"Like Wringing Water from a Stone!" Information Extraction from Two Rock Graffiti in North Kharga, Egypt
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heritage
Article
“Like Wringing Water from a Stone!” Information Extraction
from Two Rock Graffiti in North Kharga, Egypt
Nikolaos Lazaridis
Department of History, California State University Sacramento, Sacramento, CA 95819, USA; lazaridi@csus.edu
Abstract: In the course of the last ten years, the North Kharga Oasis–Darb Ain Amur Survey team,
led by Salima Ikram (American University in Cairo), has been exploring a network of interconnected
desert paths in Egypt’s Western Desert, known as Darb Ain Amur. These marked paths run between
Kharga Oasis and Dakhla Oasis, linking them to Darb el-Arbain, a notorious caravan route facilitating
contacts between Egypt and sub-Saharan Africa since prehistoric times. Ancient travelers using the
Darb Ain Amur spent several days in the midst of the Western Desert and were thus forced to use areas
around sandstone rock outcrops as makeshift stopovers or camping sites. During these much-needed
breaks, ancient travelers identified accessible, inscribable surfaces on the towering sandstone massifs
and left on them their personalized markings. In this essay, I examine two short rock graffiti carved
by such travelers in a site north of Kharga Oasis, focusing on the types of information one may extract
from such ancient epigraphic materials.
Keywords: graffiti; epigraphy; desert travel; Kharga Oasis; ancient Egypt
1. Introduction
Citation: Lazaridis, N. “Like
Wringing Water from a Stone!”
Daring to cross the sea of sand that filled the space between Kharga Oasis and Dakhla
Information Extraction from Two
Oasis in Egypt’s Western Desert, ancient travelers had to stay on desert routes that were
Rock Graffiti in North Kharga, Egypt. marked by a number of visible testimonies to earlier travelers’ usage. One of these testi-
Heritage 2021, 4, 2253–2260. https:// monies was graffiti carved on sandstone massifs’ smooth surfaces. In this essay, I use a
doi.org/10.3390/heritage4030127 case study out of the rich corpus of ancient Egyptian rock graffiti carved by travelers who
crossed these parts of the Western Desert as an opportunity to discuss the different types
Academic Editor: Nicola Masini of information one may extract from such epigraphic materials. The selected two ancient
rock graffiti come from the site of a sandstone massif that the North Kharga Oasis–Darb
Received: 23 August 2021 Ain Amur Survey team (henceforth NKODAAS) has christened “Hula Rock”. NKODAAS
Accepted: 5 September 2021 has been exploring this area since 2005, documenting and recording different monumental
Published: 7 September 2021 and non-monumental sites on the Darb Ain Amur, a network of paths connecting Kharga
Oasis to Dakhla Oasis and beyond [1,2].
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral Hula Rock lies approximately 34 km northwest of Kharga town and its sandstone
with regard to jurisdictional claims in massif runs 365 m long (Figure 1). It is situated on the Darb Ain Amur, a network of marked
published maps and institutional affil- desert paths that begin at Ain Lebekha and end at Ain Amur, sites in which temples were
iations. built during the fourth century CE and were abandoned about a century afterwards [3].
The site was first discovered by NKODAAS in 2007 and was revisited on 22 December
2012. During the second visit, the team was able to photograph and hand-copy the two
rock graffiti discussed here.
Copyright: © 2021 by the author. Hula Rock includes several accessible wide surfaces inviting graffiti carving on both
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. its northwest and east faces. In addition, on the east face there is a large break in the rock,
This article is an open access article which could serve as a shelter and thus, perhaps attracted travelers’ attention (Figure 2).
distributed under the terms and Very close to the “shelter”, NKODAAS has discovered two sets of carved one-meter-long
conditions of the Creative Commons cascading lines, which are somewhat visible at the center of Figure 2. These enigmatic
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
carvings, which look like hula skirts (hence the name Hula Rock), are unique and cannot be
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
linked with any certainty to a specific function or message [4].
4.0/).
Heritage 2021, 4, 2253–2260. https://doi.org/10.3390/heritage4030127 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/heritage
Heritage
Heritage2021,
2021,44FOR PEER REVIEW 2
2254
Figure 1. Map showing the location of Hula Rock (map courtesy of Nicholas Warner/NKODAAS).
Hula Rock includes several accessible wide surfaces inviting graffiti carving on both
its northwest and east faces. In addition, on the east face there is a large break in the rock,
which could serve as a shelter and thus, perhaps attracted travelers’ attention (Figure 2).
Very close to the “shelter”, NKODAAS has discovered two sets of carved one-meter-long
cascading lines, which are somewhat visible at the center of Figure 2. These enigmatic
carvings, which look like hula skirts (hence the name Hula Rock), are unique and cannot
be linked
Figure
Figure with
1.1.Map
Map any certainty
showing
showingthe to aofofspecific
thelocation
location Hula
HulaRockfunction
Rock (map or message
(mapcourtesy
courtesyof [4]. Warner/NKODAAS).
ofNicholas
Nicholas Warner/NKODAAS).
