-
The topset facies passes downwards into the ening-up grading are formed (Doktor, 1983; Sohn
foreset facies. This is a sedimentary record of the et al., 1997; Falk & Dorsey, 1998; Winsemann et al.,
slope (front) of the delta. The slopes of the delta 2007) (Fig. 5). The frequency of lithofacies derived
fronts are high angled (from 15° to 35°; see Fig. 3), from gravity flows is high and usually amounts to
because the grains are accumulated at the angle of 40–50% of the foreset facies (Nemec et al., 1999). The
repose; slightly smaller for sand, larger for grav- massflow deposition is also recorded in synsedi-
el (Hwang & Chough, 1990; Adams & Schlanger, mentary deformations, including intraformational
2000; Hanáček et al., 2018; Krzyszkowski et al., crumpling and deformed soft-sediment clasts (Dok-
2019). Deposition on the delta slope is gravitational; tor, 1983; White, 1992; Pisarska-Jamroży & Weckw-
transported grains can be dispersed (debris fall), in erth, 2013). Cohesionless debris flows move at high
high concentration (debris flow) or in the turbidity velocities. Mulder et al. (1997) determined that on
current. Gilbert-type deltas are formed under con- slopes steeper than 10° (and this condition prevails
ditions of high sediment supply, and each larger on the fronts of Gilbert-type deltas) mass flows be-
sediment delivery causes the grains to move down a come supercritical. Very often the travelling mass-
steep slope (Longhitano, 2008). The debris fall (grain flow is diluted with ambient water, and evolves
Fig. 2. Typical topset lithofaci-
es (Pleistocene, Bełchatów,
central Poland): A – Mas-
sive gravels of sheetflow
origin, fining-up tendency
(fu) is marked; B – Grav-
elly sand with trough
cross-stratification derived
from three-dimensional
dunes; C – Gravelly sand
with tabular cross-stratifi-
cation derived from trans-
verse bar, massive sandy
gravel of diffuse gravel
sheet above; D – Two thick
beds of massive and poor-
ly stratified gravelly sands
derived from longitudinal
bars.
46 Beata Gruszka, Tomasz Zieliński
into a turbidity current (Falk & Dorsey, 1998), called
surge currents referred to be linked debrite-turbidite
deposit (Haughton et al., 2003). Massive and/or de-
formed, argillaceous bed with mud clasts and chips
(debrite) overlain by sand-to-silt graded bed (tur-
bidite) is a typical succession of this deposit.
Turbidity currents are also generated by fail-
ure of the delta slopes (Zeng et al., 1991; Hilbe &
Anselmetti, 2014) or the mouth bars located on the
delta crest (Syvitsky et al., 1988). These are most
often hyperconcentrated density flows (Mulder & Al-
exander, 2001). Transport in such currents occurs Fig. 4. Gravelly foresets deposited from coarse-grained
in two ‘layers’. In the lower ‘layer’, the grains are subaqueous avalanches – the grain falls. Świdnica
so highly concentrated that the transporting medi- area, Sudetes Mts foreland, southern Poland.
um shows the characteristics of a massflow (grain
flow). Sediment concentration in the upper ‘layer’ al., 2003). The slower currents usually act as sheet-
is reduced and the grains are carried by turbulence flows, and high-energy currents are concentrated in
(i.e. true turbidity current). The deposits of these erosive channels – chutes. Density flows accelerate
two ‘layers’ form a bipartite deposit, where the coars- with the distance along the delta front; for this rea-
er member with reverse grading is overlain by a son, most channels are formed in the toeset zone
finer one with normal grading (Lowe, 1982; Falk & (Lønne, 1993; Breda et al., 2007; Gobo et al., 2014). It
Dorsey, 1998; Sohn et al., 1999). The succession usu- is assumed that most of the currents on steep delta
ally starts with an erosive surface and the structure slopes are characterized by such a high energy that
of both members is massive (Mulder & Alexander, they become supercritical (Nemec, 1990; Mulder et
2001). It should be emphasized that surge currents al., 1997: Lang et al., 2017). When they reach a crit-
are short-term phenomena (lasting up to several ical stage, the hydraulic jump occurs with violent
hours), while they are characterized by high dy- turbulence and the flow erodes a trough. This is
namics. They travel along the delta slope at veloci- filled with massive sediment or with characteristic
ties of 0.5–4 m/s (Syvitski & Hein, 1991; Mulder et backset cross-stratification, which is the evidence of
Fig. 3. Foresets of the Pleistocene glaciola-
custrine Gilbert-type deltas. Both sites
are located in the foreland of Sudetes Mts
(southern Poland). Advancing ice sheet
dammed deep lakes in foremountain val-
leys outflowing towards the glacier. A
– Variable dip and grain-size of foresets
prove that delta progradation took place
in successive phases (photo P. Migoń).
