SUDD WETLANDS MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 2022-2050 - JULY 2022 - Republic of South Sudan
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Republic of South Sudan
SUDD WETLANDS MANAGEMENT
STRATEGY 2022-2050
JULY 2022
FOREWORD
I
Dear Reader,
t gives me great pleasure to welcome you to the updated Nile Basin Initiative (NBI) Wetland Management
Strategy(WMS) 2022. This Strategy is expected to continue fostering the sustainable management and
utilization of the Nile Basin’s wetlands; subsequently preserving and enhancing their environmental and
socio-economic functions. The WMS will serve as a guide to national, transboundary and basin-wide efforts.
The updated WMS has benefited from the experience of implementing the 2013 original Strategy; and is therefore
informed by extensive socio-economic assessments and ecological baseline studies on wetlands in different parts
within the Nile Basin. These include an inventory and mapping of the Nile Basin’s Wetlands, piloted trans-boundary
wetland management plans, and implementation of key international conventions and agreements together with
international best practices.
Furthermore, the Strategy builds heavily on previous studies carried out under NBI as well as an examination and
systematic review of Nile Basin riparian countries’ related legal and policy documents.
The guiding principles and approaches to strengthen trans-boundary cooperative wetlands management putforward
by this Strategy are based on the rules, principles, and approaches of international, regional, basin-wide, as well
as sub-basin experiences and lessons learned. Alignment of trans-boundary wetland management with national
requirements was also ensured.
The updated WMS presents an operational definition and different classifications of wetlands; describes Nile Basin
wetlands and their significance; highlights Nile Basin wetlands functions and values; justifies the applicability of
the worldwide accepted principles and approaches (ecosystem- based approach; wise use, nature-based solutions
approach; ecosystem-based adaptation approach and NBI’s Environmental and Social policy principles) within the
Nile Basin context; defines strategic outcomes together with their corresponding priority outputs; and lays down
the respective implementation plan.
I expect that the updated Strategy will support the Nile Basin countries’ efforts to reduce the rapid degradation of
wetlands in the region, regulate and guidemultiple developments in order to diminish existing pressures in a way
that restores the Basin wetlands adaptive potential and therefore strengthens the overall resilience of the Basin’s
hydrological system. Once adopted, the updated WMS will bring about significant positive effects on water quality
and quantity, with substantial laudable and tangible impacts on the livelihoods of local communities and their
overall socio-economic development potential.
It is my hope that collaborative endeavors and proactive measures will be in place shortly so that the strategic
means towards achieving sustainable management and conservation of wetlands are fully undertaken. The updated
WMS will play a vital role in decreasing poverty, maintaining precious ecosystems and rich biodiversity, increasing
rural development, maintaining pollution, stabilizing hydro-power, and limiting displacement of people - thus
significantly contributing to the NBI Shared Vision and 10-Year Strategy (2017-2027).
SUDD WETLANDS MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 2022-2050 i
I commend the Nile Basin Secretariat for developing this Strategy and thank the Government of the Federal Republic of Germany through the International Climate Initiative (BMU-IKI) for supporting the development process. I call upon all Nile Basin countries to mobilize necessary resources to move forward with this Wetland Management Strategy. Sincerely, Hon. Josephine Joseph Lagu Chairperson, Nile Council of Ministers (Nile COM), Acting Minister of Water Resources and Irrigation; and Minister of Agriculture and Food Security Republic of South Sudan
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
T
he development and finalization of this Sudd Wetlands Monograph and Management Plan was made
possible by the Nile basin Initiative Secretariat (NBI) with support from the Deutsche Gesellschaft
für Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbH (GIZ) (German International Cooperation), on behalf of the
German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety (BMU) under
the International Climate Initiative (ICI). Technical support was through a team of experts led by HYDROC GmbH.
Valuable contributions were made by the South Sudanese Stakeholders through the South Sudan Wetlands
Working Group – during different face to face and online meetings organized for this purpose. The implementation
team benefited from the guidance of Mr. Francis Wajo, Directorate of Water Resources Management, Ministry
of Water Resources and Irrigation, NBI Nile-Tac and Chair Person of the Working Group; as well as Mr. Thomas
Jang Kan, Directorate of Water Resources Management, Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation; Mr. Paul L.
Demitry, Deputy Director for Biodiversity, Ministry of Environment and Forestry; and Mr. John Ater, Ministry
of Environment and Forestry focal point for the Ramsar Convention - all members of the South Sudan Wetlands
Working Group.
Our sincere appreciation also to the colleagues from the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries, Ministry of Transport,
Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism, Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security; and Directorate of
Climate Change, Ministry of Environment and Forestry of South Sudan who have supported the development
process of the Sudd Monograph and Management Action Plan. The consultations and validation process also
benefited from inputs by colleagues from the University of Juba, the South Sudan representative of the Nile basin
Discourse (NBD); as well as other actors from civil society.
Finally, our gratitude to Mr. Leonard Akwany, Regional Wetlands Expert, NBI for leading the development of the
Sudd Wetlands Monograph and Management Plan, as well as to Dr. Juan Carlos Sanchez, Wetlands Advisor and
Dr. Malte Grossmann, Head of the Transboundary Water Cooperation in the Nile basin Project, both from GIZ,
for their contributions and guidance throughout the development and finalization of this flagship management
instrument for South Sudan.
