Semen evaluation: methodological advancements in sperm quality-specific fertility assessment - A review - KoreaScience
←
→
Page content transcription
If your browser does not render page correctly, please read the page content below
Open Access
Anim Biosci
Vol. 34, No. 8:1253-1270 August 2021
https://doi.org/10.5713/ab.21.0072
pISSN 2765-0189 eISSN 2765-0235
Semen evaluation: methodological advancements in sperm
quality-specific fertility assessment — A review
Bereket Molla Tanga1,2,a, Ahmad Yar Qamar1,3,a, Sanan Raza3,4, Seonggyu Bang1,
Xun Fang1, Kiyoung Yoon5, and Jongki Cho1,*
* Corresponding Author: Jongki Cho Abstract: Assessment of male fertility is based on the evaluation of sperm. Semen evaluation
Tel: +82-42-821-6788, Fax: +82-42-821-8903,
E-mail: cjki@cnu.ac.kr measures various sperm quality parameters as fertility indicators. However, semen evaluation
has limitations, and it requires the advancement and application of strict quality control
1
College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungnam methods to interpret the results. This article reviews the recent advances in evaluating various
National University, Daejeon 34134, Korea
2
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Hawassa
sperm-specific quality characteristics and methodologies, with the help of different assays
University, 05, Hawassa, Ethiopia to assess sperm-fertility status. Sperm evaluation methods that include conventional micro
3
Department of Clinical Sciences, College scopic methods, computer-assisted sperm analyzers (CASA), and flow cytometric analysis,
of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Jhang
35200, Sub-campus University of Veterinary
provide precise information related to sperm morphology and function. Moreover, profiling
and Animal Sciences, Lahore 54000, fertility-related biomarkers in sperm or seminal plasma can be helpful in predicting fertility.
Pakistan Identification of different sperm proteins and diagnosis of DNA damage has positively
4
Department of Reproduction and Artificial contributed to the existing pool of knowledge about sperm physiology and molecular
Insemination, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
Aydin Adnan Menderes University, Aydin anomalies associated with different infertility issues in males. Advances in methods and
09016, Turkey sperm-specific evaluation has subsequently resulted in a better understanding of sperm
5
Department of Companion Animal, Shingu biology that has improved the diagnosis and clinical management of male factor infer
College, Seongnam 13174, Korea
tility. Accurate sperm evaluation is of paramount importance in the application of artificial
a
These authors contributed equally to this insemination and assisted reproductive technology. However, no single test can precisely
work. determine fertility; the selection of an appropriate test or a set of tests and parameters is
ORCID
required to accurately determine the fertility of specific animal species. Therefore, a need
Bereket Molla Tanga to further calibrate the CASA and advance the gene expression tests is recommended for
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9901-5875 faster and field-level applications.
Ahmad Yar Qamar
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0366-3913
Sanan Raza Keywords: Biomarkers; Fertility; Sperm Biology; Sperm Evaluation; Computer-assisted
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1819-1522 Sperm Analyzers (CASA)
Seonggyu Bang
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2513-4887
Xun Fang
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8714-0679
Kiyoung Yoon
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4891-2247
Jongki Cho
INTRODUCTION
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8431-0457
Fertility defines the rate of reproduction and ability to propagate generations, though it is
Submitted Feb 16, 2021; Revised Mar 25, 2021;
Accepted Mar 30, 2021 declining globally for the last two centuries [1]. Fertility rate measures the number of off-
spring that can be produced during the life span, and fecundity measures the biological
potential of the number of offspring that can be obtained during a lifetime [2]. In either
case, it is determined by the proper functioning of the reproductive system, its anatomy
and physiology of organs, glands, ducts, and testicles/ovaries. In male animals, fertility
can be evaluated from the number of sperm produced with the capability to fertilize the
oocyte both in in-vivo and in-vitro and is measured with the help of semen analysis, even
though it has limitations [3]. Semen analysis is advanced, but the reliability and validity of
fertility determination in humans [4] and various species of animals [5] are widely con-
troversial in the literature.
Semen primarily consists of two main components: the sperm and seminal fluids; sperm
Copyright © 2021 by Animal Bioscience
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution
License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution,
www.animbiosci.org and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. 1253Tanga et al (2021) Anim Biosci 34:1253-1270 are produced in the seminiferous tubules of the testicles, and ure in cattle production [23]. As AI is widely used in cattle, the seminal fluids, in the accessory sex glands and excurrent semen evaluation plays an imperative role not only in the ducts. Both of these components are examined in semen successful establishment of pregnancy but also in facilitating analysis in terms of sperm count and semen volume [6]. genetic improvement [24], attaining breeding and milk, and Semen analysis provides information about normal opera- meeting production objectives [25]. In bulls, factors includ- tions of the testicular machinery for the production of sperm, ing age, breed, time and interval of collection, and season of and the fluid part. Furthermore, it evaluates the sperm to the year affect the semen quality [26]. Computer-assisted assess fertility [7] or the success of surgical procedures such sperm analyzers (CASA) is believed to be a better method as vasectomy [8]. Semen analysis includes examining the for assessing the quality of fresh semen, not only as a faster physical characteristics of semen (color, odor, pH, viscosity, measure but also in terms of the ability to measure multiple and liquefaction), volume, concentration, morphology, sperm dimensions of sperm fertility, precisely and accurately [27,28]. motility and progression, conducted repeatedly at different The criteria for selecting bovine semen samples for preserva- intervals [9]. In domestic animals, fertility determination is tion or breeding purposes rely on concentration (sperm/mL), very important, particularly in male animals used for breed- initial motility (%), and total normal morphology of sperm ing purposes and artificial insemination (AI). The infertility (%), but the recommended criteria and points vary [13,25]. issues associated with sperm can adversely affect the breed- There is no doubt that more stringent criteria are required ing outcomes of large herds of animals [10]. Therefore, the for the optimal evaluation of semen. assessment of sperm fertility in breeding bulls is of para- In domestic animals, fertility indicators are affected by mount importance [11-13]. several factors, including the host environment and nutri- For a long time, semen evaluation was believed to be the tional factors; however, in this review, we have focused solely single most important laboratory test for assessing male on semen evaluation methods. Semen evaluation can be con- fertility [14] however, it still remains complex and difficult ducted at different levels, that is semen and sperm, or by to standardize. Several confounders have made the goal of assessing the mechanical, physical, or functional characteris- one-test evaluation quite difficult to accomplish, such as the tics of sperm [29], which directly or indirectly evaluates the inability to strictly control quality to obtain meaningful re- sperm-specific quality in terms of attaining fertility. For the sults, variability among laboratories, and inability to comply convenience of this review, we start with the fertility-related with standard procedures to accomplish correct interpreta- parameters of sperm and subsequently review the different tions from results [15]. The structural evaluation of sperm is methods and their advancements. Moreover, we describe based on its appearance, morphology, concentration, plasma the measurement values and advantages and disadvantages membrane integrity, and chromatin integrity, whereas func- of specific methods in various species of domestic animals. tional evaluation is based on its motility, capacitation, and