Lacustrine deltas and subaqueous fans: almost the same, but different – a review 47
antidune deposition (Borhold & Prior, 1990; Massa- that supercritical currents depositing the sediment
ri, 1996; Winsemann et al., 1918) (Fig. 6). in the antidune bed configuration reach the prodel-
Lower and further away from the delta front the ta as well (Leszczyński & Nemec, 2015). The beds
subenvironment with the lowest energy occurs: the of prodeltaic debrites and turbidites usually have a
prodelta with bottomset facies. Due to the vicin- massive structure. Although the prodelta is the low-
ity of a steep slope, this zone is reached by mass- est-energy subenvironment of the delta, erosive sur-
flows, which, together with turbidity currents, are faces are still common in its successions as records
the main depositional drivers in the proximal part of the channels that reach this zone from the low-
of a prodelta (Eriksson, 1991). Turbidity currents er part of the delta slope (Stingl, 1994; Leszczyński
are characterized by high power and high sediment & Nemec, 2015). The distal prodelta is a distinctly
concentration. Therefore, most often gravelly tur- low-energy subenvironment. Deposition occurs si-
bidites are intercalated with sandy turbidites (Røe, multaneously from traction and suspension. Weak
1995; Winsemann et al., 2018). It is even assumed currents deposit fine sand, usually silty sand.
Two-dimensional ripples are formed, which are
most often climbing-type bedforms (Fig. 7). All of
the above-mentioned sedimentary facies exist as
intercalations between thin-bedded silts, which de-
rived from fine suspension fallout in periods of wa-
ter stagnation, when the prodelta was not reached
by the currents and massflows from the delta slope.
2.2. Subaqueous fans
Subaqueous fans are formed in shallow lakes. Such
bathymetric conditions were typical of the Pleisto-
cene proglacial lakes fed by meltwater rivers. The
Fig. 5. Coarse-grained debrite layer in foreset subfacies maximum depths of these lakes were rarely exceed-
derived from cohesionless debris flow – the grain flow. ed 10 m. The lengths of subaqueous fans usually do
not exceed 200 m (Paterson & Cheel, 1997). At most
times small lakes are hydrologically open (i.e. with
river outflow), and characterized by limited accom-
modation space, which is an important factor in
the formation of subaqueous fans. In shallow open
lakes, the flow velocity gradient between the river
inflow and the basin is relatively small. This means
that in shallow water there are usually long-lived
Fig. 6. The scour eroded by hydraulic jump on delta
currents above the subaqueous fan. For this reason,
slope (based on Massari, 1996). a – Gravelly sand with sediment deposition occurs from traction currents
backset cross-stratification (supercritical deposition), (Gruszka, 2001, 2007).
b – Horizontally stratified sand (upper plane bed), c – The subaqueous fan surfaces are characterized
Horizon of ripples (lower flow regime). by relatively low slopes. They range from 3° to 15°,
Fig. 7. Bottomset facies of distal prodelta (Bełchatów, central Poland). Fine-grained sands derived from climbing rip-
ples. A-type climbing cross-lamination (A) was formed from some faster current than B-type lamination (B). A-type
structure records the predomination of traction over suspension transport, and B-type structure proves deposition
purely from suspension. On both photos the rippled bed is overlain by silty layer.