Mr. Francis Wajo
Nile TAC Chair
SUDD WETLANDS MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 2022-2050 iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS Foreword i Acknowledgements iii 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 The Sudd Wetland 1 1.2 The Sudd under increasing pressure 2 1.3 About the Sudd Management Strategy 3 1.4 The preparatory process 3 2. POLICY, LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR WETLAND MANAGEMENT IN SOUTH SUDAN 5 2.1 National policy and legal framework 5 2.2.1 The National Environment Policy 2015 5 2.2.2. The Draft Environmental Protection Bill 2015 5 2.2.3 The Environmental Protection Act, 2001 6 2.2.4 The National Water Policy 2007 6 2.2.5 Draft Water Bill (2015) 6 2.2.6 The Land Act, 2009 6 2.2.7 South Sudan’s Second Nationally Determined Contributions, 2021 6 2.2.8 First National Adaptation Plan for Climate Change, 2021 7 2.2.9 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (2018-2027) 7 2.2.10 Other policies 8 2.2 Regional and international policy and legal framework 8 2.2.2 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), 1994 8 2.2.3 Paris Climate Accords, 2015 8 2.2.4 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), 1992 8 2.2.5 East African Community (EAC) Treaty, 2000 9 2.3 Institutional Framework for wetlands management in South Sudan 9 2.3.1 Ministry of Environment and Forestry (MEF) 9 2.3.2 Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation 10 2.3.3 Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism (MWCT) 10 2.3.4 Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security 10 2.3.5 Ministry of Livestock, Animal Resources and Fisheries 11 2.3.6 Other Ministries 11 2.3.7 Other stakeholder organisations 11
CHAPTER 3: THE SUDD WETLAND MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 12
3.1 Vision, Goal and Objectives 12
3.1.1 Approach 12
3.1.2 Vision 12
3.1.3 Goal 12
3.1.4 Objectives 12
3.2 Theory Of Change 13
3.3 Strategic Directions 13
3.4 Strategic Actions 15
3.5 Specific interventions 16
3.6 Strategic Direction 1: Wetland Conservation And Management 16
3.6.1: Strategic Action 1.1: Carrying out Sudd ecological assessment and monitoring, and preparing periodical State 16
of Sudd Ecosystem reports
3.6.2: Strategic Action 1.2: Promoting sustainable wetland management practices 16
3.6.3: Strategic Action 1.3: Protected areas management and conservation 18
3.6.4: Strategic Action 1.4: Peatlands management and climate mitigation 19
3.6.5: Strategic Action 1.5: Aquatic weed invasion and alien species 19
3.6.6: Strategic Action 1.6: Conducting sudd research 20
3.6.7: Strategic Action 1.7: Refinement and enforcement of environmental flows for the Sudd wetland and tributary 20
rivers
3.7 Strategic Direction 2: Sustainable watershed and environmental management 20
3.7.1: Strategic Action 2.1: Land resources management 20
3.7.2: Strategic Action 2.2: Afforestation and reforestation in the sudd and immediate catchments 21
3.7.3: Strategic Action 2.3: Restoration of degraded river banks and lake shores 21
3.7.4: Strategic Action 2.4: Climate change vulnerability analysis 22
3.7.5: Strategic Action 2.5: Floods and disaster risk management 22
3.7.6: Strategic Action 2.6: Wastewater management and water pollution control 23
3.7.7: Strategic Action 2.7: Solid waste management and plastics pollution 24
3.7.8: Strategic Action 2.8: Storm water management in urban areas 24
3.7.9: Strategic Action 2.9: Oil exploitation 24
3.7.11: Strategic Action 2.10: Population growth and management of human settlements in the Toich area 25
3.7.12: Strategic Action 2.11: Groundwater potential assessment and development 26
3.8 Strategic Direction 3: Investment and Socio-Economic Development 26
3.8.1: Strategic Action 3.1: Small and large-scale irrigation development 26
3.8.2: Strategic Action 3.2: Improving rainfed and flood recession agriculture 26
3.8.3: Strategic Action 3.3: Fisheries and aquaculture resources development and management 27
SUDD WETLANDS MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 2022-2050 v
3.8.4: Strategic Action 3.4: Livestock production and rangeland management 28
3.8.5: Strategic Action 3.5: Supporting alternative livelihoods 28
3.8.6: Strategic Action 3.6: Water supply and sanitation 29
3.8.7: Strategic Action 3.7: Multi-purpose water storage development that combines green and grey infrastructure 29
3.8.8: Strategic Action 3.8: Development of renewable energy and rural electrification Upstream developments 29
including hydropower development
3.8.9: Strategic Action 3.9: Navigation development 30
3.8.10: Strategic Action 3.10: Jonglei canal project 31
3.8.11: Strategic Action 3.11: Road and dike development 32
3.8.12: Strategic Action 3.12: Tourism development 32
3.9 Strategic Direction 4: Wetlands Governance 33
3.9.1: Strategic Action 4.1: Capacity building of actors involved in wetland management 33
3.9.2: Strategic Action 4.2: Cross-sectoral coordination and stakeholder participation 33
3.9.3: Strategic Action 4.3: Gender mainstreaming 33
3.9.4: Strategic Action 4.4: Developing and enforcing the policy and legal framework for wetland management 34
3.9.5: Strategic Action 4.5: Strengthening transboundary water cooperation over the Sudd 35
3.9.6: Strategic Action 4.6: Conflict management and resolution of inter-community conflicts over access to 35
natural resources
3.9.7: Strategic Action 4.7: Establishing and operating wetlands and water resource monitoring networks 36
3.9.8: Strategic Action 4.8: Establishing and operating sudd data and information system 37
3.9.9: Strategic Action 4.9: Development and enforcement of water abstraction regulations 37
3.9.10: Strategic Action 4.10: Development and enforcement of effluent discharge standards 38
3.9.11: Strategic Action 4.11: Resource Mobilization for Sudd Management 38
3.9.12: Strategic Action 4.12: Awareness creation, public education and communication 39
3.9.13: Strategic Action 4.13: Review and update of the Sudd Strategic Management Strategy 39
3.9.14: Strategic Action 4.14: Preparation and implementation of strategic action plans for implementation of the 39
Sudd Strategic Management Plan
3.9.15: Strategic Action 4.15: Monitoring and evaluation 39
CHAPTER 4: IMPLEMENTATION ARRANGEMENTS 40
4.1 Strategic Action Plans 40
4.2 Prioritization 40
4.3 National lead agency 41
4.4 Moving from planning to implementation 41
4.5 Resource mobilization 41
4.6 Immediate steps 42
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 The Sudd Wetland
The Sudd wetland is the largest tropical wetland in the
world, covering a vast area of seasonal and permanent
wetlands in the central and northern parts of South
Sudan. The Sudd consists of permanent wetlands, and
seasonal wetlands created in the wet season (April to
October) by flooding of land from rainfall and bursting
of banks of the Nile and its tributaries. The Sudd
wetlands, which are largely pristine, are dominated by
papyrus, reeds and seasonally flooded grasslands.
The wetland area is mostly flat, sloping gently to
the north with a gradient of 0.1m/km (Riak, 2006).