Semen quality varies depending on animal characteristics, acrosomal reaction [16]. Advances in technologies enable countries, and sometimes farms [30,31]. the assessment of sperm structure and function, such as This article reviews the developments in current semen plasma membrane and genomic constituents, and enables analysis methods and the knowledge obtained from deter- better determination of sperm fertility potential. mining the fertility of sperm. Therefore, we aimed to review The structure of sperm is peculiar, and functions to trans- the progress in semen evaluation techniques and to make fer the male gametes and required genetic information [17], conclusive remarks regarding recent advances in semen evalu- equipped with a strong flagellum to propel but devoid of ation of domestic animals. This review focuses on the reliability cytoplasmic organelles like ribosomes, Golgi apparatus or and limitations of semen analysis for the diagnosis of fertility. endoplasmic reticulum [18]. However, sperm contain more of mitochondria, placed strategically, bases of energy source SPERM CONCENTRATION AND for motility [19]. Structurally, even if consisted of single cell MORPHOLOGY membrane, it has two morphologically and functionally distinct, tail to motion and head containing the genetic ma- Determination of sperm concentration, together with the terial [20]. Different from other cells, DNA is tightly packed, assessment of motility and morphology, is an important and its integrity is basis for attaining the required fertility method to determine fertility. Sperm concentration per mL [21]. The head has anterior end of the nuclear envelope, re- of semen can be determined by counting the sperm in the ferred as acrosome, contains hydrolytic enzymes that help chamber of a hemocytometer, a microcell, or a photometer. the sperm to penetrate the egg's outer coat by an acrosome However, there are possibilities of underestimation and over- reaction [22]. estimation of sperm numbers depending on the types of In bulls, semen quantity, quality, and/or health status are products used [32]. The calibration of devices to measure responsible for a significant percentage of reproductive fail- concentration is critical to ensure accurate sperm number 1254 www.animbiosci.org
Tanga et al (2021) Anim Biosci 34:1253-1270
per dose and produce maximum doses per ejaculate. In ad- be equipped with a stage warmer that can be adjusted to
dition to these methods, sperm concentration can also be 37°C and magnification levels should allow clear visualiza-
determined with the help of CASA [33], flow cytometer [34], tion of the sperm samples [44]. It is advised to avoid the use
and NucleoCounter SP-100 [35]. CASA can also be used for of a light microscope because of clear visualization issues,
instant quantification of sperm concentration and motility. as immotile sperm are difficult to identify, especially at low
The NucleoCounter SP-100 can assess sperm concentration magnification [44]. The inability to identify immotile sperm
and membrane integrity. NucleoCounter SP-100 is more ef- may result in false high-motility values.
ficient than the hemocytometer because it is quicker, simpler,
objective, and precise. Moreover, it is cost-effective and more Motility by phase-contrast microscopy
user-friendly compared to flow cytometry [35]. Phase-contrast microscope is generally used to determine
A study comparing various methods used for the determi- mass motility or progressive sperm motility [45]. Mass mo-
nation of sperm concentration revealed that flow cytometry tility is a very important parameter for assessing sperm fertility
was the most precise method [36]. However, before perform- in humans and domestic animals [46-50]. Based on the mo-
ing flow cytometry, there is a requirement for preliminary tility pattern, each sperm is categorized either as possessing
assessment of sperm count using a different method to en- progressive motility (PR) or non-progressive motility [51].
sure proper semen dilution (close to 250,000 sperms/mL). While reporting sperm motility, it is necessary to consider
The spectrophotometer was found to be the second-best op- total motility (PR+NP) or progressive motility. In terms of
tion for the precise determination of sperm concentration. fertility, only the percentage of progressively motile sperm
However, it might not be an appropriate method for the as- was found to be associated with pregnancy rates. Thus, dif-
sessment of sperm samples with low concentrations and ferentiating PR and NP is important [52].
volume [36]. Standardizing a laboratory procedure for as- PR is usually expressed as a percentage of sperm motility,
sessing sperm concentration is affected by factors, which which is suggestive of sperm fertility, indicating proper sper-
include animal species, the sample size needed, operational matogenesis and maturation of sperm during epididymal
frequency, the number of samples assessed per day, and the transit [53]. In humans, the PR of sperm is mainly affected
operational cost. by thiols of flagellar proteins such as outer dense fiber pro-
Morphometric characteristics of sperm are one of the most tein 1, which are oxidized to form disulfides during epididymal
important indicators of fertility. It is universally accepted that transit and the sperm attains motility [53]. In animals, with
sperm with normal morphology have a significant effect on external fertilization, usually, the exposure of sperm to the
fertility both in vivo and in vitro, and it is an integral part of fertilization medium results in hypotonic shock that induces
sperm functional test [37-40]. Abnormal types are categorized activation of motile function [54,55]. In mammals, cAMP
according to the sperm morphology, including defective signaling pathways and adenylyl cyclase are associated with
head, neck, spacer, and default queue [41]. Different fixation progressive sperm motility [56,57]. The PR of human sperm
and smear preparation methods are adopted for the assess- is associated with DNA damage and fragmentation, which is
ment of sperm morphology. However, no optimal method vital for successful fertilization [58].
has been standardized for any particular animal species. High Various factors can affect the results of phase-contrast mi-
variability exists within and between laboratories regarding croscopy, such as, magnification, working conditions (heated
the accurate assessment of sperm morphology. The comput- stage, ambient temperature), personal experience, and en-
erized analysis of sperm morphology is known as automated vironmental factors [44,59]. Some authors have described
sperm morphometry analysis (ASMA). ASMA enables mor- specific sperm motility characteristics such as swirling os-
phological assessments of live sperm [42]. This system can cillation in warm slide microscopy to measure the mass
efficiently classify normal and abnormal sperm by overcom- motility to predict fertility [48].
ing technical variations. Moreover, it provides objective
estimation, with improved accuracy and precision of sperm Motility by computer-assisted sperm analysis
morphology assay. Sperm morphology can be better elabo- The CASA is the first major system to analyze motion char-
rated if staining is applied. acteristics of sperm. It provides instant quantification of sperm
motility and concentration. CASA is relatively better than
SPERM MOTILITY phase-contrast microscopy as it can generate accurate and
highly reproducible data of different kinetic parameters of
The advancements in sperm motility assessment include sperm [60,61]. Furthermore, CASA largely reduces the sub-
the use of the light microscope and phase-contrast micro- jectivity by overcoming the inherent variability of routine
scope, using 20 and 40× objectives, which are reported to microscopic semen examination [27]. It simply involves the
yield substantially good results [43]. The microscope should grading of sperm motility into four orders, which are, highly
www.animbiosci.org 1255Tanga et al (2021) Anim Biosci 34:1253-1270
progressively motile, progressively motile, non-progressively wobble (WOB), beat cross frequency (BCF), and amplitude
motile, and immotile (grade a, b, c, and d). While this pre- of lateral head displacement (ALH). VCL analyzes the velocity
sented breakthroughs for sperm-motility quantification, they of a sperm head on time-average basis along its actual curvi-
were largely black boxes with little true verification and skep- linear path (measured in in two dimensions). VSL measures
ticism. the velocity of a sperm head on a time-average basis along
In domestic animals, commercial use of a fully automated the straight line between its first and last detected position.