Hula Rock includes several accessible wide surfaces inviting graffiti carving on both
its northwest and east faces. In addition, on the east face there is a large break in the rock,
which could serve as a shelter and thus, perhaps attracted travelers’ attention (Figure 2).
Very close to the “shelter”, NKODAAS has discovered two sets of carved one-meter-long
cascading lines, which are somewhat visible at the center of Figure 2. These enigmatic
carvings, which look like hula skirts (hence the name Hula Rock), are unique and cannot
be linked with any certainty to a specific function or message [4].
Figure 2.
Figure 2. A
A view
view of
of Hula
Hula Rock’s
Rock’s east
east side
side showing
showing the
the “shelter”
“shelter” and
and the
the figural
figural graffito
graffito with
with the
the
cascading lines (image courtesy of NKODAAS).
cascading lines (image courtesy of NKODAAS).
The site’s
The site’sscattered
scatteredsurface
surfaceceramic
ceramicevidence
evidencehas has been
been dated
dated to to
thethe Roman
Roman eraera (spe-
(specifi-
cifically
cally to the to fourth
the fourth andcenturies
and fifth fifth centuries CE),there
CE), while whilearethere
also are
a fewalso a few
traces traces
of New of New
Kingdom
Kingdom
shards [4].shards [4]. Theof
The presence presence of supports
the latter the latter the
supports
assumed the assumed
New Kingdom New Kingdom
dates for dates
both
rock graffiti presented here, which have been based on paleographic parallels with papyro-
logical hieratic sources (see notes 7 and 8 below).
FigureIt2.is,Afinally,
view ofworth notingeast
Hula Rock’s thatside
Hula Rock was
showing visited on
the “shelter” and1 June 1916 by
the figural A. Keatc
graffito with and
the
E. Graham,
cascading linesa (image
visit that was recorded
courtesy by two graffiti on the rock’s east face. This visit took
of NKODAAS).
place two months before one or more Australian mounted units (probably belonging to
the Egyptian
The site’s Expeditionary
scattered surface Force) passed
ceramic by Ain
evidence hasAmur. Givento
been dated the troublesome
the Roman era times
(spe-
of WorldtoWar
cifically the I,fourth
it is doubtful
and fifththat these two
centuries CE),men were
while simply
there are having
also a few a pleasant stroll
traces of New in
these desolate
Kingdom shards parts
[4]. of
Thethe WesternofDesert.
presence Instead,
the latter like the
supports their camel-riding
assumed colleagues,dates
New Kingdom they
with for
papyrological
for both
both rock hieraticpresented
rock graffiti
graffiti sources (see
presented notes
here,
here, 7 and
which
which 8 below).
have
have been
been based
based onon paleographic
paleographic parallels
parallels 60
It is,
with finally, worth
papyrological noting
hieratic that Hula
sources Rock
(see was
notes
with papyrological hieratic sources (see notes 7 and 8 below). visited
7 and 8on June
below). 1, 1916 by A. Keatc and 61
E. Graham, It a visit
is,
It is, thatworth
finally,
finally, was recorded
worth noting
noting that by two
that Hulagraffiti
Hula Rock on the
was
Rock was rock’s
visited
visited oneast
on 1 face.
June
1 June This
1916
1916 byvisit
by A. took and
Keatc
A. Keatc and62
placeE.
E.two months
Graham,
Graham, before
aa visit
visit that
thatonewas
wasorrecorded
more Australian
recorded by
by two mounted
two graffiti
graffiti on units
on the
the (probably
rock’s
rock’s east
east face.belonging
face. This
This visitto took
visit took63
Heritage 2021, 4 the Egyptian
place
place twotwo Expeditionary
months
months before before Force)
one
one orpassed
or moreby
more Ain Amur.
Australian
Australian Given the
mounted
mounted troublesome
units
units (probably times
(probably of 2255
belonging
belonging to
64
to
Worldthe War I,
Egyptian it is doubtful
Expeditionary that these
Force) two men
passed were
by Ain simply
Amur.
the Egyptian Expeditionary Force) passed by Ain Amur. Given the troublesome times of having
Given a
the pleasant
troublesome stroll in
times of
65
theseWorld
desolate War partsI, of
it isthe Western
doubtful Desert.
that these Instead,
two like
men their
were camel-riding
simply
World War I, it is doubtful that these two men were simply having a pleasant stroll in having colleagues,
a pleasant they
stroll in
66
too were
theseprobably
these desolate
desolate parts members
parts of theofWestern
of the militaryDesert.
Western units using
Desert. these
Instead,
Instead, likealternative
like their desert highways
camel-riding
their camel-riding colleagues,
colleagues, to they
they67
too
travel
too were
northwards,
were probably where members of
the British-ledmilitary
Egyptunits using
Expeditionarythese Force
alternative
woulddesert highways
be engaged in to
too were probably
probably members
members of
of military
military units
units using
using these
these alternative
alternative desert
desert highways
highways to
68
to
travel
significant northwards, where the British-led Egypt Expeditionary Force would be engaged in
travel battles
travel northwards,
northwards, later that
where
where yearthe
the[5].