Elevation in the Sudd ranges from an elevation of
380m-450m (Ramsar, 2019). The south most point of
the Sudd is on the Bahr El jebel at Juba. From Juba to
Bor, the Bahr El Jebel River meanders from side to side
through an incised trough. Downstream of Bor, the river
flows in various meandering river stretches, channels river-fed seasonally flooded grassland (toic); rainfed,
and lagoons. At the peak of the high low season, which seasonally flooded grassland; seasonally inundated
occurs from October to December (Sutcliffe & Parks, woodland; and floodplain scrubland. Permanent
1999), the river bursts its banks and spills water into a swamp vegetation is dominated by Cyperus papyrus,
massive floodplain. Typha domingensis, Phragmites karka, and Vossia
The exact area of the Sudd is unknown as its expands cuspidata.
and shrinks seasonally and from year to year depending The Sudd has one of the largest populations of large
on the flow of the Bahr El Jebel (While Nile) and mammals in Africa. Several species of migratory
rainfall over the Sudd area, but it is estimated to have a mammals depend on the Sudd for their dry-season
maximum size of about 60,000 km2 (MEF, 2018). grazing, including the white-eared kob, tiang, elephant,
The Sudd wetlands are of major socio-economic, mongalla gazelle, and zebra. Other mammals of
cultural, scientific and biological importance for the important conservation status that inhabit the Sudd
South Sudan and the whole Nile Region. Over 350 plant include the Nile lechwe, Thomson’s gazelle, sitatunga,
species, 100 mammalian species, 470 bird species, waterbuck, and reedbuck. Three protected areas –
100 fish species, an unknown number of reptilian and Shambe National Park, Fanyikang Game Reserve, and
amphibian species, and 120 species of insects inhabit Zeraf Game Reserve – are located within the Sudd.
the Sudd. The Sudd is comprised of several ecosystems, The Sudd floodplains are also globally outstanding
ranging from open waters with submerged vegetation; for their large populations of water birds. The site is
to emergent and surface-floating fringe vegetation; believed to hold over 80% of the world’s population of
SUDD WETLANDS MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 2022-2050 1
the shoebill stork (Balaeniceps rex) and is probably also under crops is about 4% of the total area of the Sudd.
important for the ferruginous duck (Aythya nyroca) Agricultural potential of the area is vast but largely
and passing lesser kestrel (Falco naumanni). Birds that undeveloped (MEF, 2018). Other uses of the Sudd are
visit the wetlands in large numbers (from hundreds of drinking water supply, harvesting building materials,
thousands to over a million individuals) include the harvesting of medicinal products, cultural sites (sacred
glossy ibis, marabou stork, African open bill, cattle places), navigation, climate regulation and wildlife
egret, and spurwinged goose. habitat.
About 100 species of fish have been recorded from the Sudd;
31 siluroids, 16 characoids, 14 cyprinoids, 11 mormyrids, 8
1.2 The Sudd under increasing pressure
cichlids and 7 cyprinodontids. Many species leave the rivers Although large areas of the Sudd are still considered to
and migrate onto flood plains to spawn as the flood rises, be pristine, pressure on this unique environmental asset
and return to the permanent water courses when the flood has been rising in recent years from a multiplicity of
recedes (Howell et al.1988; Hughes and Hughes 1992). The sources, most of then manmade. The leading pressures
most numerous genera of fish in the Sudd are Alestesdentex, on the Sudd include the settlement of returnees in
Auchenoglanisbiscutatus, Chelaethiopsbibie, Citharinus. the Sudd by UN agencies leading to deforestation
Distichodusrostratus, Eutropisnniloticus, Heterotisniloti- and general environmental degradation of the lands
cus, Hydrocynusforskalli, Labeoniloticus, Latesniloticus, immediately surrounding the settlements; uncontrolled
Micralestesocutidens, Mormyrunscashive, Oreochromis- construction of dykes and conversion of wetlands to
nilotics, Synodontisfrontosus, Aplocheilichthysspp, Epi- agricultural land; poor environmental sanitation in
platysspp., Gymnarchusniloticus, and Polyoterusbichir. Juba and the other large towns leading to pollution
Frogs are abundant and there are several snakes’ species in from municipal liquid and solid wastes; high stocking
the swamps. density of cattle leading to decline of communal
pastures; and poaching of wildlife. These activities are
The Sudd and surrounding areas are heavily tilized
causing alteration, fragmentation and destruction of
for grazing, and to a lesser extent crop production.
the natural Sudd habitats decline in biodiversity and
They are also used for human settlement and contain
ecosystem goods and services. This trend needs to be
urban areas like Bor, Shambe, Rumbek and Malakal
stemmed immediately before it becomes serious and
towns. The seasonal grasslands of the Sudd (toic) are an
irreversible.
important pasture resource and supports livelihoods
based on animal husbandry. Most of the tribes living Climate change adds another dimension to the
within the Sudd (mainly the Dinka, Nuer, Shilluk and continuing destruction of wetlands and creates a
Anyuak) are nomadic and move with their large herds greater imperative for their protection and sustainable
of cattle in response to the annual discharge of Bahr el management. Climate change in the Sudd region
Jebel and rainfall. Fishing is the second most important has manifested as a warming trend in temperature,
livelihood occupation of the inhabitants of the wetlands shifting rain patterns, increase inter-annual variability
especially the Shilluk and Nuer. Subsistence hunting is in rainfall, and increased frequency of extreme events
another activity by the Nilotes of the Sudd catchment. (floods and droughts). The most recent flood event of
Crop production is not an important occupation of the 2020/2021 led to very widespread flooding in the sudd,
nilotes though some subsistence agriculture is carried and to the loss of about 796,000 livestock in eight states
out in raised areas during the wet season. The area (FAO, 20211).
1 FAO, 2022. Flood impact on crops and livestock in South Sudan (2021). 11pp.Under the above circumstances, strategic planning and regional organisations. The methods used to engage
that seeks to increase residence to impacts of climate with the different groups included consultative reviews,
change and strike a balance between socio-economic field surveys, public consultations and workshops.
development and wetland conservation is necessary.