CASA system was introduced in 1985 [62]. In the beginning, VAP measures the velocity of a sperm head along its average
the CASA systems utilized for sperm analysis were based path on a time-average basis. This path is computed by smooth-
on an expert vision system developed for other purposes ing the actual path according to algorithms in the CASA
[63,64]. Later on, in 1992, old systems were replaced with instrument, these algorithms vary among instruments. ALH
automated CASA systems specifically developed for deter- measures the magnitude of the lateral displacement of a
mining sperm-morphology of bull [65], dog [66], human sperm head about its average path. This can be expressed
[67], and stallion [68]. Many CASA systems utilize different as the maximum or an average of such displacement [69].
filters to better recognize sperm and represent great improve- LIN estimates a curvilinear path reflecting the straightness
ments. For streamline accuracy, intelligent filters form part of the sperm path (VSL/VCL×100 [%]); STR, reflecting the
of the software that can detect if a “particle” has a tail. This righteousness of motion (VSL/VAP×100 [%]); WOB, is the
became an advantage in case of contaminated semen samples degree of oscillation of the actual path of the sperm head
which are difficult to analyze using other software. in its relationship with VAP (VAP/VCL×100 [%]). The pro-
CASA generated motility data of sperm, (percentage and gression of sperm in CASA also measures LIN, righteousness
concentration of motile sperm) which is very helpful for the movement or STR, and Balancing or WOB, expressed as
prediction of fertility in humans in vivo [69] and in vitro [70]. percentages.
The development of CASA has enabled the evaluation of ALH and BCF are measurements derived from VAP, where
various fertility parameters. The recent development of CASA ALH is the amplitude of variations of the current path of the
technology to analyze key kinematic functionality parameters sperm head in its relationship with VAP, and BCF is the aver-
such as hyperactivation, enabling visualization of sperm in age rate at which the actual sperm trajectory crosses the VAP
three dimensions, and measuring the flagellar and sperm (a derivation of the true frequency of flagellar beat and fre-
tracking (FAST) in a quantitative way will be of paramount quency of rotation of the head). Although, CASA is a new
importance to assess sperm characteristics and fertility in technology and most of the progression of the sperm mea-
detail [62,71]. surements are derived from the speed/velocity measurement,
However, the CASA system has some limitations, affected we did not find studies showing their correlation with fertility.
by the higher sperm concentration, which interferes with Despite this, we recommend further studies should be per-
progressive motility [37,72,73]. During semen analysis, short- formed on how these measurements can be utilized for
comings such as low contrast images and artifacts of dirt assessing sperm fertility, unless there is no need to measure.
can negatively affect the accuracy of the CASA software. In Rather than the PR, VAP is preferred to evaluate and pre-
such cases, sperm concentration is greatly overestimated dict the fertilizing potential of fresh or post-thawed bull semen
and the percentage motility of sperm is underestimated. These [78]. The evaluation of sperm kinematic parameters with
issues remained inherent in most CASA systems only to be fertilizing capacity in bulls showed that all VCL, VSL, and
partly resolved in the last two decades by some CASA systems. VAP in post-thaw doses for AI were found to be correlated
Another problem associated with CASA motility was that in achieving pregnancy [78-80]. From amongst the three kine-
it was based on video frames associated with either NTSC matic parameters, VCL, VSL, VAP, VAP shows the highest
or PAL systems (restrictive in frame rates), and poor reso- correlation with fertility, and it may be the most useful sperm
lution cameras that were very restrictive. Furthermore, for speed/velocity parameter, which can be relied upon for the
reliable measurements and generating unbiased data, a con- estimation of sperm fertility [78].
centration between 20 to 50×106 sperm/mL has been recorded
in some CASA studies [74-77]. Flagellar and sperm tracking
The FAST method analyzes the movement of sperm by using
Kinematic parameters using computer-assisted sperm the FAST program. FAST measures the flagellar beat frequency
analysis and the tangent and curvature of the flagellar wave to deter-
In addition to sperm motility and concentration, the CASA mine the arc-length (true length of the track). The analysis is
system can analyze different kinematic parameters including usually conducted at higher frame rates, and tracks are rep-
curvilinear velocity (VCL), straight-line velocity (VSL), aver- resented quantitatively in three dimensions [71]. The FAST
age path velocity (VAP), linearity (LIN), straightness (STR), measures flagellar beat frequency, flagellar arc wave speed,
1256 www.animbiosci.orgTanga et al (2021) Anim Biosci 34:1253-1270
flagellar arc wavelength (μm) (fAWL), Sperm flagellar length The results of CASA should be defined in terms of the
(μm), flagellar power dissipation tail length (fwatts), flagellar measurement conditions that are correlated with the outcome
power dissipation first 30 μm (fwatts30), and potentially, also figures. In particular, the rate of image acquisition, time for
amplitude of flagellar displacement measured in TCS = track tracking sample, smoothing algorithm, sperm concentration
centroid speed (progressiveness) [62,71]. per sample, chamber’s type and depth, model and software
version, microscope optic and magnification should be clearly
Computer-assisted sperm analysis-three dimensions defined to interpret CASA results to determine fertility in
(3D) of sperm evaluation different species and conditions [94-97]. The setting of CASA
The three dimensions (3D) system analyzes sperm tracks in measurements must be standardized for each species, else
three dimensions (X, Y, and Z axes); Z-axis is reconstruct- the instrument settings will affect the measurement results
ed as the sperm of most animal species are swimming in a [27]. The results of CASA measurements can be interpreted
spherical helix [62,81-83]. However, the 3D method has the into different parameters of sperm characteristics, including
disadvantage that the Z-axis is presumed to be harmonic, kinematic parameters, FAST, and 3D sperm evaluation.
but in most cases, it is not possible. In the 3D patterns, there Over the decades, the CASA system has developed pro-
are clear differences, such as, in a bull sperm with a much tocols to efficiently analyze the kinematic parameters of
higher speed and ALH, the helix diameter is almost twice sperm in animals [98,99]. However, its use is not just limited
that of boar sperm. A sperm of Saanen goat has similar VCL to kinematic parameters, it can also analyze morphology,
as that of a bull sperm, however, the BCF is an important viability, DNA fragmentation, and acrosome reaction [100],
factor here, showing small stepwise increases in the Z plane which are considered vital for fertility determination. Com-
in Saanen goat sperm, in comparison to the larger Z-plane puter-based semen analysis is striving to develop automatic
increases observed in bull sperm [62]. Although the 3D method microscopic systems by using artificial intelligence techniques
is useful in describing qualitative differences, it is not nec- (deep learning, machine learning, and computer vision).