British-led
British-led Egypt
Egypt Expeditionary
Expeditionary Force Force would
would be be engaged
engaged in 69
in
significant
significant battles
battles later
later that
that year
year [5]
[5] (pp.
(pp. 15–32).
15-32).
significant battles later that year [5] (pp. 15-32).
2. The Rock Graffiti 70
2.
2. The
The Rock
Rock Graffiti
Graffiti
Hula
2. TheRock
Rock1 Graffiti
(Figures 3 and 4) was carved on the rock’s northwest face, 1.81 m above 71
Hula Rock 11 (Figures 33and 4) was carved on the rock’s northwest face, 1.81 m above
current ground
Hula
Hula level.
Rock
Rocklevel. It consists
1 (Figures
(Figures of a4)
3 and
and 4)asingle
was
was horizontal
carved
carved on
on the line in cursive
rock’s
theline
rock’s northwest
northwest hieroglyphs
face,
face, 1.81
1.81 m
m[6],
above
above 72
current ground It consists of single horizontal in cursive hieroglyphs [6], which
which measures
current
current ground
ground 23 cm in length
level.
level. It and 17ofinamaximum
consists
It consists of a single height. Hula
horizontal
single horizontal line
line Rock
in 1 reads:
cursive
in cursive hieroglyphs [6],
73
measures
which 23 cm in length and 17 in maximum height. Hula Rock 1 reads:1hieroglyphs [6],
which measures
measures 23 23 cmcm inin length
length and
and 17 17 in
in maximum
maximum height. height. Hula
Hula RockRock 1 reads:
reads: 74
rwDw Hrj 75
Agent Hori.
rwDw
rwDw Hrj Hrj 76
Agent
Agent Hori Hori 77
78
Figure 3. Hula Rock 1 (image courtesy of NKODAAS). 79
80
Figure3.
3. Hula Rock
Rock 1 (imagecourtesy
courtesy ofNKODAAS).
NKODAAS).
Figure 3. Hula
Figure Hula Rock 11 (image
(image courtesyof
of NKODAAS).
HeritageHeritage
2021, 4 2021,
FOR PEER
4 FORREVIEW
PEER REVIEW 4 4
Figure 4. Hula Rock 10 s traced copy produced by NKODAAS. 81
1’s traced
Figure 4. Hula Rock 1′s
Figure 4. Hula Rock 1′s
copy produced by NKODAAS.
traced copy produced by NKODAAS. 82
83
Hori’s
Hori’sHori’s
title was title
title was
spelled
was spelled withsigns
with signs
spelled with signs
T12 andT12
T12 D40and
and D40
[7]
D40 [7]
(p.[7]
43).(p.Sign
(p. 43).T12
43). Sign( T12
Sign T12) (included
( )) includeda
included aare-
markably
remarkably
remarkably elongated
elongated string,string,
elongated string,resembling
resembling its
itshieratic
its hieratic
resembling papyrological
papyrological
hieratic papyrological version
version attested
attested
version in Papyrus
in Pa-
attested in Pa-
Ebers,
pyruspyrus
Ebers, thusperhaps
thus
Ebers, perhaps
thus suggesting
suggesting
perhaps aa Dynasty
suggestingDynasty
a Dynasty18 date
18 18for
datethe
theforgraffito
graffito(i.e.,
(i.e.,1550–1292
the graffito 1550–1292 BCE) [8]
(i.e., 1550–1292
[8](volume
BCE) BCE)(volume 2,2,p.p.7,7,2,
[8] (volume sign
signno.
p. 7,no.83).
83).
sign Hori’s
no.Hori’s name
namewas
83). Hori’s wasspelled
name spelled with
was spelledwithsigns
withG5,
signs G5,M17,
signs G5,and
M17, and
M17,A1. The
and
A1. TheA1.upper part ofpart
The upper signofA1 ( A1
sign )) is( not) is
visible, because
not visible, the rock
because thesurface there is
rock surface broken.
there is broken.
Hula Rock Hula
Hula 2RockRock 2
(Figures (Figures 5
5 and 56)and
2 (Figures and 6) was
was6)carved carved
on theon
was carved on the
rock’s rock’s
northwest
the rock’s northwest face,
face, 170
northwest face,cm170 cm
cm east
east
170 east of
of Hulaof Hula
Rock Rock
Hula and111.92
1Rock and
andm1.92 mmabove
above
1.92 current
above current
ground
current ground
level.level.
ground ItItconsists
It consists
level. of a of
consists a single
single
of horizontal
horizontal
a single horizontal line
in in
line inline hieratic
hieratic andand
hieratic measures
measures
and 58 58
measurescmcm 58 in
incm length
length and17
and
in length 17inin17
and maximum
maximum
in maximum height.
height. HulaHula
Hula
height. Rock Rock
Rock 22 reads:
2
reads:reads:
zXAw an-stX
zXAw an-stX
ScribeScribe
An-Seth
An-SethHori’s
pyrus
BCE)name
BCE)
pyrus Ebers,
[8] was
[8]
Ebers, spelled
(volume
thus
(volumethusperhapswith
2,p.