The development process followed the steps for
development of an action plan for a Ramsar Site
1.3 About the Sudd Management Strategy as guided by the Ramsar Convention Secretariat
The report presents the Sudd Management Strategy Handbook No. 18. As part of the process of development
which has been designed to meet the above need for of the Wetland Management Strategy, the Wetlands
strategic planning. The Sudd Management Strategy Expert was formed and played an important role in
sets a vision for the Suud and presents a set of reviewing the outputs of several studies that were being
strategic actions needed to achieve the vision over a conducted in the Sudd. They studies were included (a)
long planning horizon. The Strategy has drawn upon, The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB)
structured and scaled up planning initiatives in the Study for Sudd and Machar Marshes; (b) Baseline
Sudd at local and national levels. It will serve as a tool Studies for the Sudd – Sudd Diagnostic Analysis Study,
for promoting wetland protection and socio-economic Sudd Eco-hydrological study, Sudd Options Study,
development based on the sustainable exploitation of and Sudd Wetland Management Study); (c) Nile Basin
the Sudd natural resources. Wet(Peat)lands Carbon Study; and (d) Machar Marshes
Eco-Hydrology Study.
1.4 The preparatory process The Wetlands Expert Working Group, which was formed
The planning process was both participatory and in 2019, became the driving group for development of
interactive, and involved interaction with a wide range the Sudd Wetlands Management Strategy. The Figure
of stakeholders including national ministries, state below shows the sequential consultative process that
and county departments, universities and research was followed in development of the Sudd Management
institutions, civil society organizations, community- Strategy over a 5 years period (2018 to 2022).
based organisations, UN agencies, International NGOs,
2nd South
Sudan
Wetlands 4th South
Expert Sudan Expert
Working Focus Group Working
Inception Group - Meeting Group
Phase - 2018 03/2020 08/2021 10/2021
1st South Stakeholder 3rd South 5th South
Sudan bilater and Sudan Sudan Expert
Wetlands technical Wetlands Working
Expert visits 04/2021 Expert Group
Working Working 07/2022
Group - Group
08/2019 08/2021
Figure 2: The steps followed during the development of the Sudd Management Strategy.
SUDD WETLANDS MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 2022-2050 32. POLICY, LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR
WETLAND MANAGEMENT IN SOUTH SUDAN
2.1 National policy and legal framework >
on wetland management. The main elements of the
existing policy and legal management of wetlands are chapters on climate change, management of resources,
outlined below. corporate social and environmental responsibilities
and environmental planning.
2.2.1 The National Environment Policy 2015
2.2.2. The Draft Environmental Protection Bill
The strategic goal of the National Environment Policy 2015
2015 to 2025 is to ensure the protection, conservation
and sustainable use of the natural resources of South The Draft Environment Protection Bill, 2015 if passed
Sudan, which include wetlands, without compromising will be an important piece of legislation for wetland
the tenets of inter-generational equity. The policy management. Among other things, the bill provides
will pursue and facilitate the development of laws, for environmental and social impact assessments for
regulations and guidelines to ensure sustainable certain types of projects and development activities;
management of the environment as well as the prudent and introduces a requirement for environmental
utilization of natural resources. The policy also provides audits. The bill further provides for the establishment
guidance on the implementation and enforcement of of environmental standards for air quality, water
international, regional and domestic environmental quality, effluent discharge, odor, noise and vibration,
laws. The policy contains ten chapters including soil quality; for management of environment of water
SUDD WETLANDS MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 2022-2050 5courses, mountainous areas, waste management, South Sudan to an equitable share of the benefits of the
control of pollution, environmental restoration order management and development of the shared Nile water
and so on. Since the bill has not been passed, these resources. The policy proposes to introduce effluent
provisions have not taken effect. discharge permits to, among other things, protect
ecosystems and conserve biodiversity in areas such as
2.2.3 The Environmental Protection Act, 2001 the Sudd Wetlands.
The Environmental Protection Act of 2001 was passed
2.2.5 Draft Water Bill (2015)
before South Sudan became independent and is no
longer legally binding in South Sudan. However, it A draft Water Bill was prepared in 2015 to provide a
remains an important piece of legislation that provides legal tool for implementing the water policy. The Bill
guidance on ensuring environmental conservation in has 22 chapters arranged under four main sections,
the country, especially given that the Environmental namely Preliminary Provisions, Water Resources
Protection Bill of 2015 has not been passed into law. Its Management, Water Supply and Sanitation, and
principal objectives were to: (i) protect the environment General Provisions. Under Chapter 7, the Bill makes it
in its holistic definition for the realization of sustainable a mandatory requirement to obtain a water permit for
development; (ii) improve the environment while any works that will drain or use any wetland, marsh
ensuring sustainable exploitation of natural resources; of swamp. A permit is also required under the Bill for
and (iii) create a link between environmental and disposal of any liquid or solid waste into any water
developmental issues, and to empower concerned source or water body, including wetlands.
national authorities and organs to assume an effective
role in environmental protection. Section III of the 2.2.6 The Land Act, 2009
Act outlined general policies and principles for the
One of the key objectives of the Land Act is to promote
protection of the environment. Article 17 of the Act
a land management system to protect and preserve
required that any individual intending to implement
the environment and ecology for the sustainable
any project likely to have a negative impact on the
development of South Sudan. The Act also provides
environment should present an Environmental Impact
for fair and prompt compensation to any person whose
Assessment (EIA) statement for approval by relevant
right of occupancy, ownership or recognized long
government authorities.
standing occupancy of customary use of land is revoked
or otherwise interfered with by the Government. The
2.2.4 The National Water Policy 2007
Land Act requires that the government consults local
The Water Policy (2007) outlines South Sudan’s vision communities and consider their views in decisions
for the water sector, and establishes guiding principles about community land.