essarily useful in describing quantitative differences. However, Sperm morphology needs to be better elaborated by in-
there is a need for further investigations to uncover the cor- cluding the entire cell and especially understanding the tail
relation between 3D measurements and fertility indicators. characteristics by polychromatic staining in CASA. There
In combination, the findings of FAST and 3D can be used seems to be a need for agreement in the selection of stains
for the advanced analysis of sperm-motility, such as mea- for use in conjunction with CASA for tail-characteristic
surements of sperm capacitation and hyperactivity, which studies. In future, developments could lead to no further
was not possible with the conventional approach. This can need for staining and looking at the possibilities of more
be achieved by analyzing flagellar speed increase as well as detailed analysis by using phase-contrast and Nomarski
energy expenditure (in Watts) over the first 30 μm length of differential interference contrast optics. It is also expected
the flagellum. There is a decrease in sperm flagellar beat fre- that the CASA system will develop a new automatic analysis
quency as it becomes capacitated and hyperactivated, resulting for new tests such as reactive oxygen species (ROS), mito-
in tumbling sperm which shows swimming star spin patterns chondrial assay, sperm maturity, sperm chromatin packaging,
[62]. In general, CASA-based sperm analysis is one of the 3D reconstruction, and tail analysis. This will further enhance
easiest, fastest, and reliable fertility assessments for semen our understanding of sperm functionality.
evolution in individual animals, and it would be a method of
choice for undertaking sperm evaluation comparative studies PLASMA MEMBRANE INTEGRITY
[84].
The integrity of the plasma membrane is essential for proper
The future of computer-assisted sperm analysis sperm function and fertility, pertaining to its function to
The CASA analyzes sperm motility, which is directly corre- maintain homeostasis [101,102], protection against foreign
lated with fertility reported for bovine [85], equine [86], ovine agents, and interactions with other cells, including oocytes,
[87], rabbit [88], and swine [89] sperm. What makes CASA and the epithelial lining of the female reproductive tract [103,
essential is that it brought improvements in the quantitative 104]. Sperm fertility is dependent on the integrity of the
analysis of the sperm quality in terms of accuracy and preci- plasma membrane, as it plays an important role in different
sion, as compared to conventional motility measurement physiological events such as capacitation, acrosomal reaction,
methods [90-92]. It should be noted that there are various and zona binding [105].
CASA system brands applicable for sperm evaluation, and Plasma membrane integrity is usually analyzed for a via-
standardization of the methods is of paramount importance bility test, as it is pivotal for communication with other cells
to make objective measurements to precisely determine fer- and the environment [106]. Methods used for analyzing
tility [27,93]. sperm plasma membrane are normally based on the enhanced
www.animbiosci.org 1257Tanga et al (2021) Anim Biosci 34:1253-1270
permeability of damaged membrane [107]. These methods spermatozoa can be determined by staining with fluores-
include the hypo-osmotic swelling (HOS) test [108,109], cein isothiocyanate-conjugated peanut agglutinin (FITC-
eosin–nigrosin staining [110,111], and use of fluorescent PNA) [127] and fluorescein isothiocyanate-conjugated
probes [112,113]. Fluorescent probes such as Hoechst or Pisum sativum agglutinin (FITC-PSA) [128]. FITC-PNA
propidium-iodide (PI) are either used alone or in combination specifically binds to the sugar Galactosyl 61 β-1,3 N-acetyl
with other permeable fluorochromes such as carboxyfluores- galactosamine found in the acrosomal membranes [129],
cein diacetate or SYBR [114-116]. Complementary techniques, serving as a probe to visualize acrosomal integrity [130]. The
including flow cytometry and fluorimetry, can be helpful limitation of using FITC-PSA is that it binds non-specifically
in improving measurement precision, as large numbers of with the sperm head and tail. However, cautions should be
fluorochrome-stained sperm can be assessed in a short du- taken to distinguish true degenerative acrosome reactions
ration of time [117,118]. The recent development of the and degenerative acrosome loss in FITC-PSA [128]. Later,
CASA technique has allowed the automated measurement the FITC-PNA methods were improved in 2019 [124].
of sperm plasma membrane integrity [119].
MITOCHONDRIAL INTEGRITY
VIABILITY AND ACROSOMAL STATUS
Abnormal mitochondrial integrity or functionality in the
Sperm viability is a key factor for quality analysis and a pre- supra structure or mitochondrial genome and low membrane
requisite for success in fertilization, particularly in cases, such potential of mitochondria or the change in level of oxygen
as AI, where low sperm numbers are used [120]. Eosin–ni- consumption, are important for sperm function, affecting
grosin has been conventionally employed as a differential motility [131] and maturation [132] even protection of sperm
stain to assess the proportion of live and dead sperm. Eosin, against damage [133]. Mitochondrial function can be mea-
being the cellular stain, stains the dead sperm with the dam- sured by rhodamine 123 (R123) fluorescence, when stain
aged plasma membrane, whereas the live sperm will not attain dye diffuses into the cell and accumulates in mitochondria
any color and remain colorless and the nigrosin stains the [134,135] enabling mitochondrial damage detection, de-
background. In addition, several other stains have been widely pending on the amount of fluorescence, and indicating the
used for sperm viability assessment, including fast–green proportion of functioning mitochondria [120,136]. In ad-
and eosin, and opal–blue and eosin [121]. However, none of dition to the R123 probe, JC‐1 or Mitotracker dyes [137]
these methods has yielded consistently satisfactory results in can be used for the assessment of sperm mitochondria. The
comparison to that of eosin–nigrosin. Recently, sperm via- JC-1 dye cytometer is more sensitive and requires more
bility has been assessed using a combination of molecular careful preparation of staining conditions than other probes
probes, including SYBR-14 and PI [112]. After SYBR-14 and and must be used along with controls [138]. In bovine sperm,
PI staining, live sperm percentage was determined by fluo- the DiOC6(3) probe can also be used, which has increased
rescence microscopy, while flow cytometry was used to assess fluorescence compared to the JC-1 probe but lower speci-
the uptake of stain. Live sperm are stained green with SYBR- ficity toward mitochondria [139].
14, whereas the dead sperm are stained red by PI.