48 Beata Gruszka, Tomasz Zieliński
most often 4–10° (Hornung et al., 2007; Winsemann dipping laminae fill these scours (Lang et al., 2020).
et al., 2009; Woźniak et al., 2018) (Fig. 8). As a rule, This backset stratification results from a hydraulic
there is no apparent slope break; the longitudinal jump, i.e. a sudden transition from supercritical
profile of the subaqueous fan is almost uniform to subcritical flow. Mouth bars can be poorly de-
(Gilbert & Crookshanks, 2009). veloped; occasionally, they are not formed at all.
Due to the lack of a steep slope, only two suben- In the case of a very shallow basin, the deposition
vironments can be distinguished in the subaqueous in the proximal zone is dominated by sheetflows.
fan: (1) a proximal mouth-bar zone, which pass- Massive or horizontally stratified beds are common
es into (2) the distal zone that corresponds to the here (Dasgupta, 2002; Gruszka & Terpiłowski, 2014;
prodelta. Lang et al., 2020). In the proximal zone of subaque-
Mouth bars – large-scale dunes (microdeltas) –
are typical of the proximal zone in low accommoda-
tion settings (Yperen et al., 2020). Well-developed
mouth bars are generally formed where the inflow
feeding the lake is strongly channelized. This is
most often the case in a glaciolacustrine environ-
ment, where the water and sediment supply come
from a glacier crevasse or tunnel (Rust & Romanelli,
1975; Lang et al., 2017), although fossil mouth bars
have also been found within deposits of non-glaci-
genic settings (Zavala et al., 2006; Jerrett et al., 2016).
Mouth bars have progradational fronts inclined at
10–15° (Mortimer et al., 2005). Their depositional
record is represented by sandy or sandy-gravelly
foresets with tangential or sigmoidal shape (Fig. 9). Fig. 9. Succession of sandy microdelta (Kornica, Łuków
In their proximal parts (i.e., in the zone of the high- Plain, eastern Poland). Sigmoidal shape of layers
est flow velocity), trough-shaped erosive depres- proves the intensive current in river-mouth zone of
sions are formed (Fig. 10). Gravels with up-current shallow glacial lake.
Fig. 8. Deposits of subaequous fans. Low-angle stratification proves the gentle slope of fan. A – Light laminae are sandy
and darker ones are sandy-silty (Ujście site in northern Poland, photo by M. Mleczak); B – Sands form light layers,
and organic sandy silts form dark ones; scale bars are 1.5 m long (Suchedniów site in central Poland, photo from
Przepióra et al., 2019).
Lacustrine deltas and subaqueous fans: almost the same, but different – a review 49
ous fans, stationary antidunes (Lang et al., 2017), tractionites, the deposition of fine-grained sand and
which are bedforms typical of transitional condi- silty sand occurs in the configuration of ripples (of-
tions between the lower and upper flow regime, ten climbing ones) or small-scale (< 15 cm in height)
are also present. Their lithofacies consist of gravel dunes. As a result, sand layers with cross-lamination
or sand with sinusoidal stratification (Lang et al., and/or cross-stratification alternate with numerous
2020). In this proximal zone, shallow chutes are of- silt layers (Fielding & Webb, 1996; Woźniak et al.,
ten incised, filled with sand or gravelly sand with 2018; Lang et al., 2020). While the turbidites are most
a massive structure or trough cross-stratification frequently characterized by a fining-up texture, trac-
(Rust & Romanelli, 1975; Hornung et al., 2007). The tionites often do not show this feature.