and objectives for water management. Among the key
principles enshrined in the policy is the recognition 2.2.7 South Sudan’s Second Nationally
that water has social, economic and ecological value in Determined Contributions, 2021
all its competing uses. With respect to transboundary
A Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), is a
water management, the Water Policy recognizes the
climate action plan to cut emissions and adapt to
transboundary nature of the Nile waters and commits
climate impacts. Each Party to the Paris Agreement
South Sudan to fulfilling its international obligations
is required to establish an NDC and update it every
on the Nile while protecting the right of the people of
five years. South Sudan’s NDC proposes to improvethe management of wetlands as a measure to adapt to that all stakeholders are working in concert. The NAP
impacts of climate change. The NDC recognizes the process recognizes that relying solely on national-level
Sudd as an environmental asset that is important for measures will be insufficient to address transboundary
regulating the weather patterns in the Sahel, the Horn impacts and therefore supports evidence-based
of Africa and the greater East Africa region. The NDC planning of water use from the Nile that is equitable
also points out that the Sudd acts as a barrier to the and fair to all stakeholders. In addition, South Sudan’s
southward encroachment of the Sahara desert and, adaptation planning takes into consideration the NBI’s
therefore, that its preservation and management will Climate Change Strategy (2013) for synergies that can
make a significant contribution to buffering against the be exploited, including the following areas, which are
impacts of climate change within the region. The Second included in the NBI strategy: (a) strengthening the
NDC will support the development of wetland inventory knowledge base to enhance common understanding
and promote measures for sustainable management of of climate risks and its impacts on water resources,
wetlands for improved carbon sequestration. It will also ecosystems, and the socio-economic system of the Nile
support conservation and management of biodiversity Basin; (b) promoting scalable low-carbon development
and ecosystems by promoting biodiversity mapping; through enhanced transboundary cooperation in areas
reducing the deforestation rate by introducing alternate such as the protection of wetlands as well as clean
sources of energy and livelihood; and developing energy use and development; and (c) coordination of
policies for effective waste management to prevent NBI activities with national and subnational climate
discharge of untreated waste into water bodies. change programmes in South Sudan.
> of the NBSAP is a requirement under the United
Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
to which South Sudan acceded in 2014. The Vision
2.2.8 First National Adaptation Plan for Climate
of NBSAP is to establish a strong framework for
Change, 2021
biodiversity conservation that contributes to economic
The NAP process is intended to facilitate the coordinated prosperity and enhanced quality of life while the goal
and structured identification of key adaptation issues, is to develop and maintain an operational framework
gaps, priorities and resource requirements for more for conservation of biodiversity; sustainable use of
effective planning, implementation and monitoring biodiversity; fair and equitable sharing of the benefits
of adaptation to climate change in South Sudan. The arising from their utilisation. The NBSAP has 24
NAP establishes a common understanding of climate targets which include reducing by a half the rate of loss
change challenges for all stakeholders, as well as of natural habitats (forests, wetlands, water resources
common priorities to overcome these challenges so catchments); developing national collaborative resource
SUDD WETLANDS MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 2022-2050 7management programs for protected areas, wetlands 2.2.2 United Nations Framework Convention on
and water resources catchments; and developing and Climate Change (UNFCCC), 1994
implementing programmes for restoration of degraded
The UNFCCC entered into force on 21 March 1994. Today,
wetlands, including the Sudd.
it has near-universal membership. The 197 countries,
> In 2016 South Sudan agreed to an ambitious programme
of climate change mitigation and adaptation under
the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.
The agreement calls on states to develop Nationally
2.2.10 Other policies Determined Contributions (NDCs) to address climate
change, with nature-based solutions as a key component,
Other important policies and legislation include the
including from wetlands. These have a critical role in
Agricultural Policy 2012; Fisheries Policy 2012; Forestry
both adaptation and mitigation through carbon storage
Policy 2013; National Land Policy 2015; Petroleum Act
and sequestration, particularly in peatlands. Through
2012; and Aquaculture Development Bill, 2019.
this plan, South Sudan is encouraged to prioritise
inclusion of the Sudd wetland conservation and
2.2 Regional and international policy and
management in their NDCs. However, in spite of the
legal framework
increased recognition on safeguarding wetlands as key
Multilateral agreements related to wetlands and the natural climate buffers in landscapes, very few climate
environment to which South Sudan is a party are initiatives have identified the need to protect, restore
outlined below. and sustainably manage these ecosystems.
2.2.1 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of
2.2.4 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD),
International Importance, 1971
1992
This is the most relevant international agreement to the
The CBD prioritises the protection of ecosystems such
Sudd wetland. The Convention was ratified by South
as wetlands, which are species-rich and are important
Sudan in 2013. It provides guidelines for sustainable
for endemic and threatened species and obligates states
use, management and governance of wetlands and a
to develop national strategies, plans or programs for
framework for international action and cooperation
conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity
for the conservation and wise use of these areas and
and to integrate them into sectoral or cross-sectoral
their resources. Most relevant to this plan is the call for
plans, programs and policies. This makes the CBD
international cooperation between contracting parties
relevant and justifies the rationale for the development
and individual countries to formulate national policies
of this Plan for sustainable management of biodiversity
on wetlands.
within the Sudd wetland ecosystem. South Sudan
ratified the CBD in 2014.2.2.5 East African Community (EAC) Treaty, 2.3.1 Ministry of Environment and Forestry
2000 (MEF)
Obligates parties to cooperate in matters of environment The MEF is the lead agency for the environment,
and natural resource management in their countries as forestry and climate change sectors, and lead
well as those that are transboundary. It’s Protocol on institution for management of the Sudd in South
Environment and Natural Resources Management, Sudan. MEF has several important agencies nested
2006, obligates parties to harmonise, adopt and within it that include the Directorate of Wetland and
domesticate common policies, laws and frameworks to Biodiversity, which is the main government agency
ensure that there is sustainable management and use responsible for wetlands management in South Sudan.
of the wetlands resources within their borders and also The Directorate of Wetlands and Biodiversity is also
ensure the same for the transboundary resources. responsible for preparing policies and strategies to
promote the conservation and wise use of wetlands,
2.3 Institutional Framework for wetlands and through which the international conventions on
management in South Sudan wetlands and biodiversity, to which South Sudan is
a signatory, are domesticated. Within MEF is also
The main institutions for management of the Sudd are
the Directorate of Environmental Planning and
outlined below.