Acrosomal integrity is one of the determining factors for CHROMATIN INTEGRITY
fertility because, for successful fertilization, sperm must have
an intact acrosome and must react on time when they reach The most common analytical tests used to assess sperm-DNA
the site of fertilization [122-124]. The ideal test used for the integrity include DNA fragmentation tests, measured by DNA
analysis of sperm acrosomal status should be precise, quick, fragmentation index (DFI) or sperm chromatin structure
applicable to samples with low sperm count, safe for sperm assay, and protamination, measured by sperm protamine
function, and must be able to differentiate normal from false deficiency assay [140]. These tests provide proof of sperm
acrosome reactions [125]. Previously, the acrosomal integrity fertility by examining the level of DNA damage. DFI is found
of spermatozoa was assessed by fixing the sperm sample in to be highly sensitive (79%) and specific (86%) for the detec-
1% formal citrate solution [126]. Sperm with normal acro- tion of infertility in human sperm, and has higher accuracy
somes have a sharp crescent-type appearance on the apical than the conventional method of sperm evaluation [141]. DFI
ridge. In addition, two classes of fluorescence probes were is one of the most common methods used to assess sperm
used for the assessment of acrosomal status. One probe in- DNA fragmentation. It can also be employed for fertility as-
volves the use of lectins and antibodies to detect intracellular sessment of processed and cryopreserved sperm [142-144].
acrosome-associated materials, whereas the other probes, The higher the DFI percentage, the lower is the fertility in
used for live sperm, include chlortetracycline and antibodies animals. In humans, a DFI of more than 30% indicates in-
against the exposed antigens [125]. The acrosomal status of fertile sperm, which are unable to establish pregnancy [145].
1258 www.animbiosci.orgTanga et al (2021) Anim Biosci 34:1253-1270
The chromatin integrity of sperm is vital not only for fer- using a direct method of luminal-mediated chemiluminescence
tility, but also for subsequent maintenance of gestation and [158], using the protocol [159]. The latest technique for mea-
offspring fitness [146]. The sperm chromatin assay is widely suring ROS levels directly, the MiOXSYS System, introduces
used for the assessment of chromatin status in sperm [146]. a new strategy to detect OS by measuring the oxidation-re-
Chromatin integrity is essential for fertility, evidenced by the duction potential; a direct evaluation of the redox balance
fact that higher DFI has been correlated with reduced fertility between ROS and antioxidants has shown promise as a di-
in boar [147], bull [148,149], and humans [150]. The sperm agnostic tool in the evaluation of male infertility [160,161].
chromatin assay utilizes the metachromatic features of acri- Moreover, ROS levels can be measured indirectly by ana-
dine orange, a DNA probe, and the principles of flow cytometry, lyzing the expression levels of genes associated with DNA
which are correlated with classical sperm quality, whereby damage and mitochondrial ROS modulation. The methods
the intact chromatin are stained green and the damaged chro- developed include DNA fragmentation, chromatin integrity,
matin are stained orange [151]. In this assay, sperm containing sperm chromatin stability assay (SCSA modified), sperm
greater red to green ratios exhibit more DNA denaturation chromatin dispersion, comet assay, transferase dUTP nick
than sperm exhibiting lower red to green ratios [150]. More- end labeling, and protamine evaluation in sperm chromatin
over, male sperm DNA integrity is not only an indication of assays, such as toluidine blue, CMA3, protamine expression,
fertility, but it also affects embryonic development [145,146, and cysteine radical evaluation [162].
151].
Moreover, sperm chromatin integrity can be analyzed by SPERM MATURATION AND
detection of protamine-deficient sperm. During spermato- CAPACITATION
genesis, histone proteins are replaced by protamine to acquire
a tightly packaged chromatin structure [152]. Sperm with Sperm maturation and capacitation are prerequisites for
protamine deficiency is an indication of loosely packed chro- successful fertilization and are regulated by protein phos-
matin material [153]. Protamine deficiency can be directly phorylation [163], the influx of calcium ions (Ca2+) to the
detected using chromomycin A3 (CMA3) staining or indi- sperm perinuclear and neck regions and the flagellum, and
rectly by using an aniline blue (AB) staining procedure. CMA3 the generation of controlled amounts of ROS [106]. Capaci-
is a fluorochrome that competes with the protamine proteins tation mainly involves cytosolic pH changes and increasing
for binding to the minor groove of DNA and emits green Ca2+ levels, and Indo‐1 acetoxymethylester (Indo‐1 AM)
fluorescence, indicating protamine deficiency, thus reflect- has been used to measure intracellular Ca2+ in sperm with
ing abnormal chromatin [51]. AB stain binds to lysine-rich the help of flow cytometry [164] or fluo‐3‐acetomethoxy
histone proteins and the sperm head is stained dark blue, ester (Fluo‐3 AM) probe [120,165,166].
indicating abnormal chromatin structure [152].
SPERM CYTOMETRIC ANALYSIS (FLOW
REACTIVE OXYGEN SPECIES AND DNA CYTOMETRY)
DAMAGE MEASUREMENT
Flow cytometry is a high-throughput technique that enables
The ROS has both physiological and pathological roles, and the analysis of thousands of sperm within seconds, captur-
an optimal amount is required for normal sperm function ing many physiological features of each sperm and can analyze
and fertilization [154]. Oxidate stress (OS) is an imbalance sperm viability, acrosomal status, capacitation, mitochon-
between the amount of ROS released and the ability of an- drial status, apoptotic markers, OS markers, DNA damage,
tioxidants to detoxify them. Higher ROS levels in semen sperm count, and sperm size [138,167]. In general, the de-
can lead to OS, which is an important factor causing male velopment of a flow cytometer is believed to revolutionize
infertility, reduced sperm motility, DNA damage, and in- sperm analysis with further studies and understanding of the
creased risk of recurrent abortions and genetic diseases [155]. functions of sperm in wider animal species. Moreover, the
ROS-mediated peroxidation leads to DNA damage, base advancement in semen evaluation by detecting the proteins
modification/strand breaks/chromatin cross-links, and also in cytometry would give us a better insight into the struc-
damages the plasma membrane, which accounts for defec- ture-function relationship of a particular protein. Proteins
tive sperm function observed in a high proportion of infertile with multiple post-translational modifications (PTMs) can
patients, which results in cell apoptosis [156]. be used to generate the complex interaction network involved
The ROS levels can be determined directly either by mea- in the physiological function of sperm. It can be speculated
suring the ROS levels or oxidation-reduction potential, or that crosstalk between different PTMs occurring either on
indirectly by measuring molecules, peroxidation, or DNA the same or different proteins regulates protein stability and
damage [157]. In humans, the ROS level can be measured activity both in physiological and pathological states [168].
www.animbiosci.org 1259Tanga et al (2021) Anim Biosci 34:1253-1270
The viability and acrosomal status of sperm are vital in terms Seminal plasma evaluation by liquid chromatography
of determining sperm fertility. Cytometry can be used to as- Liquid chromatography analyzes the presence of specific
sess the viability and acrosomal status of sperm. Viability of metabolites associated with sperm fertility [185]. Metabolites
sperm can be assessed using PI and ethidium homodimer can be detected in seminal plasma or serum as an indicator
stains [169] or a combination of PI and SYBR-14 [170] or of fertility. Metabolites are products of biochemical path-
cyanine dye [171]. The acrosomal status is usually assessed ways that are considered more representative of phenotypic
by detecting targets/probes inside the acrosome, with the help traits and hence, are more reliable [186]. The metabolites
of fluorochrome FITC test [172]. The disadvantage of the are outcomes resulting from transcriptional and transla-
acrosomal reaction test is that it may result in false-negative tional changes that are significantly associated with one or
results due to the disappearance of the binding sites by exten- more already established individual sperm quality parame-
sive acrosomal damage, either because of the heterogeneous ters (motility, concentration, total count, and morphology)
labeling [173] or non-specific labeling [138] of the sperm. [185].