transition of proximal deposits into the ‘prodelta’ Turbidity currents in subaqueous fans are gener-
(distal fan) facies is gradual. ated by river floods. For this reason, they are quite
The distal subaqueous fan is a zone of sand and long-term phenomena and can run up to weeks
silt accumulation. Deposition occurs most often (Mulder & Syvistski, 1995; Zavala et al., 2006). Dur-
from underflows, which are low-density turbidity ing this time, their physical parameters (velocity
currents (Mulder & Alexander, 2001). As a result, and sediment concentration) undergo only slight
sandy and silty, fining-up successions are formed changes. Therefore, they are treated as quasi-steady
by the waning nature of turbidity current. They may flows. Suspension concentration is most often limit-
contain three intervals of the Bouma sequence: Tbce ed to the area of the river inflow. This determines the
(horizontally stratified sand → sand with ripple low velocity of the turbidity currents moving over
cross-lamination, frequently with climbing ripple the subaqueous fans. The maximum velocity does
structures → silt with massive structure or hori- not exceed 2.5 m/s (Yu et al, 2006), and most often
zontal lamination) or Tbde (horizontally stratified it is several dozen cm/s (Chikita, 1992; Mulder et
sand → sandy silt with horizontal lamination → al., 2003). Deposition occurs both from traction and
massive silt) (Mastalerz, 1995; Paterson & Cheel, from suspension. All of these features of turbidity
1997). Two-member sequences are also common, i.e. currents controlled by river inflow became the basis
rhythmites: Tbc (horizontally stratified sand → rip- for distinguishing a separate category of underflows
ple-cross laminated sand), Tbe (horizontally stratified – the hyperpycnal turbidity currents, and their deposits
sand → silt), and even very fine-grained rhythm Tde were given the genetic name of hyperpycnites (Alex-
(silty sand → silt) (Knudsen & Marren, 2002; Winse- ander & Mulder, 2002; Mulder et al., 2003).
mann et al., 2007). The thickness of the turbidite suc- What are lithological features indicative of the
cessions is usually up to a few centimetres (Pharo & classical hyperpycnite? Unlike the Bouma sequence,
Carmack, 1979; Liverman, 1991). Underflows with the succession is pensymmetrically graded (the
a low concentration of suspended load are some- coarsest grain-size level in the middle part of the
times regarded as traction currents. In the case of bed): silt → sand → silt or fine sand → medium sand
Fig. 10. Subaqueous fans: A, B – real photos; C – theoretical model. Both photos by Przepióra et al. (2019). Model draft
partly based on Lang et al. (2017).
50 Beata Gruszka, Tomasz Zieliński
→ fine sand . The lower, coarsening-up part of the deltas underlie the hypothesis that during the de-
succession is a record of the increasing river flood. velopment (i.e. deepening) of the basin, there is an
The silt is usually laminated while the sand can have evolution of sedimentary environments consisting
a massive structure, horizontal lamination or ripple in the initial formation of a subaqueous fan, which
cross-lamination. The upper part of the succession then transforms into the Gilbert-type delta or, in
may start from a discrete erosive surface that results some cases, into deltas superimposed on each oth-
from the flood crest. Despite erosion, the hyperpy- er (Nemec et al., 1999; Plink-Björklund & Ronnert,
cnites are, in horizontal plan, non-channelised lo- 1999; Hanáček et al., 2018). In case of high aggra-
bate-shaped depositional bodies (Cao et al., 2018). dation rate of Gilbert-type delta, it may turn into
Minor floods do not result in erosive surfaces; in shoal-water prograding delta (Gobo et al, 2014).
such cases, the transition between both parts of the The fan delta (Gilbert-type delta) consists of three
succession is gradational. Declining energy of the subenvironments that clearly differ in morphology,
waning flood is recorded in the fining-up trend of bathymetry and hydrodynamic conditions. These
the upper member: sand with low-angle cross-strat- are the subaerial fan, delta slope (delta front), and
ification → sand with horizontal stratification → prodelta. The boundaries between these zones are
sand with climbing ripples or massive/laminated sharp and clear. In the subaqueous fan, at most two
silt (Mulder et al., 2001; Zavala et al., 2006). Obvious- subenvironments are distinguished: mouth bar or
ly, this is a model succession that occurs relatively shoal with sheetfloods and distal ‘prodelta’. The
rarely. The lower member, associated with the rising morphological transition from the proximal to the
phase of the flood, may not be preserved due to ero- distal zone is gradual. Therefore, the variability of
sion. In this case, the hyperpycnite becomes a nor- bathymetric and hydrodynamic conditions is less
mally graded bed (Carvalho & Vesely, 2017) and is pronounced along the fan. The front of the delta is
practically indistinguishable from the Bouma-type steep (15–35°) as it slopes at the stability angle of
turbidite. Hyperpycnites are relatively well recog- sediment (angle of gravitational deposition of sand
nized in the lake environment, when the flood-gen- or gravel). On the low slope of a subaqueous fan
erated flow enters low density water, whereas their (5–10°) the gravitational movement of the sediment
presence in the sea is still under debate (Shanmu- does not occur (Table 1).