Sustainable Development that is responsible, among
SUDD WETLANDS MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 2022-2050 9other things, for preparing the State of the Environment and other wetlands and the water resources of the
Report and the National Environmental Management country from pollution; (f) supporting capacity building
Action Plan for South Sudan. The MEF also has of states and local governments to be able to perform
the Directorate of Environmental Education and functions vested in them by the constitution and
Information that is responsible for advocacy, awareness government policy; and (g) carry out water resources
raising, and education and training on matters of the monitoring and assessment, and water sector research.
environment. The Ministry further has the Directorate One of the Directorates of the Ministry is that of Policy
of Climate Change and Meteorology which develops and and Regulation, which is responsible for coordination
implements programmes to address climate change of transboundary water management issues.
issues and coordinates the implementation of South
Sudan’s obligations under the UNFCCC. 2.3.3 Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and
Tourism (MWCT)
The MWCT has been tasked by the Transitional
> wildlife conservation, in particular the management
and infrastructure for the country’s national parks and
other protected areas.
2.3.2 Ministry of Water Resources and
Irrigation
2.3.4 Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security
This Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation
The MAFS is the lead government institution in the
(MWRI) is the lead government institution for the
agriculture and food security sector. The ministry is
water sector in South Sudan. Its key functions include:
mandated to transform agriculture from traditional
(a) developing and overseeing the implementation of
subsistence farming to achieve food security through
policies, guidelines, plans and regulations concerning
scientific, market oriented, competitive and profit table
the management, development and conservation of
agriculture without compromising the sustainability of
water resources, including setting tariffs for water
natural resources for future generations. The Ministry
use; (b) developing and overseeing the implementation
is also responsible for the development of policies,
of national policy for development of urban and rural
legislation and strategies related to agriculture, food
water supplies an sanitation; (c) overseeing the design,
security and plans for agricultural development and
construction, and management of dams and other
promotion of appropriate technologies, research
surface storage infrastructure for irrigation, human and
and efficient extension services, while addressing
animal consumption and hydroelectricity generation;
environmental degradation through afforestation and
(d) initiating the development and management of
management of natural resources within South Sudan.
agricultural irrigation schemes; (e) protecting the SuddThe MAFS is now implementing a Comprehensive 2.3.7 Other stakeholder organisations
Agriculture Master Plan (CAMP) and the Irrigation
Besides government ministries and departments, there
Development Master Plan (IDMP) with more emphasis
are a number of other stakeholders who are playing a
on means of reducing the risk and vulnerability of crops
role in the management of the country’s wetlands. They
to seasonal and climate variability.
include
> Forum, Community Initiative for Sustainable
Peace Organization (CISPO), South Sudan Women
2.3.5 Ministry of Livestock, Animal Resources Entrepreneurship Organization; Horn of Africa
and Fisheries Regional Environmental Network;
● Universities and research institutions – University
This is the lead government institution in the livestock
of Juba - College of Natural Resources and
and fisheries sectors. The MARF’s mandate is to
Environmental Studies, Dr. John Garang University
sustainably increase livestock, fish production and
of Science and Technology; Upper Nile University
market supply of meat, milk and fish, improve livelihood
and Sudd Institute)
for South Sudan’s livestock-keeping and fishing
● International Organisations – Wildlife
communities, and improve value addition and access
Conservation Society (WCS); Wetlands International
to credit and regional and international markets for
(WI); Niras International; International Union for
food security, poverty alleviation and socio-economic
Conservation of Nature (IUCN); Flora and Fauna
development. The Ministry promotes competitive,
International (FFI); Global Environmental Facility
commercially oriented fisheries and livestock farming,
(GEF); Ramsar Secretariat.
and sustainable natural resource management.
● UN agencies – UNESCO South Sudan Office,
UNEP, UNDP, UNIDO.
2.3.6 Other Ministries
● Regional Organisations – Nile Basin Initiative
Other important ministries include the Ministry of
(NBI); IGAD.
Lands, Housing and Urban Development, Ministry of
Petroleum; and Ministry of Humanitarian Affairs and
Disaster Management.
SUDD WETLANDS MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 2022-2050 11CHAPTER 3: THE SUDD WETLAND MANAGEMENT STRATEGY
3.1 Vision, Goal and Objectives 3.1.4 Objectives
3.1.1 Approach The objectives of the strategy are fourfold:
The vision and strategic objectives for the Sudd 1. To promote conservation of the Sudd wetland
have been develop through a participatory and ecosystem.
interactive process involving consultative reviews, 2. To build climate resilience and apply nature-based
public consultations and workshops and focus group solutions to the sustainable management of the
discussions with state and non-state actors local, wetland, water and environmental resources of the
national and regional levels. The vision and strategic Sudd landscape.
objectives provide clear, aspirational goals to be realized 3. To support investments and water resources
over a long time horizon from the implementation of development to catalyze economic development
broad set of strategic actions spanning multiple sectors through application of green and blue economy
and requiring the input of multiple actors from local to approaches.
international levels.
4. To strengthening governance structures for the
Involving stakeholders in the planning process was management of the Sudd wetland.
intended to create greater awareness of the issues The main motivator for the Strategy is the desire to
surrounding the sustainable management of the Sudd protect the Sudd, which is a unique environmental
wetlands, and obtain their buy in and commitment to asset of international significance. The Suud and
implement the strategic measures identified under the adjacent ecosystems support some of the largest
strategy. migrations of mammals in the world. The Sudd is also
home to millions of water fowl. But the Sudd is also a
3.1.2 Vision natural resource with enormous potential to driver
socio-economic development, alleviate poverty, create
The vision statement is:
jobs, improve food security and catalyze the economic
A sustainably managed Sudd wetland providing transformation of the country to a prosperous nation.
equitable opportunities and benefits for present and Thus, a second motivator for the Strategy is the desire
future generations of South Sudanese. to support sustainable socio-economic development.
Both motivators are important: one without the
3.1.3 Goal other (environmental protection or socio-economic
development alone) is not sustainable in the long run.