Assessing metabolites could be helpful in estimating a
SEMEN PLASMA EVALUATION bull's fertility even without manipulating sperm [186]. This
technique is superior to genomic and proteomic analysis,
Seminal plasma is a biological fluid contributed by the dif- because in genomic techniques, results are affected by post-
ferent accessory sex glands of male individuals. Seminal transcriptional and post-translational changes, and leads to
plasma is the supernatant recovered after centrifugation of variation in the sperm phenotypic characteristics [186]. For
liquefied semen, which constitutes >90% of semen [174]. It instance, in Holstein bull’s seminal fluid, fructose is the most
serves as a potential biological fluid for the discovery of novel abundant metabolite, followed by citric acid, lactic acid, urea,
fertility-related biomarkers and as clinical sample for non- and phosphoric acid, whereas, androstenedione, 4-ketoglu-
invasive fertility diagnostics. Different components of seminal cose, D-xylofuranose, 2-oxoglutaric acid, and erythronic acid
plasma play a wide range of physiological roles, including represent the least predominant metabolites [187]. For sepa-
sperm nutrition and transportation, provision of an alkaline ration between high-and low-fertility groups, 2-oxoglutaric
environment, liquefaction or coagulation of the ejaculate, acid and fructose are taken as indicators of high fertility in
and augmentation of immune response. The semen char- bulls [187]. In humans, plasma proteins vary according to
acteristics vary from species to species and within breeds of fertility, with lactate, citrate, glycerylphosphorylcholine, and
animals such as cattle [175], dog [176], and stallion [177]. glycerylphosphorylethanolamine levels being higher in the
The seminal plasma characteristics, which usually focus on seminal fluid in the infertile as compared to the fertile [188].
measuring proteins as an indicator of fertility, affects the In addition, epididymal function and prostate function are
OS [178], function, survival, and transport of sperm in the correlated with the presence of citric acid, α‐glutamyl trans-
female reproductive tract [179]. In humans, the plasma ferase, and acid phosphatase in seminal plasma [189]. The
protein has essential role in fertility, and it is also involved presence of leptin in serum is also correlated with proper
in the inflammatory and immune response to sperm during sperm morphology [190]. Recently, in China, the presence
transit through the reproductive female tract in animals of higher monobutyl phthalate (toxic substance) in human
[180] and is associated with the fertility of bulls [181]. semen has been found to be associated with decreased sperm
As with the proteomic analysis of blood plasma, owing to concentration and total count, whereas di-(2-ethylhexyl)-
the wide dynamic range of protein concentrations, identifi- phthalate metabolites were associated with an increased
cation of low-abundance proteins in seminal plasma by mass percentage of sperm head abnormalities [191-193].
spectrometry is challenging. Particular obstacles are the high-
abundance proteins expressed in the seminal vesicles and Semen plasma evaluation by spectrophotometry
prostate [174]. Polyacrylamide denaturation test (gel electro- The seminal plasma examination in bulls can be conducted
phoresis) is used for the detection of protein metabolites and using a proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometer.
has proved to be helpful for the identification of certain pro- This method showed that citrate and isoleucine were low,
teins that can serve as biomarkers of fertility. In stallions, two whereas tryptamine/taurine and leucine were greater in high
proteins were found to be positively correlated with fertility, fertility bulls than in low‐fertility bulls, which can be identified
and another two, with infertility [182]. In Holstein-Friesian by peaks in seminal plasma [186]. In serum, the identifiable
bull, the proteins associated with fertility in seminal plasma level can be used for the diagnosis and determination of fer-
represent the major protein fraction of bovine seminal plasma tility in bulls, whereby, isoleucine and asparagine were lower,
[183]. The same seminal plasma protein is found to be asso- and glycogen and citrulline were significantly greater in high
ciated with fertility in different species, such as horse, goat, fertility bulls [186]. Semen evaluation by spectrometry is highly
and bison [184]. sensitive and can measure the phenotypic sperm quality char-
1260 www.animbiosci.orgTanga et al (2021) Anim Biosci 34:1253-1270
acteristics, but it requires well-equipped laboratories, limiting some of sperm, in the function of the sperm transcriptome
its wider application [194]. We recommend a comparative tektin-1 (TEKT1) is essential for oocyte genome activation
evaluation of the seminal plasma from different species of leading to successful fertilization, and any defects in this
animals, which may be used in research and for defining the process might lead to male infertility [199]. MAP7, PTK2,
fertility in animals, where AI is used. PLK1S1, microtubule associated protein 7 (MYH9), and
protein kinase C zeta type (PRKCZ) are essential for sper-
SPERM TRANSCRIPTOME ASSAY (GENE matogenesis and sperm function [25].
EXPRESSION) Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based techniques are
best due to their more quantitative nature, but their major
Gene expression pattern of the sperm, in terms of defined limitation is the need for prior knowledge of the gene se-
fertility indicators, was found to be an important indicator quences to be assessed [25,200]. Most studies indicate that
of fertility. The transcriptomic profiling of human sperm sperm RNA levels can be used to study the past events of
assumes significance as it carries information about sper- spermatogenesis, sperm function, and successful fertilization
matogenesis, sperm function, and paternal roles in post- in cattle and pig [198,201]. Subtle changes in sperm tran-
fertilization events [25]. In bovine studies on sperm transcripts scripts and proteins are not assessed as part of the standard
revealed thousands of gene transcripts associated with the semen evaluation procedure. Through fertilization, these
events of spermatogenesis [25,195]. seemingly normal spermatozoa may yet be detrimental to
In bovines, the genes related to spermatogenesis are prot- the post-fertilization development where the spermatozoal
amine 1 (PRM1), insulin like growth factor 1 (IGF1), bone RNAs play a crucial role [25].
morphogenetic protein 2 (BMP2); sperm function are, tes- Cryopreserved semen can be assessed for its general char-
tis specific serine kinase 6 (TSSK6), cysteine‐rich secretory acteristics by CASA, but to assess the phenotypic normality
protein (CRISP), heat shock transcription factor Y-linked of sperm, we propose that further gene expression assess-
(HSFY2); fertility are, ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2 ment be done, particularly if the genetic materials in the
D3 (UBE2D3), integrin-β, leucine decarboxylase 1 (LDC-1); same cycle are going to be used in wider scales [202-204].