gan, 2018, 2019; Van Loon et al., 2019; Zavala, 2020). The existence of a steep delta front determines
the specificity of transport and deposition in the
foreset and even bottomset zone. The loose grains
3. Discussion: Differences between the on the fast-prograding delta front undergo fre-
Gilbert-type delta and the subaqueous quent sliding and/or rolling. Thus, debris flows,
grain falls and high-density turbidity currents are
fan in a lacustrine and glaciolacustrine generated, which often reach the prodelta. Hydro-
succession dynamics is controlled differently on the subaque-
ous fan – only by the river discharge. Therefore,
Gilbert-type deltas are the forms that accumulate in the middle zone of the subaqueous fan (i.e. the
on the margins of deep basins that exist for long spatially analogous zone to the delta front), the
periods. The accommodation space of such basins sediment transport mechanisms are quite different,
is large. Subaqueous fans, in contrast, are formed being dominated by low-density turbidity currents
in shallow, open (i.e. with river outflow), most of- and traction currents with an even lower sediment
ten ephemeral lakes. They are typical of minor ac- concentration. On the slope of the delta the surge
commodation space conditions. The classical Gil- currents (i.e. derived from subaqueous slumps)
bert-type delta is formed when the rising water are characterized by high sediment concentration,
level of the basin (i.e. increasing accommodation which makes them high-energy (velocities reaches
space) and the sediment supply are in balance. Such 4 m/s), but short-lived. It is different on the sub-
conditions usually do not occur in shallow lakes, aqueous fan. The concentration of suspended load
where subaqueous fans are formed. On the contra- depends only on the turbidity of the inflowing river
ry, shallow, ephemeral lakes are most often drained waters, and therefore it is distinctly lower. There-
and then their accommodation space decreases. For fore, these hyperpycnal flows (i.e. underflows) op-
the reasons mentioned above, deltas are controlled erate at lower velocities (v < 2 m/s), but last longer
by simultaneous progradation and aggradation, depending on the duration of the river flood. Some-
while in the case of subaqueous fans, prograda- times the sediment concentration and flow velocity
tion is dominant. The shallow-water nature of the are so low that the grains are transported by trac-
subaqueous fans and the deep-water nature of the tion – as a bedload.
Lacustrine deltas and subaqueous fans: almost the same, but different – a review 51
Table 1. Main differences between Gilbert-type delta and subaqueous fan formed in lacustrine setting.
Gilbert-type delta Subaqueous fan
Morphology and lacustrine environment
Deep lake (large accommodation space) Shallow lake (minor accommodation space)
Large depositional form Small depositional form
Steep slope (15–35°) of delta front Gentle slope (5–10°, almost uniform over the entire fan
surface)
Synchronous progradation and aggradation Nearly only progradation
Hydrodynamics
High concentration of sediment being transported Moderate concentration of sediment being transported
Currents induced mainly by gravity flows on steep delta Currents induced mainly by river discharge
slope
Short-lasting surge currents Long-lasting, nearly steady hyperpycnal flows
High-energy currents prevail (1 < v < 4 m/s) Low/moderate-energy currents prevail
Deposition and deposits
Most often: debris flows, grain falls, high-density turbid- Most often: low-density turbidity currents, traction cur-
ity currents rents
3 sedimentary subenvironments: subaerial fan, delta 2 (or 1) sedimentary subenvironments: mouth bar (or
front, prodelta shoal with sheetflows), ‘prodelta’
Gravels in subaerial fan, gravels and sands in delta front, Sands, gravelly sands in mouth bar, sand, sand with silt
sands and silts in prodelta in ‘prodelta’
Thick coarsening-upward cycles Thin lithosomes without upward grading
Predominantly beds of 10–20 cm thick Predominantly thin (≤ 10 cm) beds, ~ 1 cm sandy-silty
rhythmites are frequent
Large lateral variability of lithology Lateral variability of lithology noticeable on short dis-
tances
The differences in the morphology of deltas and thicker than those in subaqueous fans, which often
subaqueous fans, their sedimentary subenviron- (especially in the outer part) consist of low-density
ments, hydrodynamics and depositional processes turbidites and tractionites.