The goal of the strategy is:
A third motivator is the desire to enhance governance
To restore the Sudd wetland and ensure the sustenance systems so as to ensure the success of conservation
of ecosystem services from the Sudd for the benefit of and investment activities. Good policies and laws, and
people. strong and well-resources institutions, are needed
to deliver public services and implement programs,
including the Strategy.3.2 Theory Of Change areas termed ‘Strategic Directions’. Four Strategic
Directions have been defined that correspond to the
A theory of change (ToC) is a graphical image showing four objectives of the Strategy. They are:
why a particular way of working will be effective, and
demonstrates how change happens in the short, medium ● Strategic Direction 1: Wetland conservation and
and long term to achieve the intended impact. The management
Theory of Change for the Sudd Management Strategy ● Strategic Direction 2: Sustainable watershed and
is shown in the figure below. The planned long-term environmental management
impact of the Strategy is the vision statement above. ● Strategic Direction 3: Investment and socio-
economic development
3.3 Strategic Directions ● Strategic Direction 4: Wetlands governance
The Vision and Goals of the Strategy 2023-2050 will
be achieved through actions organized under thematic
SUDD WETLANDS MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 2022-2050 13Purpose Interventions Outputs Outcomes Impact
2.1 Increased land area under 1. Healthy and biological
To restore A sustainably managed Sudd
1.1 Improved state of Sudd planted forest and diverse
the Sudd wetland providing equitable
Improving management of the Sudd Ramsar site wetlands restored watersheds. 2.2 ecosystems in the
wetland and opportunities and benefits for
and protected areas within the Sudd 1.2 Improved state of protected Grey and green Sudd and the
ensure the present and future
infrastructure in place for
1. Wetland
1. Wetland
areas protected areas
management
management
sustenance generations of South
flood and drought
conservation and
conservation and
of ecosystem within the Sudd. Sudanese.
management. 2. Healthy Sudd
services
2.3 Grey and green watersheds
from the
infrastructure in place for sustainably
Sudd for the 4.1 Capacity of state and non-
Improving land resources management, tree pollution control. providing
benefit of state actors strengthened.
environmental management
2. Sustainable watershed and
planting; developing grey and green infrastructure 2.4 Well managed human ecosystem goods
present and 4.2 Mechanism for cross-
for flood and drought management and pollution settlements in the Toich. and services to
future sectional coordination
generations control; carrying out climate change vulnerability established and operated. support socio-
assessment; and managing human settlements 4.3 Policies and laws for Sudd 3.1 Increased area equipped economic
management
with the Toich. management developed for irrigation, and under development of
and environmental
and enforced. improved rain and flood the population.
2. Sustainable watershed
4.4 Natural resources conflicts fed farming systems. 3. Prosperous
4. Wetlands Governance
between communities 3.2 Infrastructure in place for populations with
Developing irrigation schemes, improving rain and fisheries and aquaculture improved standard
resolved
flood fed farming systems; developing management. of living residing in
4.5 Awareness on Sudd issues
infrastructure for fisheries, aquaculture and 3.3 Infrastructure for the the Sudd and
increased
livestock production; expanding rural livestock resources surrounding lands.
4.6 Sudd data and information
electrification, developing navigation and road development in place.
systems developed and
development
transport links in the Sudd; developing tourism
socio-economic
3.4 Increased number of
3. Investment and
operated
facilities. households connected to
4.7 Resources mobilized to
support Sudd the national grid
Building capacity of state and non-state actors; 3.5 Infrastructure for
management and
establishing platforms for cross-sectional navigation and road
development
coordination and stakeholder participation; transport in place
developing and applying polices, laws and 3.6 Facilities for tourism
3. Investment and socio-economic development
regulations for wetlands management; settling development in place
conflicts over use of resources; carrying out
awareness raising and public education; collecting
and managing ecological and water resources
data; and mobilizing resources for management
4. Wetlands Governance
and investment interventions in the Sudd.
Figure 4: The Theory of Change of the Sudd Management Strategy
Figure 4: The Theory of Change of the Sudd Management Strategy
Sudd Management Strategy 133.4 Strategic Actions
Under each Strategic Direction is a list of interventions need to meet the aspirations of the Strategy. The strategic
actions are listed in the Table below.
Table 1: Strategic Actions of the Strategy
STRATEGIC DIRECTION STRATEGIC ACTIONS
Strategic Direction 1: Wetland conservation and 1.1 Carrying out Sudd ecological assessments and monitoring, and preparing periodical State of Sudd
management Ecosystem reports
1.2 Promoting sustainable wetland management practices
1.3 Protected areas management and conservation
Objective 1: To promote conservation of the Sudd 1.4 Peatlands management and climate mitigation
wetland ecosystem. 1.5 Aquatic weed management
1.6 Conducting sudd research
1.7 Refinement and enforcement of environmental flows for the Sudd wetland and tributary rivers
2.1 Land resources management
Strategic Direction 1: To build climate resilience
2.2 Afforestation and reforestation in the sudd and immediate catchments
and apply nature-based solutions to the
sustainable management of the wetland, water and 2.3 Restoration of degraded river banks and lake shores
environmental resources of the Sudd landscape. 2.4 Climate change vulnerability analysis
2.5 Floods and disaster risk management; flood risk mapping and land use zoning; multipurpose water storage
for flood buffering; flood defenses, dykes, flood control through non-structural measures, etc.
Objective 2: To promote integrated water 2.6 Wastewater management and water pollution control
resources management in the Sudd and its 2.7 Solid waste management and plastics pollution
immediate catchment 2.8 Storm water management in urban areas
2.9 Management of industrial pollution in urban areas
2.10 Management of oil pollution in oil fields
2.11 Population growth and management of human settlements in the Toich area
2.12 Groundwater potential assessment and development
3.1 Small scale and large-scale irrigation development
3.2 Improving rainfed and flood recession agriculture
Strategic Direction 3: Investment and socio- 3.3 Fisheries and aquaculture resources development and management
economic development
3.4 Livestock production and rangeland management
3.5 Supporting alternative livelihoods
3.6 Water supply and sanitation
Objective 3: To support investments and water
3.7 Multi-purpose water storage development combined green and grey infrastructure
resources development to catalyze economic
3.8 Development of renewable energy and rural electrification
development through application of green and blue
3.9 Navigation development
economy approaches.
3.10 Jonglei canal project
3.11 Road and dike development
3.12 Tourism development
4.1 Land use policies, management plans and landuse zoning
4.2 Capacity building of actors involved with wetland management
4.3 Strengthening coordination between multisector management entities
4.4 Gender mainstreaming
4.5 Development of the legal and policy framework for wetland management
4.6 Strengthenin
Strategic Direction 4: Wetlands governance
g transboundary water cooperation over the Sudd
4.7 Conflict management and resolution (inter-community conflicts over natural resources)
4.8 Establishing and operating wetlands and water resource monitoring networks
Objective 4: To strengthening governance
4.9 Establishing and operating sudd data and information system
structures for the management of the Sudd
4.10 Development and enforcement of water abstraction regulations
wetland.