and embryonic development are, miR34c-5p, B-cell lym- Gene expression, in terms of the composition of sperm RNA
phoma-2-like protein 11 (BCL2L11), breast cancer type 1 can be analyzed using hybridization, quantitative (real-time)
(BRCA1). The most abundant translated bovine transcripts PCR, microarray, and sequencing techniques, which reflect
are binder of sperm 3 (BSP3) and spermatogenesis associ- the level of sperm maturation, function, quality, and success-
ated 18 (SPATA18), which are involved in the regulation of ful outcome of fertilization and zygote development [25,205,
germ cell development and the maintenance of chromatin 206].
integrity during spermatogenesis, respectively [25]. The ad-
vantages of examining transcriptomic gene quality are its CONCLUSIVE REMARKS
ability to predict semen quality significance as it carries infor-
mation about spermatogenesis, sperm function, and paternal Semen analysis remains the only choice for accurate prediction
roles in post-fertilization events [25]. of fertility in males. The advancement in semen evaluation
Improved gene expression test, in lieu of the conventional methods still requires refinement, species-specific standards,
and CASA assessments, is associated with phenotypic traits of and quality control. The prediction of fertility in interspecies
developing embryos and offspring, and can identify idiopathic and/or intraspecies by a single analytical method is not yet
infertile males [196,197]. For example, the embryogenesis- possible due to the complexity of different tests. Various
associated transcripts were highly abundant, and transcripts methods can be used to estimate sperm quality parameters,
such as BCL2L11 and BRCA1 existed as intact and full-length even though few techniques require shorter time. Various
molecules in sperm. The molecular functions of the highly techniques have their own pitfalls and the possibility of vari-
abundant sperm transcripts are associated with the struc- ability; a combination of tests is therefore required to achieve
tural components of ribosomes, whereas the less abundant high correlations of test results with fertility. The CASA sys-
transcripts are associated with ion transporter activity, and tem mainly assesses motion characteristics of sperm and
these transcripts are constituents of cytosolic ribosomes and despite the addition of morphology and concentration para
main axons [198]. Furthermore, placenta-associated genes, meters, it is impossible to evaluate all sperm quality parameters
such as thrombospondin type-1 domain-containing protein for species with relatively small head size at the same time.
4 (THSD4), pregnancy-associated glycoprotein 5 (PAG5), Moreover, the major problem with the automatic CASA system
PAG7, and PAG10, were abundantly transcribed in sperm, is the inability to differentiate sperm from cells, cytoplasmic
suggesting their possible role in implantation and placental droplets, and cellular debris of similar size.
development [198]. The proper organization of the centro- The flow cytometry method shows high sensitivity and
www.animbiosci.org 1261Tanga et al (2021) Anim Biosci 34:1253-1270
reproducibility for DNA analysis but requires expensive REFERENCES
equipment and proper training. Similarly, seminal plasma
spectrometry reveals the results of the actual metabolism 1. Shenk MK. Fertility and fecundity. In: Whelehan P, Bolin A
and is more accurate in fresh semen, but it was not well de- editors. The international encyclopedia of human sexuality.
termined for most species. Gene expression demonstrated Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley-Blackwell; 2015. pp. 369-426.
a marked improvement in fertility prediction, enabling the 2. Wood JW. Fecundity and natural fertility in humans. Oxf
measurement of DNA fragmentation and the normality of Rev Reprod Biol 1989;11:61-109.
acrosome, particularly in post-thaw sperm. However, the 3. Wang C, Swerdloff RS. Limitations of semen analysis as a
requirement of molecular laboratories, capital inputs, and test of male fertility and anticipated needs from newer tests.
more skilled personnel limits its use for research purposes Fertil Steril 2014;102:1502-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.
only. We recommend the use of seminal plasma metabolite 2014.10.021
analysis for different animal species as the last level of fer- 4. de Kretser DM, Baker HWG. Infertility in men: recent ad
tility assessment. vances and continuing controversies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab
Finally, we can conclude that the conventional semen 1999;84:3443-50. https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem.84.10.6101
analysis must undergo quality control measures, and refer- 5. Binsila B, Selvaraju S, Somashekar L, et al. Molecular advances
ence values should be followed for clinical interpretation of in semen quality assessment and improving fertility in bulls—
results. Similarly, the primary basis of semen assessment re- a review. Indian J Anim Reprod 2018;39:1-10.
quires constant visual supervision, calibration by trained 6. Patel AS, Leong JY, Ramasamy R. Prediction of male infertility
personnel, and objective evaluation. Therefore, it is recom- by the World Health Organization laboratory manual for
mended that novel tests should be incorporated into the assessment of semen analysis: A systematic review. Arab J
clinical andrology. Urol 2018;16:96-102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aju.2017.10.
005
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS 7. Aitken RJ, Best FS, Richardson DW, Djahanbakhch O, Tem
pleton A, Lees MM. An analysis of semen quality and sperm
BMT, AYQ, and SR took part in the survey and organization function in cases of oligozoospermia. Fertil Steril 1982;38:
of previous papers, writing the original draft and writing, re- 705-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0015-0282(16)46698-7
viewing, and editing. SB and XF took part in the survey and 8. Lemack GE, Goldstein M. Presence of sperm in the pre-
organization of the previous papers. KY participated in the vasectomy reversal semen analysis: incidence and implications.
critical review. JC took part in writing, reviewing, editing, J Urol 1996;155:167-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5347
and acquiring financial support for the project leading to (01)66584-4
this publication. All authors contributed to the article and 9. Menkveld R. Clinical significance of the low normal sperm
approved the submitted version. morphology value as proposed in the fifth edition of the WHO
Laboratory Manual for the Examination and Processing of
CONFLICT OF INTEREST Human Semen. Asian J Androl 2010;12:47-58. https://doi.org/
10.1038/aja.2009.14
We certify that there is no conflict of interest with any financial 10. Hoflack G, Opsomer G, Rijsselaere T, et al. Comparison of
organization regarding the material discussed in the manu- computer‐assisted sperm motility analysis parameters in
script. semen from belgian blue and Holstein–Friesian bulls. Reprod
Domest Anim 2007;42:153-61. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.