mean that these forms have different sedimentary Migration of the topset, foreset and bottomset
records (Table 1). Deltas are large-scale lithosomes facies is controlled by simultaneous progradation
whose considerable thickness is a function of lake and aggradation of the delta. This process leads
depth. The long-lived existence of lakes, in turn, de- to the formation of large-scale cycles with distinct
termines the great lengths of deltaic lithosomes. The coarsening-upward grading. It is different with the
situation is different in the case of the sediments of subaqueous fan. The presence of only two facies
subaqueous fans. These shallow-lake forms are re- (proximal and distal), their poor grain-size differ-
corded in sedimentary bodies of a small thickness. entiation, and minor aggradation ratio preclude the
Moreover, the progradational nature of subaqueous formation of distinct cycles.
fans determines that the lengths of the lithosomes The clearest lithological differences between the
are many times greater than their thickness (sheet- lithosomes of deltas and subaqueous fans are ob-
like shape of fan-derived successions). served in their middle zones, i.e. in the sediments
Deltas, formed at the mouths of larger rivers, of the steep delta front and the slightly inclined fan.
are most often represented by higher energy (coars- In other sections, the delta and fan lithosomes differ
er-grained) deposits compared to subaqueous fans. less clearly. The proximal facies of the Gilbert-type
Moreover, the gravitational redeposition of the ma- delta are composed of subaerial alluvial fan depos-
terial on the steep slopes of deltas leads to a broader its. Sometimes gravelly, gravelly-sandy or sandy
extent of coarse-grained lithofacies in a distal direc- infills of shallow braided channels may be similar
tion (towards the central zone of the lake) in relation to scour-and-fill structures derived from hydrau-
to the lithosomes of the subaqueous fans. Therefore, lic jumps or sheetflows acting in proximal shoal of
gravel beds occasionally constitute a significant the subaqueous fan. In such a case, the only distin-
lithological component even in the prodelta facies. guishing feature of delta and subaqueous fan may
Due to high frequency of underwater debrites, bi- be the texture. The proximal facies of the subaque-
partite deposits (debrite-to-turbidite successions) ous fan are usually more finely grained than anal-
and high-density turbidites, the beds of deltas are ogous facies in the delta. Mouth bars may also be52 Beata Gruszka, Tomasz Zieliński
present in the proximal zones of both forms. The Fan-delta successions are built of three distinct
distal facies of the delta and the subaqueous fan facies: topset, foreset and bottomset. The topset fa-
are often similar too (the prodelta facies). Both are cies is deposited subaerially, mainly in the braided
dominated by sandy-silty heterolithic sediments channels and/or sheetflows. Foreset deposits are
developed as thin rhythmites. As mentioned above, the most important facies for the fan delta. On an
only the presence of gravelly-sandy beds within the underwater, steep slope, the gravitational move-
fine-grained prodelta succession proves that the ment of grains (deposition of debrites) occurs, of-
massflows take place on the adjacent steep slope, ten combined with density flows (deposition of
i.e. is evidence of the delta environment, not of a turbidites). In spite of being the lowest-energy zone
subaqueous fan. of the delta, the prodelta often consists (especially
Glaciolacustrine fans (so-called ice-contact un- in the proximal part) of turbidites and debrites. In
derwater fans), accumulated at the mouths of glacier contrast, its outer part is a zone of a characteristic
tunnels, differ from the presented scheme on the sand and silt deposition from traction currents and
origin and lithology of the non-glacigenic subaque- suspension settling.
ous fans. The difference in their formation is that The depositional environment of subaqueous
they are fed with very high-energy meltwater flows fan is divided into two zones: proximal and distal.
transporting all fractions (from clay to boulders) in They are not separated by a distinct slope (as in del-
high concentration (Back et al., 1998). For this rea- tas) and therefore both facies pass gradationally into
son, the proximal parts of these fans contain more each other. Mouth bars (large dunes or microdeltas)
coarsely grained clusters or oversized clasts (Russell are characteristic of the proximal zone. They are of-
& Arnott, 2003; Hornung et al., 2007; Winsemann ten accumulated behind large scours eroded by an
et al., 2009). Another distinctive feature is the pres- intense vortex (hydraulic jump). In other cases, the
ence of gravelly diamictons derived from cohesive proximal zone is dominated by the deposition from
debris flows (Lønne, 1995), which are not found in sheetflows (conditions of supercritical-to-subcriti-
fluvially-induced subaqueous fans. The flows at the cal transition). The distal part of the fan is dominat-
mouths of subglacial tunnels are heavily hypercon- ed by turbidity currents (origin of Bouma succes-
centrated flows most often (Paterson & Cheel, 1997; sions) or low-density traction currents.