4.11 Development of enforcement of effluent discharge standards
4.12 Resource Mobilisation for Sudd Management
4.13 Awareness creation, public education, stakeholder participation and communication
4.14 Review and update of the Sudd Strategic Management Plan
4.15 Preparation and implementation of strategic action plans for implementation of the Sudd Strategic
Management Plan
4.16 Monitoring and evaluation
SUDD WETLANDS MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 2022-2050 153.5 Specific interventions Conservation Act 2003/2012; Drafted water resources
bill 2012; Land Act 2009; Constitution of Republic of
The context for each Strategic Action, and proposed South Sudan; National Biodiversity and Strategic Action
specific measures under the Strategi Actions, are Plan (NBSAP); 5th National Report to the Convention
outlined in the sections below. on Biological Diversity; 6th National Report to the
Convention on Biological Diversity; National Determine
3.6 Strategic Direction 1: Wetland Contribution (NDC) in place; Sudd Rapid assessment
Conservation And Management report of the sudd ecosystem; aerial wildlife survey
carried out by WCS in 2009/2010; National Adaptation
3.6.1: Strategic Action 1.1: Carrying out Sudd Plan of Action (NAPA); State of the Environment
ecological assessment and monitoring, outlook report 2006; Resource Mobilization Strategy
and preparing periodical State of Sudd developed.
Ecosystem reports
Other opportunities include: relative peace prevailing;
Challenges: infrastructure development (roads construction)
ongoing; institutional training and capacity building
● Lack of funding
(workshops, research, conferences) ongoing; creation
● Insecurity making access to areas in the Sudd
of awareness at national and state levels; coordination
difficult
of stakeholders; stakeholder participation in decision
● Inaccessibility due to vast area size
making
● Limited capacity(technical experts) to carry out
Planned/proposed measures to be actioned
technical work
● Lack of political will ● Conducting periodical biodiversity surveys and
● Limited awareness prepare state of ecosystem reports for the Sudd and
protected areas in the Sudd.
● Top bottom approach
● Carrying out wetlands mapping and inventory of
● Lack of stakeholder involvement
selected sub-systems.
● Lack of proper coordination among all concern
● Carry out socioeconomic survey on the livelihood
stakeholders (civil society, local community, CBOs,
of the communities
NGOs, etc.)
● Production of periodic reports
● Lack of facilities and equipment for management
and conservation activities ● Monitoring and evaluation
● Delay of Policies and legal framework in the
3.6.2: Strategic Action 1.2: Promoting
Ministry of Justice
sustainable wetland management
Opportunities and measures already in place: practices
Policy and legal provisions already in place include Challenges:
draft Sudd wetland management frameworks; Sudd
● Lack of restoration of degraded wetlands
gazetted as a UNESCO World Natural Heritage Site
(UNESCO).; Sudd designated as a Ramsar site of ● Introduction of dredging machines (River Naam)
internal importance. Natioal polices already in place ● Population growth
include: National Environment policy 2015, Wildlife ● Conflicts over grazing land● Oil and mining explorations (NAPA); State of the Environment outlook report 2006;
● Anticipated resumption of the excavation of Jonglei and Aerial Survey Report of WCS 2009/2010.
canal
Planned/proposed measures to be actioned
● Proliferation arms and weapons in the hands of the
● Carrying out wetland education, introduction of
local community
wetlands theme in to educational curriculums
● Poaching and illegal trade of wildlife
preparing school education packages.
● Deforestation
● Wildlife law enforcement
● Uncontrolled burning of bushes
● Enforcement of ESIA regulations
● Soil erosion
● Capacity building of ESIA practitioners
● Over fishing
● Public awareness on wetlands
● Unsustainable agricultural practices
● Promote restoration of wetlands
Opportunities and measures already in place:
● Implementing conflict mitigation measures
Policy and legal provisions already in place include ● Sustainable management of oil and mining
Drafted Sudd wetland management frameworks; operations
National Biodiversity and Strategic Action Plan
● Continuing disarmament programs
(NBSAP); 5th National Report to the Convention
● Promote reforestation
on Biological Diversity; 6th National Report to the
● Controlled burning of bushes
Convention on Biological Diversity; National Determine
Contribution (NDC); Sudd Rapid assessment report of ● Sustainable fishing
the sudd ecosystem; National Adaptation Plan of Action ● Sustainable agricultural practices
SUDD WETLANDS MANAGEMENT STRATEGY 2022-2050 173.6.3: Strategic Action 1.3: Protected areas Opportunities:
management and conservation
Planned/proposed measures to be actioned:
Challenges: Encroachment into protected areas as The capacities of national, sub-national, state,
a result of population growth is putting significant local institutions and communities for effective
pressure on protected areas. Increased access to environmental governance, natural resources
guns as a result of the ongoing conflict has also led to management, conflict and disaster risk reduction
uncontrolled hunting which accounts for a considerable should be enhanced.
loss of wildlife. Currently there is limited ability for
Awareness raising needs to be carried out on the
control of these challenges through enforcement.
importance and value of protected areas as it relates to
Additional challenges include oil and mining
how it can be utilized to advance sustainable livelihoods.
explorations, deforestation, uncontrolled burning of
Other possible measures are:
bushes, and unsustainable agricultural practices
● Preparation of conservation area management
Opportunities and measures already in place:
plans.
The development of a National Biodiversity Strategy &
● Control of poaching activities
Action Plan is being supported by GEF and implemented
by UNEP. The UNDP is involved with protected area ● Strengthening security in protected areas to allow
network management and building capacity in post- for tourism.
conflict South Sudan. The Swedish government has ● Training communities in co-management of
launched an initiative for the transboundary protection protected areas.
of wildlife of the Boma- Gambella-Badinglo landscape. ● Expanding the tourism sector, and using a portion
This is an effort at transboundary conservation on of the income generated to fund conservation
migratory wildlife species. There is also capacity efforts in protected areas.
development in reducing illegal wildlife trade and
improving protected area management effectiveness in
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