2,perhaps signs
p.7,7,suggesting
signno.
sign G5,
no.
suggesting 83).M17,
83).
a Hori’sandname
Hori’s
Dynasty
a Dynasty A1.
18 The
name date
18
was
was upper
datefor part
spelled
the
spelled
for of sign
with
graffito
thewith signsA1
(i.e.,
signs
graffito ( 1550–1292
G5, ) is and
M17,
1550–1292
G5,
(i.e., M17, and
87
not visible,
BCE)
Hori’s [8] because
(volume
name wasthe
2, rock
p. 7,
spelled surface
sign
withno. thereG5,
83). isHori’s
Hori’sbroken.
name was spelled with signs G5, M17, and 88
BCE)
A1.A1.The [8]
The (volume
upper
upper part
part 2, p.sign
ofof 7,
sign A1(signs
sign
A1 no.
( )83). ) isnot
is
M17,
not and
name
visible,
visible,
A1.was The
because
because
upper
spelled
therock
the rockpart
with of sign
signs
surface
surface G5,A1M17,
there
there
( broken.
)and
isisbroken.
is 87
not visible, because the rock surface there is broken. 89 88
A1.HulaThe HulaRock
upper
Hula Rock
part 2(Figures
2of (Figures
sign A1 (56) and is)6)not
) 6) was carved
visible, onon
because therock’s
rock’s
the rock northwest
surface face,is
there 170 cmeast
broken. east
A1. Rock
The upper2 (Figures
part of and5A1
5sign and(was was
carved
is not carved
on the
visible, the
rock’s
because the northwest
northwest
rock face,face,
surface 170 170
cm
there cm
iseast
broken. 90 89
ofofHula
of Hula
HulaRock
Rock
Rock21 1(Figures
1 and
and1.92
and
1.92 m
1.92
above
mabove
5mand above
6) 6)
was
current
current
current carved
ground
ground
onon
ground the
level.
level.
rock’s
level.
It ItItconsists
consists
consistsofofface,
northwest
of a a asingle
single
single
170170cmhorizontal
horizontal
east
horizontal 91
lineHula Rock 2 and (Figures 5 and58 6) cmwasincarved on the17 rock’s northwestheight.
face, 170 cmRockeast
Hula Rock 2 (Figures 5 and was carved the rock’s northwest face, cm east 90
Heritage 2021, 4 of line
Hula inin hieratic
Rock 1 and
hieratic and 1.92 measures
mm
measures above 58current
cm lengthand
ground
in length and
level.
17 Itinin maximum
consists
maximum of of
aheight.
single Hula
horizontal
Hula Rock22562 2
line of
in
of hieratic and measures 58 cm in length and 17 in maximum
Hula Rock 1 and 1.92 m above current ground level. It consists of a single horizontal
Hula Rock 1 and 1.92 above current ground level. It height.
consists aHula
single Rock 2
horizontal 92 91
line reads:
in in
reads: hieratic and measures 58 58
cmcm in in length and 17 17in inmaximum height. Hula Rock 2 2
reads:
line in hieratic and measures 58 cm in length and 17 in maximum height. Hula Rock 293
line hieratic and measures length and maximum height. Hula Rock 92
reads:
reads:
reads: 94 93
zXAwan-stX
zXAw an-stX
zXAw an-stX 95 94
zXAw Scribe
Scribe An-Seth
An-Seth
an-stX
Scribe An-Seth
zXAw an-stX
zXAw An-Seth
an-stX 96 95
Scribe
Scribe An-Seth
Scribe An-Seth 97 96
97
98
Figure 5.5.Hula
Figure5.
Figure Hula Rock
Rock22 2(image
HulaRock (image courtesy
(imagecourtesy ofofNKODAAS).
courtesyof NKODAAS).
NKODAAS). 99
98
Figure Figure
5. Hula5.Rock 100 99
HulaHula
RockRock 2 (image courtesy of NKODAAS).
2 (image courtesy of NKODAAS).
Figure5.5. Hula
Figure Rock 22 (image
(image courtesy
courtesy ofNKODAAS).
of NKODAAS).
100
101
Figure 6. Hula Rock 2’s traced copy produced by NKODAAS. 102
101
Figure 6. Hula Rock 2’s traced copy produced by NKODAAS. 103 102
Figure
Figure 6.6.Hula
Hula Rock
Rock 02′s
22′s traced
s traced copy
copy produced
produced bybyNKODAAS.
NKODAAS.
An-Seth’s title was spelled with the hieratic version of sign Y4. His name was spelled 104 103
Figure 6. Hula Rock 2′s traced copy produced by NKODAAS.
with Figure
the hieratic
6. Hulaversions
Rock 2′sof
An-Seth’s
An-Seth’s
An-Seth’s signscopy
traced
title
title was
title
wasD36,
was
was N35, D6,
produced
spelled
spelled
spelled
byand
spelled E21. Note that the hieratic version of
NKODAAS.
with
with
with
with the
the
the thehieratic
hieratic
hieratic
hieratic version
version
version
version of
ofof
of sign Y4.
sign
sign
sign Y4.