Russell & Knudsen, 1999; Ravier et al., 2014). These Differences between fan deltas and subaque-
hydraulic conditions determine the specific lithol- ous fans are as follows. In the sedimentary record,
ogy of the ice-contact underwater fans: very poor deltas build large-scale, thick sedimentary bodies,
sorting (diamictic texture), large thickness of beds, while fans form broad lenses of limited thickness.
massive structure. It should be emphasized that The same relationship applies to low-rank deposi-
most often subglacial inflows are very fast. There- tional units, i.e. beds, sets and cosets. Lithosomes of
fore, sedimentation in the proximal parts of the fans deltas are dominated by gravity-transport deposits,
usually occurs from supercritical flows (Russell i.e., large-scale foresets derived from cohesionless
& Arnott, 2003). Antidunes with hydraulic jumps debris flows. On subaqueous fans this deposition is
are often formed there, which are recorded with limited to lee faces of low mouth bars only. There
sandy-gravelly backsets in the sedimentary succes- are no deposits related to subaerial channels (top-
sion (Hornung et al., 2007; Lang et al., 2017). Other set facies in fan deltas) in the successions of sub-
high-energy bedforms are also laid down, such as aqueous fans. Generally, deltas are built of coarser
chute-and-pool structures, cyclic steps and hump- sediments than fans. The sedimentological identifi-
back dunes (for details see Lang et al., 2020). Even cation of fan deltas is relatively easy, because subse-
in the distal parts of these fans, the flows are so fast quent facies differ significantly in their lithological
that antidunes can form. features, both texturally and structurally. On sub-
aqueous fan, the hydraulic conditions are more uni-
form, and they change gradually with the direction
4. Conclusions of flow. Therefore, the lithological contrast between
the proximal and distal facies is smaller and the
Deltas (more precisely: fan deltas or Gilbert-type identification of fossil fans is more difficult.
deltas) are formed at the margins of seas and deep Glacigenic subaqueous fans (ice-contact sub-
lakes, while subaqueous fans develop in shallow aqueous fans) clearly differ from the fans of
lakes most often. The former ones are accumulated as non-glacial lakes. The sediments supplied from the
a result of simultaneous progradation and aggrada- glacier are coarse-grained, poorly sorted, their con-
tion, while the fans are dominated by progradation. centration is higher, and the flows are an extremelyLacustrine deltas and subaqueous fans: almost the same, but different – a review 53
high-energy nature. Therefore, sedimentary succes- cene Loreto basin, Baja California Sur, Mexico. Sedi-
mentary Geology 98, 181–204.
sions of ice-contact fans often contain debrite beds
Eriksson, P.G., 1991. A note on coarse-grained gravi-
and numerous structures that resulted from rapid ty-flow deposits within Proterozoic lacustrine sedi-
supercritical flows. mentary rocks, Transvaal Sequence, S Africa. Journal
of African Earth Sciences 12, 549–553.
Ethridge, F.G. & Wescott, W.A., 1984. Tectonic setting,
Acknowledgements recognition and hydrocarbon reservoir potential of
fan delta deposits. Memoir Canadian Society of Petrole-
The authors like to thank two anonymous review- um Geologists 10, 217–235.
ers for their constructive comments and useful re- Falk, P.A. & Dorsey, R.J., 1998. Rapid development of
gravelly high-density turbidity currents in marine
marks, which improved the final manuscript.
Gilbert-type fan deltas, Loreto Basin, Baja California
Sur, Mexico. Sedimentology 45, 331–349.
Fielding, C.R. & Webb, J.A., 1996. Facies and cyclicity of
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