FUNDING 1439-0531.2006.00745.x
11. Veeramachaneni DN, Ott RS, Heath EH, McEntee K, Bolt
This work was supported by the National Research Founda- DJ, Hixon JE. Pathophysiology of small testes in beef bulls:
tion of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea government relationship between scrotal circumference, histopathologic
(MSIT) (No. 2021R1A2C2009294). features of testes and epididymides, seminal characteristics,
and endocrine profiles. Am J Vet Res 1986;47:1988-99.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 12. Bruner KA, Van Camp SD. Assessment of the reproductive
system of the male ruminant. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim
We thank all the members of our laboratory for technical Pract 1992;8:331-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0749-0720(15)
support and helpful discussions and the funding agency for 30738-6
their financial support. 13. Chenoweth PJ, McPherson FJ. Bull breeding soundness, semen
evaluation and cattle productivity. Anim Reprod Sci 2016;169:
32-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anireprosci.2016.03.001
1262 www.animbiosci.orgTanga et al (2021) Anim Biosci 34:1253-1270
14. Jarow JP, Sharlip ID, Belker AM, et al. Best practice policies 27. Verstegen J, Iguer-Ouada M, Onclin K. Computer assisted
for male infertility. J Urol 2002;167:2138-44. https://doi.org/ semen analyzers in andrology research and veterinary practice.
10.1016/S0022-5347(05)65109-9 Theriogenology 2002;57:149-79. https://doi.org/10.1016/
15. Brazil C, Swan SH, Drobnis EZ, et al. Standardized methods S0093-691X(01)00664-1
for semen evaluation in a multicenter research study. J Androl 28. Yata VK, Gangwar DK, Sharma V, et al. Semen analysis and
2004;25:635-44. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1939-4640.2004. sperm characteristics of Karan Fries cattle. Anim Reprod Sci
tb02835.x 2020;212:106250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anireprosci.2019.
16. Eo Y, Kim SH, Bang S-G, Oh MG, Park CH, Yoon JT. Effect 106250
of Extenders with TCG and DMSO on the Viability of Rabbit 29. Nallella KP, Sharma RK, Aziz N, Agarwal A. Significance of
Sperm. J Anim Reprod Biotechnol 2019;34:100-5. https://doi. sperm characteristics in the evaluation of male infertility. Fertil
org/10.12750/JARB.34.2.100 Steril 2006;85:629-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2005.
17. Rando OJ. Intergenerational transfer of epigenetic information 08.024
in sperm. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2016;6:a022988. 30. Groen AF, Steine T, Colleau J-J, Pedersen J, Pribyl J, Reinsch
https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a022988 N. Economic values in dairy cattle breeding, with special
18. Hajjar C, Sampuda KM, Boyd L. Dual roles for ubiquitination reference to functional traits. Report of an EAAP-working
in the processing of sperm organelles after fertilization. BMC group. Livest Prod Sci 1997;49:1-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/
Dev Biol 2014;14:6. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-213X-14-6 S0301-6226(97)00041-9
19. Barbagallo F, Vignera SL, Cannarella R, Aversa A, Calogero 31. Barbas JP, Mascarenhas RD. Cryopreservation of domestic
AE, Condorelli RA. Evaluation of sperm mitochondrial func animal sperm cells. Cell Tissue Bank 2009;10:49-62. https://
tion: a key organelle for sperm motility. J Clin Med 2020;9: doi.org/10.1007/s10561-008-9081-4
363. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm9020363 32. Mahmoud AM, Depoorter B, Piens N, Comhaire FH. The
20. Connor WE, Lin DS, Wolf DP, Alexander M. Uneven distri performance of 10 different methods for the estimation of
bution of desmosterol and docosahexaenoic acid in the heads sperm concentration. Fertil Steril 1997;68:340-5. https://doi.
and tails of monkey sperm. J Lipid Res 1998;39:1404-11. https:// org/10.1016/S0015-0282(97)81526-9
doi.org/10.1016/S0022-2275(20)32521-9 33. Kuster C. Sperm concentration determination between hema
21. Hughes CM, Lewis SE, McKelvey-Martin VJ, Thompson W. cytometric and CASA systems: why they can be different.
A comparison of baseline and induced DNA damage in Theriogenology 2005;64:614-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
human spermatozoa from fertile and infertile men, using a theriogenology.2005.05.047
modified comet assay. Mol Hum Reprod 1996;2:613-9. https:// 34. Christensen P, Hansen C, Liboriussen T, Lehn-Jensen H.
doi.org/10.1093/molehr/2.8.613 Implementation of flow cytometry for quality control in four
22. Inoue N, Satouh Y, Ikawa M, Okabe M, Yanagimachi R. Danish bull studs. Anim Reprod Sci 2005;85:201-8. https://
Acrosome-reacted mouse spermatozoa recovered from the doi.org/10.1016/j.anireprosci.2004.04.038
perivitelline space can fertilize other eggs. Proc Natl Acad 35. Anzar M, Kroetsch T, Buhr MM. Comparison of different
Sci USA 2011;108:20008-11. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas. methods for assessment of sperm concentration and mem
1116965108 brane integrity with bull semen. J Androl 2009;30:661-8. https://
23. DeJarnette JM, Marshall CE, Lenz RW, Monke DR, Ayars doi.org/10.2164/jandrol.108.007500
WH, Sattler CG. Sustaining the fertility of artificially insemi 36. Prathalingam NS, Holt WW, Revell SG, Jones S, Watson PF.
nated dairy cattle: the role of the artificial insemination indus The precision and accuracy of six different methods to deter
try. J Dairy Sci 2004;87:E93-E104. https://doi.org/10.3168/ mine sperm concentration. J Androl 2006;27:257-62. https://
jds.S0022-0302(04)70065-X doi.org/10.2164/jandrol.05112
24. Diskin MG. Semen handling, time of insemination and inse 37. Eggert-Kruse W, Schwarz H, Rohr G, Demirakca T, Tilgen
mination technique in cattle. Animal 2018;12:s75-s84. https:// W, Runnebaum B. Sperm morphology assessment using
doi.org/10.1017/S1751731118000952 strict criteria and male fertility under in-vivo conditions of
25. Selvaraju S, Parthipan S, Somashekar L, et al. Current status conception. Hum Reprod 1996;11:139-46. https://doi.org/
of sperm functional genomics and its diagnostic potential 10.1093/oxfordjournals.humrep.a019007
of fertility in bovine (Bos taurus). Syst Biol Reprod Med 2018; 38. Eggert-Kruse W, Reimann-Andersen J, Rohr G, Pohl S, Tilgen
64:484-501. https://doi.org/10.1080/19396368.2018.1444816 W, Runnebaum B. Clinical relevance of sperm morphology
26. Karoui S, Díaz C, Serrano M, Cue R, Celorrio I, Carabaño assessment using strict criteria and relationship with sperm-
MJ. Time trends, environmental factors and genetic basis of mucus interaction in vivo and in vitro. Fertil Steril 1995;63:
semen traits collected in Holstein bulls under commercial 612-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0015-0282(16)57435-4
conditions. Anim Reprod Sci 2011;124:28-38. https://doi.org/ 39. Gadea J. Sperm factors related to in vitro and in vivo porcine
10.1016/j.anireprosci.2011.02.008 fertility. Theriogenology 2005;63:431-44. https://doi.org/10.
www.animbiosci.org 1263You can also read