Y4.Y4.His
HisHis
His name
name
name
name was
waswas
was spelled 105
spelled
spelled
spelled 104
signwith
D6
with
with ( the
with thethe
An-Seth’s
the ), which
hieratic
hieratic
hieratic
title
hieratic commonly
versions
versions
versions
was
versionsspelledof
ofof
of replaced
signs
signs
signs
with
signs D36,D36,
D36,
the
D36, theN35,
N35,hieroglyphic
N35,
hieratic
N35, D6,
D6,
D6,
D6, and
andand
version
and E21.
E21.spelling
E21.
of
E21. NoteNote
Note
sign
Note ofthat
that
that
Y4.
thatHis with
anthe
thethe signs
hieratic
hieratic
hieratic
name
hieraticwas D7
version
versionor of
version
spelled
version 106
ofof
of 105
D8,with
included An-Seth’s
an X title
sign was
inside spelled
the eye. with
The the hieratic
vertical line version
over of
this sign
sign’s Y4. His
eyebrow name was
resembles spelled107
sign
sign
sign
theD6
D6 D6 (( ( ),), which
hieratic which
), which
versions commonly
commonly
commonly
of signs replaced
replaced
D36, replaced
N35, the
the
the
D6, hieroglyphic
hieroglyphic
hieroglyphic
and E21. Note spelling
spelling
spelling
that theof
ofof an
an with
anwith
hieratic with
with signs
signs
signs
version
signs D7
D7
D7D7
ofor
oror
or 106
with
hieratic the hieratic versions
papyrological versions of signstoD36,
dated DynastyN35, 18D6,orand E21. Note
Dynasty 22 that the hieratic version 108
[9]. of
D8,
D8,
sign D8,
D6included
included
included an
( ( ), whichanan X
XX sign
sign
sign inside
inside
commonly inside the
thetheeye.
eye.
replacedeye.The
The The
thevertical
vertical line
hieroglyphic
vertical line
line overover
over this sign’s
this
spelling
this sign’s aneyebrow
sign’s
of of eyebrow
eyebrow
with signsresembles
resembles
resembles
D7D7
resembles or or 107
sign
As D6
somewhat ), which
visible commonly
in Figure 5, replaced
Hula Rock the hieroglyphic
2 is line
preceded spelling
by asign’s
29 cm-long an with signs
carving of 109
hieratic
D8,hieratic
hieratic
included papyrological
papyrological
papyrological
ananX
papyrologicalsign versions
versions
insideversions
versions thethe dated
dated
dated
eye.
dated Theto
to
to Dynasty
Dynasty
to Dynasty
vertical
Dynasty 18
18
1818 or
or or
over
or Dynasty
Dynasty
Dynasty
this
Dynasty 2222
22 [9].
[8] (volume
[8] (volume
eyebrow 2, p.
2,
p.p.
resembles 7,
7,7,sign
sign 108
D8, included X sign inside eye. The vertical line over this22 [8]
sign’s (volume
eyebrow 2,resembles sign
thehieratic
Seth
no. 83
no.83As
animal
83 somewhat
and (sign
andvolume
volume
papyrological visible
E21:
3,3,p. in
7,7,
p.7,
3,versions signFigure
),sign
which,
no.
dated 5,
83).
no.83). Hula
based
83).
to Dynasty Rock
on 18its218is Dynasty
or preceded
carving style byand
22 a 29
[8] cm-long
depth,
(volume does carving
2, p. not of
110 109
no.
hieratic and volume
papyrological p.versions
sign no.
dated to Dynasty or Dynasty 22 [8] (volume 2, 7,
p. sign
7, sign
seem the
no. to
83 have
As
Seth
and
As been
somewhat
Assomewhat
animal
volume produced
somewhat (sign
3, visible
p.visible
E21:
7,
visible
no. 83 and volume 3, p. 7, sign no. 83). by
sign in
in An-Seth
in Figure
Figure
no. ),
Figure himself.
5,
which,
83). 5, Hula
5,Hula
Hula
basedRock
Rock
Rock on 2 22isis
its preceded
ispreceded
carving by
style
by a a 29
29cm
and
29 cm
cm
depth,
longlong carving
longcarving
carving
does 111
notof
of 110
seem
of
the As
the to
theSethSeth
As have
somewhat
Seth been(sign
animal
animal
animal
somewhat produced
visible
(sign
(sign in
E21:
E21:
E21:
visible in by
Figure An-Seth
5,
), Hula
which,
), ),which,
Figure which,
5, Hula himself.
Rock
based
based
based 2
Rockon is
on preceded
2onis its
itsits carving by
carvingstyle
carving
preceded a
by 29
style
style cm
and
and
a 29 andlong
depth, carving
depth,
cmdepth,
long does
does
carving of
not
doesnot not
of 111
3. Discussion 112
theseem
seem
Seth
seem to
to tohave
havebeen
animal
have beenproduced
(sign
been
the Seth animal (sign E21:
produced
E21:
produced by
),
by byAn-Seth
An-Seth
which,
An-Seth himself.
himself.
based on
himself. its carving style
), which, based on its carving style and depth, does not and depth, does not
3.AtDiscussion
seem first
to to glance,
have been the two pharaonic
produced byby An-Sethrock graffiti
himself. examined here might seem too brief to 113 112
seem
3. Discussion have been produced An-Seth himself.
contribute to NKODAAS’s investigation
At first glance, the two pharaonic rock graffiti examined of the desert routes in North here might Kharga: seem they, es- to
too brief 114 113
sentially, record
At first the fleeting
glance, the presence
two pharaonic of two male
rock Egyptian
graffiti
contribute to NKODAAS’s investigation of the desert routes in North Kharga: they, es- travelers
examined of
here notable
might seem social sta-
too brief
115 114
tus, sentially,
with no reference
to contribute to
record the to fleeting
particular
NKODAAS’s travel circumstances
investigation
presence
of the
of two male Egyptian
desert graffiti’ Sitz
or to thetravelers
routes in North im Leben.
of notable
Kharga: So, sta-
social
they,
116 115
whattus,information
essentially,
with no referencecan one
record thepossibly
fleeting presence
to particular deduce travel from such
of two laconic
male
circumstances ortravel
Egyptian
to therecords?
travelers of notable social
graffiti’ Sitz im Leben. So, 117 116
status, with no reference to particular travel circumstances or to the graffiti’s Sitz im Leben.
what information can one possibly deduce from such laconic travel records? 117
Thus, what information can one possibly deduce from such laconic travel records?
NKODAAS’s approach to interpreting ancient Egyptian rock graffiti revolves around
the idea that the graffiti were carved at a specific time and on a specific rock surface in order
to communicate one or more messages that given their unrestrained exposure to the eyes of
passers-by, transcended the sociocultural context of meaning in which their carver operated,
generating multiple interpretations. In other words, although an epigrapher’s undying
wish is to lay hands on the originally intended message of such a communication effort,
NKODAAS’s publication of such epigraphic materials attempts to offer various interpretive
options whose variability depends on the ancient audience’s potential reception of them.
In the case of the two Hula Rock graffiti, this means that they could have potentially been
considered as texts, as pictorial symbols, and/or as travel markers.order to communicate one or more messages that given their unrestrained exposure to the 120
eyes of passers-by, transcended the sociocultural context of meaning in which their carver 121
operated, generating multiple interpretations. In other words, although an epigrapher’s 122
undying wish is to lay hands on the originally intended message of such an communicate 123
effort, NKODAAS’s publication of such epigraphic materials attempts to offers various 124
Heritage 2021, 4 2257
interpretive options whose variability depends on the ancient audience’s potential recep- 125
tion of them. In the case of the two Hula Rock graffiti, this means that they could have 126
potentially been consideredAs as texts,
texts, as pictorial
these rock symbols, and/or as travel
graffiti publicized the two markers. 127
carvers’ position/occupation and
As texts, these rock graffiti publicized the two carvers’ position/occupation
personal names. Hori’s title is conventionally translated as “agent”128 and per- or “emissary”. Its
sonal names. Hori’s title is conventionally
translation is debatable translated
and theas “agent” orof“emissary”.
attestations this term point Its trans-
toward129 a generic meaning,
lation is debatable andused
the attestations
for positions of in
this term point
a variety toward a generic
of administrative meaning,
contexts, such used
as the130royal palace or the
for positions in a variety
royalof administrative
harem [7] (p. 43), contexts,
[9] (p.such 464),as[10]
the(p.royal palace
114). In the or case
the royal
of Egypt’s131 Western Desert,
harem [10]. In the casethisof Egypt’s Western Desert, this title might have
title might have had specific connotations: apart from being a standard had specific con- 132 member of
notations: apart from being a standard member of pharaonic expeditionary
pharaonic expeditionary teams, such an agent was probably responsible teams, such 133 for supervising
an agent was probably frontier
responsible lands forand
supervising
maintaining frontier thelands
bordersandor maintaining
managingthe bor- estates
temple 134 that were far
ders or managing temple fromestates that were
the temples far from [11]
themselves the temples
(p. 337),themselves
[12] (p. 107). [11].IfIfone
onecontrasts
135 the example
contrasts the example from
from Parrenefer’s
Parrenefer’s New New Kingdom
Kingdom stela stela from
from Abydos,
Abydos, in in which
which his 136
his comparable title read
comparable title read rwDw m pr wsjr m wHAt rsyt “agent of the domain of Osiris in the
“agent of the domain of Osiris in the Southern Oasis” [13] 137
Southern Oasis” [12], one may
(p. 4), one notice
may how notice Hori’s
how reference is muchisvaguer
Hori’s reference and more
much vaguer andsuc- 138
more succinct.
cinct. Why did Hori, following the example of many other pharaonic139carvers who also
Why did Hori, following
omitted details the example
such asof many
their other pharaonic
positions’ institutionalcarvers who also affiliations,
or geographical 140 not specify
omitted details such ashis their positions’ institutional
occupational affiliations? or One geographical affiliations,
can only speculate thatnotsuch spec-
details141were not required
ify his occupational affiliations?
in informalOne textscan suchonly speculate
as these rock that such
graffiti, details
that their were
carvers notdid re-not142
have the luxury of
quired in informal texts like these rock graffiti, that their carvers did
time and space to carve longer texts that included more information, or not have the luxury 143that their carvers
of time and space to carve longertheir
assumed textsintended
that includedimmediate more information,
audiences would or that theirbeen
have carv-able144 to guess or would
ers assumed their intended
have immediate
not cared about audiences would have been
such information. Hori’s able to guess
decision to or would
imitate 145
the example of previous
have not cared about such information.
travelers who carved Hori’s decision
textual to imitate
messages the example
on these of previous
desert routes 146
was an important testimony
travelers who carved textual
to his wishmessages to be on partthese deserttravelers’
of desert routes was an importanta testimony
micro-culture, membership 147 that to some extent
to his wish to be part offacilitated
desert travelers’ micro-culture,
the communication of ahis
membership that to some extent 148
graffito’s message.
facilitated the communication In anyof his graffito’s
case, message.
Hori’s title was usually connected to an institution and 149thus, his visit was
In any case, Hori’sprobably
title was part usuallyof an connected to an institution
official mission, a piece ofand thus, his
historical visit was that
information 150 suggests local or
probably part of an official mission,
national a piece such
institutions, of historical information
as the temple of Seththat suggests
in nearby local Oasis
Dakhla or 151 or State authorities,
national institutions, such
wereasactivethe temple
in thisof Seth in
region of nearby
the WesternDakhla Oasis IforNKODAAS’s
Desert. State authori-assumptions
152 that Hori
ties, were active in this region of
probably the Western
visited Hula Rock Desert.
during If NKODAAS’s
New Kingdom’s assumptions
Dynasty 18that 153
are correct, then one may
Hori probably visited Hula Rockhis
correlate during
presence New Kingdom’s
with other evidenceDynasty from 18 are correct,
Kharga Oasis then one to
attesting 154especially Theban
may correlate his presence with other evidence from Kharga Oasis attesting to especially 155
interest in this area [14], [12] (p. 107). This proves how crucial the dating of such rock
Theban interest in this graffiti
area [13]. This
is for proves how
historically crucial the dating
contextualizing of such rock graffiti
and understanding their ismessages,
156 as well as for
for historically contextualizing
allowing and NKODAASunderstanding
to identify their themessages,
historicalas well of
usage asDarb
for allowing
Ain Amur’s 157network of desert
NKODAAS to identifyroutes the historical
[15]. usage of Darb Ain Amur’s network of desert routes 158
[14]. Like Hori, An-Seth, too, omitted any details about his occupation 159 as a scribe. His title
Like Hori, An-Seth, too, omitted any details about his occupation as a scribe. His title 160
was extremely common in desert graffiti, since scribes were usually members of traveling
was extremely common in desert graffiti, since scribes were usually members of traveling 161
teams and as teams’ literati, were the best candidates for writing out (and reading out for
everyone) [16] (p. 7) such textual messages.
teams and as teams’ literati, were the best candidates for writing out (and reading out for 162 In fact, our team, along with other scholars
who have
everyone) [15] such textual examined
messages. Egyptian
In fact, our team,scribes’ status,
along withhave toyed
other with thewho
scholars idea that
163 this was perhaps
have examined Egyptian scribes’ status, have toyed with the idea that this was perhaps 164 indication of the
not an actual title, referring to a specific official position, but an informal
carver’s
not an actual title, referring to aliteracy,
specificwhichofficialinposition,
the context butofana informal
society with low literacy
indication of therates,165
probably marked
a high status [17,18].
carver’s literacy, which in the context of a society with low literacy rates, probably marked 166
a high status [16]. In addition to occupational titles, both pharaonic travelers, as 167 was the case with
In addition to occupational titles, both pharaonic travelers, as was the case with ap- 168 their personal
approximately 90% of the textual rock graffiti from North Kharga, publicized
names: in the case of the Hula Rock graffiti, “Hori”, which meant “s/he who belongs
proximately 90% of the textual rock graffiti from North Kharga, publicized their personal 169
to Horus”, and “An-Seth”, which can be translated “Seth is beautiful”. Hori’s name has
names: in the case of the Hula Rock graffiti, “Hori”, which meant “s/he who belongs to 170
been attested for both women and men in sources dating from the Middle Kingdom (i.e.,
Horus”, and “An-Seth”, which can be translated “Seth is beautiful”. Hori’s name has been 171
roughly 2030–1650 BCE) onwards, being especially common during the New Kingdom (i.e.,
1550–1077 BCE) [19] (p. 251.8). An-Seth’s name, on the other hand, has not been attested so
far elsewhere. There were, however, similar New Kingdom and Late Period compound
names referring to female deities, such as Bastet and Mut [19] (p. 61,11 and p. 61.8), but
none mentioning male deities, such as Seth.
Theophoric names such as Hori and An-Seth’s could have hinted at a family’s religious
orientations or geographical affiliations, although one cannot be certain about such direct
correlations [20]. After all, An-Seth decided to associate his textual graffito with a pictorialHeritage 2021, 4 2258
version of the Seth animal, a further hint at his effort to invoke his deity of preference, who
was a well-known protector of Egypt’s oases and desert areas [21] (pp. 105–106).
As images, such rock graffiti could also appeal to audiences who were illiterate or
semi-literate in the hieroglyphic and hieratic scripts. Such travelers could have recognized
specific signs, especially those whose cursive version was not very far from the hieroglyphic
rendering—e.g., the falcon sign (G5) in Hula Rock 1 or the eye sign (D6) in Hula Rock 2.
Such signs were sometimes targeted by image-focused visitors, either positively, as they
attempted to replicate them in their own hands or negatively, as they tried to destroy them.
In fact, NKODAAS has discovered at the site of Amun Rock a conspicuous example of the
latter type of treatment: in the case of the rock graffito Amun Rock 9, subsequent visitors
tried to destroy its eye hieroglyph [22].
Interestingly, as noted above, An-Seth’s graffito was carved right next to a figural
graffito depicting the hybrid animal that represented the god Seth, although there were
plenty of other free spots on that rock surface to choose from. One cannot be sure which of
the graffiti were carved first at Hula Rock. If An-Seth carved Hula Rock 2 after that figural
graffito, then one may presume that An-Seth deliberately tried to notionally connect his
message to Seth’s invocation, suggesting that he, too, wanted to contribute to the figural
graffito’s effort to communicate with that desert deity, or that An-Seth tried to make his
graffito more visible or attractive by positioning it next to a conspicuous and perhaps
appealing picture. After all, Hula Rock is located relatively close to Seth Rock, a site that
included several invocations of the god Seth, possibly serving as his vernacular shrine [21].
Alternatively, if the figural graffito was carved after Hula Rock 2, then one could assume
that the figural graffito’s carver wanted to make his graffito more visible and attractive,
associating it with a well-executed text that incidentally included the picture of a Seth
animal [23].
Finally, ancient or more recent travelers, regardless of their levels of literacy in the
Egyptian language or of their understanding of such rock graffiti’s textual meaning or
pictorial symbolism, could have interpreted them as sheer markers of other travelers’
fleeting presence. As such, these rock graffiti assured those who spotted them on the
massifs that they were on a path that has been trodden earlier. They functioned, in other
words, as desert alamat “signposts” [24], helping future travelers navigate these parts of
Egypt’s Western Desert.
The manners in which such rock graffiti have probably been received and preserved
in the course of time are also delicately connected to issues of political power or cultural
heritage. In the context of Darb Ain Amur’s network of paths that have been used in the
past by both Egyptian and non-Egyptian travelers, such graffiti indirectly propagated and
confirmed Egyptian State’s presence and control over these desert regions, as much as
Roman authorities advertised their local presence through the establishment of forts and
other monumental sites [25]. Later audiences possibly have also perceived such ancient
graffiti as artifacts of ancient Egyptian heritage and thus, their treatment depended on
these audiences’ views of Egypt’s earlier history and culture. In that respect, it is very
possible that Mr. Graham and Mr. Keatc added their own graffiti on Hula Rock, at least
3100 years after Hori’s visit, because they were attracted by the very presence of ancient
Egyptian graffiti there and wished to associate themselves with an ancient heritage they
knew about and appreciated.
4. Conclusions
Overall, communicating as texts, images, or signposts, rock graffiti like Hula Rock
1 and 2 added their voices to the muted interactions of all desert travelers who chose to
carve messages on such rocks. In this way, they much resemble modern graffiti that, as
defined by the art historian Franco Speroni, can be considered as expressions of connected
individualities [26]. By imitating earlier desert travelers’ textual and pictorial conventions,
Hori and An-Seth participated in a “public forum” in which one traveler’s personal identity
and status was compared to, and associated with, another member of this travelers’ micro-Heritage 2021, 4 2259
culture. The sustained flow of information between carved messages probably created
a safety net that eased desert travelers’ discomfort by making them feel as important
contributors to the ongoing efforts to make Western Desert’s terrain more hospitable and
more navigable.
The NKODAAS team continues its work toward publishing the rock graffiti discovered
north of Kharga Oasis, expanding, thus, the corpus of recorded ancient travelers’ graffiti.
Among other things, NKODAAS’s forthcoming publication will include discussions about
rock graffiti’s relationships with informal and formal inscriptions from Egypt and about
the manners in which the ancient carvers of these graffiti constructed their public identities.
Funding: This research has received funding from the National Endowment for Humanities’ 2014
Scholarly Editions and Translations award, Sacramento State’s Research and Creative Activity
awards, the American Research Center in Egypt’s Antiquities Endowment Fund, the Boyer Family,
and Far Horizons.
Acknowledgments: I dedicate this short article to Ioannis Liritzis who has contributed significantly
to the spread of Egyptological interest in Greece. NKODAAS is grateful to the Ministry of Tourism
and Antiquities and the Kharga Inspectorate for the cooperation, help, and support.
Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.
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